Peroxynitrite-activated fluorescent probe with two reaction triggers for pathological diagnosis and therapeutic evaluation of inflammation

Excessive peroxynitrite (ONOO-) is closely related to the occurrence and progression of inflammation. Therefore, the development of an efficacious ONOO- activatable probe holds great potential for the early diagnosis of pathological inflammation, and the direct evaluation of the therapeutic efficacy of active protectants. In this work, a new ONOO--activated fluorescent probe (SZP) which greatly improved the specificity and sensitivity (LOD = 8.03 nM) with large Stokes shift (150 nm) through introducing two reaction triggers (diphenyl phosphinate moiety, CC unsaturated bond) was rationally designed for rapid detecting ONOO- (within 2 min). The excellent properties of probe SZP enable it to realize the fluorescence-guided diagnosis of inflammation. More importantly, probe SZP has also been utilized to assess the anti-inflammatory efficacy of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) active ingredients for the remediation of inflammation by monitoring ONOO- fluctuation for the first time.

The protective role of vagus nerve stimulation in ischemia-reperfusion injury

Ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) encompasses the damage resulting from the restoration of blood supply following tissue ischemia. This phenomenon commonly occurs in clinical scenarios such as hemorrhagic shock, severe trauma, organ transplantation, and thrombolytic therapy. Despite its prevalence, existing treatments exhibit limited efficacy against IRI. Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is a widely utilized technique for modulating the autonomic nervous system. Numerous studies have demonstrated that VNS significantly reduces IRI in various organs, including the heart, brain, and liver. This article reviews the pathological processes during IRI and summarizes the role and possible mechanisms of VNS in IRI of different organs. Furthermore, this review addresses the current challenges of VNS clinical applications, providing a novel perspective on IRI treatment.

Advances in Research on the Activity Evaluation, Mechanism and Structure-Activity Relationships of Natural Antioxidant Peptides

Antioxidant peptides are a class of biologically active peptides with low molecular weights and stable antioxidant properties that are isolated from proteins. In this review, the progress in research on the activity evaluation, action mechanism, and structure-activity relationships of natural antioxidant peptides are summarized. The methods used to evaluate antioxidant activity are mainly classified into three categories: in vitro chemical, in vitro cellular, and in vivo animal methods. Also, the biological effects produced by these three methods are listed: the scavenging of free radicals, chelation of metal ions, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, inhibition of oxidative enzyme activities, and activation of antioxidant enzymes and non-enzymatic systems. The antioxidant effects of natural peptides primarily consist of the regulation of redox signaling pathways, which includes activation of the Nrf2 pathway and the inhibition of the NF-κB pathway. The structure-activity relationships of the antioxidant peptides are investigated, including the effects of peptide molecular weight, amino acid composition and sequence, and secondary structure on antioxidant activity. In addition, four computer-assisted methods (molecular docking, molecular dynamics simulation, quantum chemical calculations, and the determination of quantitative structure-activity relationships) for analyzing the structure-activity effects of natural peptides are summarized. Thus, this review lays a theoretical foundation for the development of new antioxidants, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics.

Tunneling Electron Transfer across Cell Membrane via Au Nanoparticles in Single Living Cells

Herein, we present a new and simple electrochemical method to detect the intracellular electroactive substances by utilizing the electron tunnelling processes at the metal nanoparticles inside the cells. Intriguing discrete oxidation and reduction current spikes are obtained when testing the cells with loaded Au nanoparticles at the ultramicroelectrodes, which should come from reactive oxygen species (ROS) inside the single cell. The charges enclosed in the current spikes represent the ROS content inside the living cells, as confirmed by the fluorescence studies. As this simple electron tunnelling approach needs no nanoelectrodes or nanotip penetration processes, we believe it could have great potential applications in electrochemical analysis of single living cells.

Protective effects of Pt-N-C single-atom nanozymes against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury

Effective therapeutic strategies for myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury remain elusive. Targeting reactive oxygen species (ROS) provides a practical approach to mitigate myocardial damage following reperfusion. In this study, we synthesize an antioxidant nanozyme, equipped with a single-Platinum (Pt)-atom (PtsaN-C), for protecting against I/R injury. PtsaN-C exhibits multiple enzyme-mimicking activities for ROS scavenging with high efficiency and stability. Mechanistic studies demonstrate that the excellent ROS-elimination performance of the single Pt atom center precedes that of the Pt cluster center, owing to its better synergistic effect and metallic electronic property. Systematic in vitro and in vivo studies confirm that PtsaN-C efficiently counteracts ROS, restores cellular homeostasis and prevents apoptotic progression after I/R injury. PtsaN-C also demonstrates good biocompatibility, making it a promising candidate for clinical applications. Our study expands the scope of single-atom nanozyme in combating ROS-induced damage and offers a promising therapeutic avenue for the treatment of I/R injury.

A Glutathione Peroxidase-Mimicking Nanozyme Precisely Alleviates Reactive Oxygen Species and Promotes Periodontal Bone Regeneration

The use of oxidoreductase nanozymes to regulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) has gradually emerged in periodontology treatments. However, current nanozymes for treating periodontitis eliminate ROS extensively and non-specifically, ignoring the physiological functions of ROS under normal conditions, which may result in uncontrolled side effects. Herein, using the MIL-47(V)-F (MVF) nanozyme, which mimics the function of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), it is proposed that ROS can be properly regulated by specifically eliminating H2 O2 , the most prominent ROS. Through H2 O2 elimination, MVF contributes to limiting inflammation, regulating immune microenvironment, and promoting periodontal regeneration. Moreover, MVF stimulates osteogenic differentiation of periodontal stem cells directly, further promoting regeneration due to the vanadium in MVF. Mechanistically, MVF regulates ROS by activating the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/heme oxygenase 1 (Nrf2/HO-1) pathway and promotes osteogenic differentiation directly through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) pathway. A promising periodontitis therapy strategy is presented using GPx-mimicking nanozymes through their triple effects of antioxidation, immunomodulation, and bone remodeling regulation, making nanozymes an excellent tool for developing precision medicine.

Understanding mechanisms of antioxidant action in health and disease

Several different reactive oxygen species (ROS) are generated in vivo. They have roles in the development of certain human diseases whilst also performing physiological functions. ROS are counterbalanced by an antioxidant defence network, which functions to modulate ROS levels to allow their physiological roles whilst minimizing the oxidative damage they cause that can contribute to disease development. This Review describes the mechanisms of action of antioxidants synthesized in vivo, antioxidants derived from the human diet and synthetic antioxidants developed as therapeutic agents, with a focus on the gaps in our current knowledge and the approaches needed to close them. The Review also explores the reasons behind the successes and failures of antioxidants in treating or preventing human disease. Antioxidants may have special roles in the gastrointestinal tract, and many lifestyle features known to promote health (especially diet, exercise and the control of blood glucose and cholesterol levels) may be acting, at least in part, by antioxidant mechanisms. Certain reactive sulfur species may be important antioxidants but more accurate determinations of their concentrations in vivo are needed to help assess their contributions.

Multifunctional nanoparticle-mediated combining therapy for human diseases

Combining existing drug therapy is essential in developing new therapeutic agents in disease prevention and treatment. In preclinical investigations, combined effect of certain known drugs has been well established in treating extensive human diseases. Attributed to synergistic effects by targeting various disease pathways and advantages, such as reduced administration dose, decreased toxicity, and alleviated drug resistance, combinatorial treatment is now being pursued by delivering therapeutic agents to combat major clinical illnesses, such as cancer, atherosclerosis, pulmonary hypertension, myocarditis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, metabolic disorders and neurodegenerative diseases. Combinatorial therapy involves combining or co-delivering two or more drugs for treating a specific disease. Nanoparticle (NP)-mediated drug delivery systems, i.e., liposomal NPs, polymeric NPs and nanocrystals, are of great interest in combinatorial therapy for a wide range of disorders due to targeted drug delivery, extended drug release, and higher drug stability to avoid rapid clearance at infected areas. This review summarizes various targets of diseases, preclinical or clinically approved drug combinations and the development of multifunctional NPs for combining therapy and emphasizes combinatorial therapeutic strategies based on drug delivery for treating severe clinical diseases. Ultimately, we discuss the challenging of developing NP-codelivery and translation and provide potential approaches to address the limitations. This review offers a comprehensive overview for recent cutting-edge and challenging in developing NP-mediated combination therapy for human diseases.

Advances in developing noncovalent small molecules targeting Keap1

Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1) is a drug target for diseases involving oxidative stress and inflammation. There are three covalent Keap1-binding drugs on the market, but noncovalent compounds that inhibit the interaction between Keap1 and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) represent an attractive alternative. Both compound types prevent degradation of Nrf2, leading to the expression of antioxidant and antiinflammatory proteins. However, their off-target profiles differ as do their exact pharmacodynamic effects. Here, we discuss the opportunities and challenges of targeting Keap1 with covalent versus noncovalent inhibitors. We then provide a comprehensive overview of current noncovalent Keap1-Nrf2 inhibitors, with a focus on their pharmacological effects, to examine the therapeutic potential for this compound class.

The effect of iron therapy on oxidative stress and intestinal microbiota in inflammatory bowel diseases: A review on the conundrum

One in five patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) suffers from anemia, most frequently caused by iron deficiency. Anemia and iron deficiency are associated with worse disease outcomes, reduced quality of life, decreased economic participation, and increased healthcare costs. International guidelines and consensus-based recommendations have emphasized the importance of treating anemia and iron deficiency. In this review, we draw attention to the rarely discussed effects of iron deficiency and iron therapy on the redox status, the intestinal microbiota, and the potential interplay between them, focusing on the clinical implications for patients with IBD. Current data are scarce, inconsistent, and do not provide definitive answers. Nevertheless, it is imperative to rule out infections and discern iron deficiency anemia from other types of anemia to prevent untargeted oral or intravenous iron supplementation and potential side effects, including oxidative stress. Further research is necessary to establish the clinical significance of changes in the redox status and the intestinal microbiota following iron supplementation.

Targeting NOX2 with Bivalent Small-Molecule p47phox-p22phox Inhibitors

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase isoform 2 (NOX2) is an enzymatic complex whose function is the regulated generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). NOX2 activity is central to redox signaling events and antibacterial response, but excessive ROS production by NOX2 leads to oxidative stress and inflammation in a range of diseases. The protein-protein interaction between the NOX2 subunits p47phox and p22phox is essential for NOX2 activation, thus p47phox is a potential drug target. Previously, we identified 2-aminoquinoline as a fragment hit toward p47phoxSH3A-B and converted it to a bivalent small-molecule p47phox-p22phox inhibitor (Ki = 20 μM). Here, we systematically optimized the bivalent compounds by exploring linker types and positioning as well as substituents on the 2-aminoquinoline part and characterized the bivalent binding mode with biophysical methods. We identified several compounds with submicromolar binding affinities and cellular activity and thereby demonstrated that p47phox can be targeted by potent small molecules.

Personalized redox biology: Designs and concepts

Personalized interventions are regarded as a next-generation approach in almost all fields of biomedicine, such as clinical medicine, exercise, nutrition and pharmacology. At the same time, an increasing body of evidence indicates that redox processes regulate, at least in part, multiple aspects of human physiology and pathology. As a result, the idea of applying personalized redox treatments to improve their efficacy has gained popularity among researchers in recent years. The aim of the present primer-style review was to highlight some crucial yet underappreciated methodological, statistical, and interpretative concepts within the redox biology literature, while also providing a physiology-oriented perspective on personalized redox biology. The topics addressed are: (i) the critical issue of investigating the potential existence of inter-individual variability; (ii) the importance of distinguishing a genuine and consistent response of a subject from a chance finding; (iii) the challenge of accurately quantifying the effect of a redox treatment when dealing with 'extreme' groups due to mathematical coupling and regression to the mean; and (iv) research designs and analyses that have been implemented in other fields, and can be reframed and exploited in a redox biology context.

Neuroprotective Effects of Water Extract from Brown Algae Petalonia binghamiae in an Experimental Model of Focal Cerebral Ischemia In Vitro and In Vivo

Focal cerebral ischemia (fCI) can result in brain injury and sensorimotor deficits. Brown algae are currently garnering scientific attention as potential therapeutic candidates for fCI. This study investigated the therapeutic effects of the hot water extract of Petalonia binghamiae (wPB), a brown alga, in in vitro and in vivo models of fCI. The neuroprotective efficacy of wPB was evaluated in an in vitro excitotoxicity model established using HT-22 cells challenged with glutamate. Afterward, C57/BL6 mice were administered wPB for 7 days (10 or 100 mg/kg, intragastric) and subjected to middle cerebral artery occlusion and reperfusion (MCAO/R) operation, which was used as an in vivo fCI model. wPB co-incubation significantly inhibited cell death, oxidative stress, and apoptosis, as well as stimulated the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an antioxidant enzyme, and the nuclear translocation of its upstream regulator, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in HT-22 cells challenged with glutamate-induced excitotoxicity. Pretreatment with either dose of wPB significantly attenuated infarction volume, neuronal death, and sensorimotor deficits in an in vivo fCI model. Furthermore, the attenuation of oxidative stress and apoptosis in the ischemic lesion accompanied the wPB-associated protection. This study suggests that wPB can counteract fCI via an antioxidative effect, upregulating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

The NRF2/Keap1 pathway as a therapeutic target in inflammatory bowel disease

Oxidative stress (OS) is an important pathophysiological mechanism in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, clinical trials investigating compounds directly targeting OS in IBD yielded mixed results. The NRF2 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2)/Keap1 (Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1) pathway orchestrates cellular responses to OS, and dysregulation of this pathway has been implicated in IBD. Activation of the NRF2/Keap1 pathway may enhance antioxidant responses. Although this approach could help to attenuate OS and potentially improve clinical outcomes, an overview of human evidence for modulating the NRF2/Keap1 axis and more recent developments in IBD is lacking. This review explores the NRF2/Keap1 pathway as potential therapeutic target in IBD and presents compounds activating this pathway for future clinical applications.

NADPH Oxidases: From Molecular Mechanisms to Current Inhibitors

NADPH oxidases (NOXs) form a family of electron-transporting membrane enzymes whose main function is reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Strong evidence suggests that ROS produced by NOX enzymes are major contributors to oxidative damage under pathologic conditions. Therefore, blocking the undesirable actions of these enzymes is a therapeutic strategy for treating various pathological disorders, such as cardiovascular diseases, inflammation, and cancer. To date, identification of selective NOX inhibitors is quite challenging, precluding a pharmacologic demonstration of NOX as therapeutic targets in vivo. The aim of this Perspective is to furnish an updated outlook about the small-molecule NOX inhibitors described over the last two decades. Structures, activities, and in vitro/in vivo specificity are discussed, as well as the main biological assays used.

Emerging Therapeutic Strategies in The Fight Against Primary Biliary Cholangitis

The liver has a vital role in many metabolic and regulatory processes in the body. Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), previously known as primary biliary cirrhosis, is a chronic cholestatic autoimmune disease of the intrahepatic bile ducts associated with loss of tolerance to mitochondrial antigens. At this time there is no definitive cure for PBC; however, ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) has been shown to reduce injury when administered as the first line of treatment. Additional therapeutics can be given concurrently or as an alternative to UDCA to manage the symptoms and further curb disease progression. Currently, a liver transplant is the only potentially curative option when the patient has developed end-stage liver disease or intractable pruritus. This review aims to delineate the pathogenesis of primary biliary cholangitis and shed light on current therapeutic strategies in the treatment of PBC.

Antioxidant Effects of Argan Oil and Olive Oil against Iron-Induced Oxidative Stress: In Vivo and In Vitro Approaches

Recently, the study of the protective powers of medicinal plants has become the focus of several studies. Attention has been focused on the identification of new molecules with antioxidant and chelating properties to counter reactive oxygen species (ROS) involved as key elements in several pathologies. Considerable attention is given to argan oil (AO) and olive oil (OO) due to their particular composition and preventive properties. Our study aimed to determine the content of AO and OO on phenolic compounds, chlorophylls, and carotenoid pigments and their antioxidant potential by FRAP and DPPH tests. Thus, several metallic elements can induce oxidative stress, as a consequence of the formation of ROS. Iron is one of these metal ions, which participates in the generation of free radicals, especially OH from H2O2 via the Fenton reaction, initiating oxidative stress. To study the antioxidant potential of AO and OO, we evaluated their preventives effects against oxidative stress induced by ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) in the protozoan Tetrahymena pyriformis and mice. Then, we evaluated the activities of the enzymatic (superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx)) and metabolite markers (lipid peroxidation (MDA) and glutathione (GSH)) of the antioxidant balance. The results of the antioxidant compounds show that both oils contain phenolic compounds and pigments. Moreover, AO and OO exhibit antioxidant potential across FRAP and DPPH assays. On the other hand, the results in Tetrahymena pyriformis and mice show a variation in the level of iron-changed SOD and GPx activities and MDA and GSH levels. By contrast, treating Tetrahymena pyriformis and mice with argan and olive oils shows significant prevention in the SOD and GPx activities. These results reveal that the iron-changed ROS imbalance can be counteracted by AO and OO, which is probably related to their composition, especially their high content of polyphenols, sterols, and tocopherols, which is underlined by their antioxidant activities.

Unlocking the power of NOX2: A comprehensive review on its role in immune regulation

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a family of highly reactive molecules with numerous, often pleiotropic functions within the cell and the organism. Due to their potential to destroy biological structures such as membranes, enzymes and organelles, ROS have long been recognized as harmful yet unavoidable by-products of cellular metabolism leading to "oxidative stress" unless counterbalanced by cellular anti-oxidative defense mechanisms. Phagocytes utilize this destructive potential of ROS released in high amounts to defend against invading pathogens. In contrast, a regulated and fine-tuned release of "signaling ROS" (sROS) provides essential intracellular second messengers to modulate central aspects of immunity, including antigen presentation, activation of antigen presenting cells (APC) as well as the APC:T cell interaction during T cell activation. This regulated release of sROS is foremost attributed to the specialized enzyme NADPH-oxidase (NOX) 2 expressed mainly in myeloid cells such as neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells (DC). NOX-2-derived sROS are primarily involved in immune regulation and mediate protection against autoimmunity as well as maintenance of self-tolerance. Consequently, deficiencies in NOX2 not only result in primary immune-deficiencies such as Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD) but also lead to auto-inflammatory diseases and autoimmunity. A comprehensive understanding of NOX2 activation and regulation will be key for successful pharmaceutical interventions of such ROS-related diseases in the future. In this review, we summarize recent progress regarding immune regulation by NOX2-derived ROS and the consequences of its deregulation on the development of immune disorders.

Enhanced mitochondrial fission inhibits triple-negative breast cancer cell migration through an ROS-dependent mechanism

Mitochondria produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which function in signal transduction. Mitochondrial dynamics, encompassing morphological shifts between fission and fusion, can directly impact ROS levels in cancer cells. In this study, we identified an ROS-dependent mechanism for how enhanced mitochondrial fission inhibits triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell migration. We found that enforcing mitochondrial fission in TNBC resulted in an increase in intracellular ROS levels and reduced cell migration and the formation of actin-rich migratory structures. Consistent with mitochondrial fission, increasing ROS levels in cells inhibited cell migration. Conversely, reducing ROS levels with either a global or mitochondrially targeted scavenger overcame the inhibitory effects of mitochondrial fission. Mechanistically, we found that the ROS sensitive SHP-1/2 phosphatases partially regulate inhibitory effects of mitochondrial fission on TNBC migration. Overall, our work reveals the inhibitory effects of ROS in TNBC and supports mitochondrial dynamics as a potential therapeutic target for cancer.

Adenylosuccinic Acid: An Orphan Drug with Untapped Potential

Adenylosuccinic acid (ASA) is an orphan drug that was once investigated for clinical application in Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Endogenous ASA participates in purine recycling and energy homeostasis but might also be crucial for averting inflammation and other forms of cellular stress during intense energy demand and maintaining tissue biomass and glucose disposal. This article documents the known biological functions of ASA and explores its potential application for the treatment of neuromuscular and other chronic diseases.

Oxidative Stress and MicroRNAs in Endothelial Cells under Metabolic Disorders

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are radical oxygen intermediates that serve as important second messengers in signal transduction. However, when the accumulation of these molecules exceeds the buffering capacity of antioxidant enzymes, oxidative stress and endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction occur. EC dysfunction shifts the vascular system into a pro-coagulative, proinflammatory state, thereby increasing the risk of developing cardiovascular (CV) diseases and metabolic disorders. Studies have turned to the investigation of microRNA treatment for CV risk factors, as these post-transcription regulators are known to co-regulate ROS. In this review, we will discuss ROS pathways and generation, normal endothelial cell physiology and ROS-induced dysfunction, and the current knowledge of common metabolic disorders and their connection to oxidative stress. Therapeutic strategies based on microRNAs in response to oxidative stress and microRNA's regulatory roles in controlling ROS will also be explored. It is important to gain an in-depth comprehension of the mechanisms generating ROS and how manipulating these enzymatic byproducts can protect endothelial cell function from oxidative stress and prevent the development of vascular disorders.

Fibrosis: Types, Effects, Markers, Mechanisms for Disease Progression, and Its Relation with Oxidative Stress, Immunity, and Inflammation

Most chronic inflammatory illnesses include fibrosis as a pathogenic characteristic. Extracellular matrix (ECM) components build up in excess to cause fibrosis or scarring. The fibrotic process finally results in organ malfunction and death if it is severely progressive. Fibrosis affects nearly all tissues of the body. The fibrosis process is associated with chronic inflammation, metabolic homeostasis, and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) signaling, where the balance between the oxidant and antioxidant systems appears to be a key modulator in managing these processes. Virtually every organ system, including the lungs, heart, kidney, and liver, can be affected by fibrosis, which is characterized as an excessive accumulation of connective tissue components. Organ malfunction is frequently caused by fibrotic tissue remodeling, which is also frequently linked to high morbidity and mortality. Up to 45% of all fatalities in the industrialized world are caused by fibrosis, which can damage any organ. Long believed to be persistently progressing and irreversible, fibrosis has now been revealed to be a very dynamic process by preclinical models and clinical studies in a variety of organ systems. The pathways from tissue damage to inflammation, fibrosis, and/or malfunction are the main topics of this review. Furthermore, the fibrosis of different organs with their effects was discussed. Finally, we highlight many of the principal mechanisms of fibrosis. These pathways could be considered as promising targets for the development of potential therapies for a variety of important human diseases.

Effects of NADPH Oxidase Isoform-2 (NOX2) Inhibition on Behavioral Responses and Neuroinflammation in a Mouse Model of Neuropathic Pain

NADPH oxidase isoform-2 (NOX2) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of neuropathic pain (NP), mostly through the modulation of neuroinflammation. Since it is also accepted that some neuroimmune mechanisms underlying NP are sex-dependent, we aimed to evaluate the effects of early systemic treatment with the NOX2-selective inhibitor (NOX2i) GSK2795039 on behavioral responses and spinal neuroinflammation in spared nerve injury (SNI)-induced NP in male and female mice. Mechanical sensitivity was evaluated with the von Frey test, while general well-being and anxiety-like behavior were assessed with burrowing and light/dark box tests. Spinal microglial activation and cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10, as well as macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) were evaluated by immunofluorescence and multiplex immunoassay, respectively. NOX2i treatment reduced SNI-induced mechanical hypersensitivity and early SNI-induced microglial activation in both sexes. SNI-females, but not males, showed a transient reduction in burrowing activity. NOX2i treatment did not improve their burrowing activity, but tendentially reduced their anxiety-like behavior. NOX2i marginally decreased IL-6 in females, and increased M-CSF in males. Our findings suggest that NOX2-selective inhibition may be a potential therapeutic strategy for NP in both male and female individuals, with particular interest in females due to its apparent favorable impact in anxiety-like behavior.

NADPH oxidase 4 is dispensable for skin myofibroblast differentiation and wound healing

Differentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts is governed by the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) through a mechanism involving redox signaling and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Myofibroblasts synthesize proteins of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and display a contractile phenotype. Myofibroblasts are predominant contributors of wound healing and several pathological states, including fibrotic diseases and cancer. Inhibition of the ROS-generating enzyme NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) has been proposed to mitigate fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation and to offer a therapeutic option for the treatment of fibrotic diseases. In this study, we addressed the role of NOX4 in physiological wound healing and in TGF-β-induced myofibroblast differentiation. We explored the phenotypic changes induced by TGF-β in primary skin fibroblasts isolated from Nox4-deficient mice by immunofluorescence, Western blotting and RNA sequencing. Mice deficient for Cyba, the gene coding for p22^phox, a key subunit of NOX4 were used for confirmatory experiments as well as human primary skin fibroblasts. In vivo, the wound healing was similar in wild-type and Nox4-deficient mice. In vitro, despite a strong upregulation following TGF-β treatment, Nox4 did not influence skin myofibroblast differentiation although a putative NOX4 inhibitor GKT137831 and a flavoprotein inhibitor diphenylene iodonium mitigated this mechanism. Transcriptomic analysis revealed upregulation of the mitochondrial protein Ucp2 and the stress-response protein Hddc3 in Nox4-deficient fibroblasts, which had however no impact on fibroblast bioenergetics. Altogether, we provide extensive evidence that NOX4 is dispensable for wound healing and skin fibroblast to myofibroblast differentiation, and suggest that another H₂O₂-generating flavoprotein drives this mechanism.

Personalized redox medicine in inflammatory bowel diseases: an emerging role for HIF-1α and NRF2 as therapeutic targets

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), encompassing Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), are intimately associated with inflammation and overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Temporal and inter-individual variabilities in disease activity and response to therapy pose significant challenges to diagnosis and patient care. Discovery and validation of truly integrative biomarkers would benefit from embracing redox metabolomics approaches with prioritization of central regulatory hubs. We here make a case for applying a personalized redox medicine approach that aims to selectively inhibit pathological overproduction and/or altered expression of specific enzymatic sources of ROS without compromising physiological function. To this end, improved 'clinical-omics integration' may help to better understand which particular redox signaling pathways are disrupted in what patient. Pharmacological interventions capable of activating endogenous antioxidant defense systems may represent viable therapeutic options to restore local/systemic redox status, with HIF-1α and NRF2 holding particular promise in this context. Achieving the implementation of clinically meaningful mechanism-based biomarkers requires development of easy-to-use, robust and cost-effective tools for secure diagnosis and monitoring of treatment efficacy. Ultimately, matching redox-directed pharmacological interventions to individual patient phenotypes using predictive biomarkers may offer new opportunities to break the therapeutic ceiling in IBD.

Chemical synthesis of a reported p47phox/p22phox inhibitor and characterization of its instability and irreproducible activity

The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase 2 (NOX2) multi-subunit complex is a highly abundant and central source of reactive oxygen species. NOX2 is a key enzyme of the innate immune system involved in antibacterial response, but excessive NOX2 activity is involved in oxidative stress and inflammation in many diseases. Inhibition of NOX2 has great potential as a therapeutic strategy. An intriguing pharmacological approach for inhibiting NOX2 is to target the p47phox subunit and thereby block the protein-protein interaction with p22phox, whereby assembling and activation of NOX2 is prevented. However, the shallow binding pocket of p47phox makes it difficult to develop drug-like p47phox/p22phox inhibitors. Recently, the small molecule LMH001 was reported to inhibit the p47phox/p22phox interaction, reduce endothelial NOX2 activity, and protect mice from angiotensin II-induced vascular oxidative stress. These noteworthy results could have significant impact on the field of NOX2 pharmacology, as specific and efficient inhibitors are scarce. Here, we synthesized and tested LMH001 to have it available as a positive control. We established a robust synthetic route for providing LMH001, but subsequently we experienced that LMH001 is chemically unstable in aqueous buffer. In addition, neither LMH001 nor its breakdown products were able to inhibit the p47phox/p22phox interaction in a non-cellular fluorescence polarization assay. However, LHM001 was a weak inhibitor of NOX2 in a functional cell assay, but with same low potency as one of its breakdown products. These findings question the activity and suggested mechanism of LMH001 and constitute important information for other researchers interested in chemical probes for studying NOX2 biology.

Selective Pharmacological Inhibition of NOX2 by GSK2795039 Improves Bladder Dysfunction in Cyclophosphamide-Induced Cystitis in Mice

Interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) is a chronic inflammatory disease without consistently effective treatment. Among the many mediators implicated in cystitis, the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) seems to play a key role, although the main source of ROS remains unclear. This study aimed to investigate the contribution of NADPH oxidase (NOX) isoforms in ROS generation and the voiding dysfunction of cyclophosphamide (CYP, 300 mg/Kg, ip, 24 h)-induced cystitis in adult female mice, a well-recognized animal model to study IC/BPS, by using GKT137831 (5 mg/Kg, ip, three times in a 24 h period) or GSK2795039 (5 mg/Kg, ip, three times in a 24 h period) to inhibit NOX1/4 or NOX2, respectively. Our results showed that treatment with GSK2795039 improved the dysfunctional voiding behavior induced by CYP, reduced bladder edema and inflammation, and preserved the urothelial barrier integrity and tight junction occludin expression, besides inhibiting the characteristic vesical pain and bladder superoxide anion generation. In contrast, the NOX1/4 inhibitor GKT137831 had no significant protective effects. Taken together, our in vivo and ex vivo data demonstrate that NOX2 is possibly the main source of ROS observed in cystitis-induced CYP in mice. Therefore, selective inhibition of NOX2 by GSK2795039 may be a promising target for future therapies for IC/BPS.

The role of dietary antioxidants in type 2 diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders: An assessment of the benefit profile

Healthy diet is vital to cellular health. The human body succumbs to numerous diseases which afflict severe economic and psychological burdens on the patient and family. Oxidative stress is a possible crucial regulator of various pathologies, including type 2 diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. It generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) that trigger the dysregulation of essential cellular functions, ultimately affecting cellular health and homeostasis. However, lower levels of ROS can be advantageous and are implicated in a variety of signaling pathways. Due to this dichotomy, the terms oxidative "eustress," which refers to a good oxidative event, and "distress," which can be hazardous, have developed. ROS affects multiple signaling pathways, leading to compromised insulin secretion, insulin resistance, and β-cell dysfunction in diabetes. ROS is also associated with increased mitochondrial dysfunction and neuroinflammation, aggravating neurodegenerative conditions in the body, particularly with age. Treatment includes drugs/therapies often associated with dependence, side effects including non-selectivity, and possible toxicity, particularly in the long run. It is imperative to explore alternative medicines as an adjunct therapy, utilizing natural remedies/resources to avoid all the possible harms. Antioxidants are vital components of our body that fight disease by reducing oxidative stress or nullifying the excess toxic free radicals produced under various pathological conditions. In this review, we focus on the antioxidant effects of components of dietary foods such as tea, coffee, wine, oils, and honey and the role and mechanism of action of these antioxidants in alleviating type 2 diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders. We aim to provide information about possible alternatives to drug treatments used alone or combined to reduce drug intake and encourage the consumption of natural ingredients at doses adequate to promote health and combat pathologies while reducing unwanted risks and side effects.

Potential Benefits of Lycopene Consumption: Rationale for Using It as an Adjuvant Treatment for Malaria Patients and in Several Diseases

Malaria is a disease that affects thousands of people around the world every year. Its pathogenesis is associated with the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) and lower levels of micronutrients and antioxidants. Patients under drug treatment have high levels of oxidative stress biomarkers in the body tissues, which limits the use of these drugs. Therefore, several studies have suggested that RONS inhibition may represent an adjuvant therapeutic strategy in the treatment of these patients by increasing the antioxidant capacity of the host. In this sense, supplementation with antioxidant compounds such as zinc, selenium, and vitamins A, C, and E has been suggested as part of the treatment. Among dietary antioxidants, lycopene is the most powerful antioxidant among the main carotenoids. This review aimed to describe the main mechanisms inducing oxidative stress during malaria, highlighting the production of RONS as a defense mechanism against the infection induced by the ischemia-reperfusion syndrome, the metabolism of the parasite, and the metabolism of antimalarial drugs. Furthermore, the effects of lycopene on several diseases in which oxidative stress is implicated as a cause are outlined, providing information about its mechanism of action, and providing an evidence-based justification for its supplementation in malaria.

Oxidative Regulation of Vascular Cav1.2 Channels Triggers Vascular Dysfunction in Hypertension-Related Disorders

Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output and peripheral vascular resistance. The L-type voltage-gated Ca²⁺ (Ca_v1.2) channel in small arteries and arterioles plays an essential role in regulating Ca²⁺ influx, vascular resistance, and blood pressure. Hypertension and preeclampsia are characterized by high blood pressure. In addition, diabetes has a high prevalence of hypertension. The etiology of these disorders remains elusive, involving the complex interplay of environmental and genetic factors. Common to these disorders are oxidative stress and vascular dysfunction. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from NADPH oxidases (NOXs) and mitochondria are primary sources of vascular oxidative stress, whereas dysfunction of the Ca_v1.2 channel confers increased vascular resistance in hypertension. This review will discuss the importance of ROS derived from NOXs and mitochondria in regulating vascular Ca_v1.2 and potential roles of ROS-mediated Ca_v1.2 dysfunction in aberrant vascular function in hypertension, diabetes, and preeclampsia.

Oxidative Stress and Its Relation to Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms

The aim of this review is to discuss how to link lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) and oxidative stress (OS) and to define relevant targets for therapeutic intervention. Narrative review based on published literature. Many of the multifactorial pathophysiological mechanisms behind LUTS can initiate reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Assuming that OS is a consequence rather than a primary cause of LUTS it seems reasonable to identify both the disease mechanism initiating LUTS, and the source of ROS involved. There are many possible sources of ROS overproduction, but the NADPH oxidase (NOX) family of enzymes is the primary source; NOX activation in turn, may result in the activation of secondary ROS sources, i.e., ROS-dependent ROS production. Selective NOX inhibition therefore seems an attractive therapeutic strategy in LUTS treatment. The finding of NOX2 localization to centers in the brain associated with micturition control, opens up for further studies of NOX involvement in the central control of micturition, normally and in disease. Further information on the localization of the different isoforms of NOX in the LUT e.g., the bladder wall and its components and the prostate, is desirable. To optimize treatment, the pathophysiological mechanism initiating LUTS, and the activated isoform of NOX, should be identified. Unfortunately, in most cases of LUTS this is currently not possible. Even if selective NOX inhibitors have entered the clinical trial stage for treatment of disorders other than LUT dysfunction, their efficacy for LUTS treatment has to be demonstrated. If this can be achieved, an attractive approach would be combination of selective NOX inhibition with established drug therapies.

The Importance of Dietary Antioxidants on Oxidative Stress, Meat and Milk Production, and Their Preservative Aspects in Farm Animals: Antioxidant Action, Animal Health, and Product Quality-Invited Review

The biological effects of oxidative stress and associated free radicals on farm animal performance, productivity, and product quality may be managed via dietary interventions-specifically, the provision of feeds, supplements, and forages rich in antioxidants. To optimize this approach, it is important first to understand the development of free radicals and their contributions to oxidative stress in tissue systems of farm animals or the human body. The interactions between prooxidants and antioxidants will impact redox homeostasis and, therefore, the well-being of farm animals. The impact of free radical formation on the oxidation of lipids, proteins, DNA, and biologically important macromolecules will likewise impact animal performance, meat and milk quality, nutritional value, and longevity. Dietary antioxidants, endogenous antioxidants, and metal-binding proteins contribute to the 'antioxidant defenses' that control free radical formation within the biological systems. Different bioactive compounds of varying antioxidant potential and bio-accessibility may be sourced from tailored feeding systems. Informed and successful provision of dietary antioxidants can help alleviate oxidative stress. However, knowledge pertaining to farm animals, their unique biological systems, and the applications of novel feeds, specialized forages, bioactive compounds, etc., must be established. This review summarized current research to direct future studies towards more effective controls for free radical formation/oxidative stress in farm animals so that productivity and quality of meat and milk can be optimized.

Reactive Oxygen Species Enlightened Therapeutic Strategy for Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases-Art of Destruction and Reconstruction

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are byproducts of cell metabolism produced by living cells and signal mediators in biological processes. As unstable and highly reactive oxygen-derived molecules, excessive ROS production and defective oxidant clearance, or both, are associated with the pathogenesis of several conditions. Among them, ROS are widely involved in oral and maxillofacial diseases, such as periodontitis, as well as other infectious diseases or chronic inflammation, temporomandibular joint disorders, oral mucosal lesions, trigeminal neuralgia, muscle fatigue, and oral cancer. The purpose of this paper is to outline how ROS contribute to the pathophysiology of oral and maxillofacial regions, with an emphasis on oral infectious diseases represented by periodontitis and mucosal diseases represented by oral ulcers and how to effectively utilize and eliminate ROS in these pathological processes, as well as to review recent research on the potential targets and interventions of cutting-edge antioxidant materials. The PubMed, Web of Science, and Embase databases were searched using the MesH terms "oral and maxillofacial diseases", "reactive oxygen species", and "antioxidant materials". Irrelevant, obsolete, imprecise, and repetitive articles were excluded through screening of titles, abstracts, and eventually full content. The full-text data of the selected articles are, therefore, summarized using selection criteria. While there are various emerging biomaterials used as drugs themselves or delivery systems, more attention was paid to antioxidant drugs with broad application prospects and rigorous prophase animal experimental results.

P66Shc (Shc1) Zebrafish Mutant Line as a Platform for Testing Decreased Reactive Oxygen Species in Pathology

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) dysregulation exacerbates many pathologies but must remain within normal ranges to maintain cell function. Since ROS-mediated pathology and routine cell function are coupled, in vivo models evaluating low-ROS background effects on pathology are limited. Some models alter enzymatic antioxidant expression/activity, while others involve small molecule antioxidant administration. These models cause non-specific ROS neutralization, decreasing both beneficial and detrimental ROS. This is detrimental in cardiovascular pathology, despite the negative effects excessive ROS has on these pathologies. Thus, current trends in ROS-mediated pathology have shifted toward selective inhibition of ROS producers that are dysregulated during pathological insults, such as p66Shc. In this study, we evaluated a zebrafish heterozygote p66Shc hypomorphic mutant line as a low-ROS myocardial infarction (MI) pathology model that mimics mammalian MI. Our findings suggest this zebrafish line does not have an associated negative phenotype, but has decreased body mass and tissue ROS levels that confer protection against ROS-mediated pathology. Therefore, this line may provide a low-ROS background leading to new insights into disease.

Development of Noncovalent Small-Molecule Keap1-Nrf2 Inhibitors by Fragment-Based Drug Discovery

Targeting the protein-protein interaction (PPI) between the transcription factor nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its repressor, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1), constitutes a promising strategy for treating diseases involving oxidative stress and inflammation. Here, a fragment-based drug discovery (FBDD) campaign resulted in novel, high-affinity (K_i = 280 nM), and cell-active noncovalent small-molecule Keap1-Nrf2 PPI inhibitors. We screened 2500 fragments using orthogonal assays─fluorescence polarization (FP), thermal shift assay (TSA), and surface plasmon resonance (SPR)─and validated the hits by saturation transfer difference (STD) NMR, leading to 28 high-priority hits. Thirteen co-structures showed fragments binding mainly in the P4 and P5 subpockets of Keap1's Kelch domain, and three fluorenone-based fragments featuring a novel binding mode were optimized by structure-based drug discovery. We thereby disclose several fragment hits, including their binding modes, and show how FBDD can be performed to find new small-molecule Keap1-Nrf2 PPI inhibitors.

Endothelial and Vascular Smooth Muscle Dysfunction in Hypertension

The development of essential hypertension involves several factors. Vascular dysfunction, characterized by endothelial dysfunction, low-grade inflammation and structural remodeling, plays an important role in the initiation and maintenance of essential hypertension. Although the mechanistic pathways by which essential hypertension develops are poorly understood, several pharmacological classes available on the clinical settings improve blood pressure by interfering in the cardiac output and/or vascular function. This review is divided in two major sections. The first section depicts the major molecular pathways as renin angiotensin aldosterone system (RAAS), endothelin, nitric oxide signalling pathway and oxidative stress in the development of vascular dysfunction. The second section describes the role of some pharmacological classes such as i) RAAS inhibitors, ii) dual angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors, iii) endothelin-1 receptor antagonists, iv) soluble guanylate cyclase modulators, v) phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors and vi) sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors in the context of hypertension. Some classes are already approved in the treatment of hypertension, but others are not yet approved. However, due to their potential benefits these classes were included.

Redox Imbalance and Its Metabolic Consequences in Tick-Borne Diseases

One of the growing global health problems are vector-borne diseases, including tick-borne diseases. The most common tick-borne diseases include Lyme disease, tick-borne encephalitis, human granulocytic anaplasmosis, and babesiosis. Taking into account the metabolic effects in the patient’s body, tick-borne diseases are a significant problem from an epidemiological and clinical point of view. Inflammation and oxidative stress are key elements in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases, including tick-borne diseases. In consequence, this leads to oxidative modifications of the structure and function of phospholipids and proteins and results in qualitative and quantitative changes at the level of lipid mediators arising in both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ROS enzyme–dependent reactions. These types of metabolic modifications affect the functioning of the cells and the host organism. Therefore, links between the severity of the disease state and redox imbalance and the level of phospholipid metabolites are being searched, hoping to find unambiguous diagnostic biomarkers. Assessment of molecular effects of oxidative stress may also enable the monitoring of the disease process and treatment efficacy.

Endothelial reactive oxygen-forming NADPH oxidase 5 is a possible player in diabetic aortic aneurysm but not atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis and its complications are major causes of cardiovascular morbidity and death. Apart from risk factors such as hypercholesterolemia and inflammation, the causal molecular mechanisms are unknown. One proposed causal mechanism involves elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Indeed, early expression of the ROS forming NADPH oxidase type 5 (Nox5) in vascular endothelial cells correlates with atherosclerosis and aortic aneurysm. Here we test the pro-atherogenic Nox5 hypothesis using mouse models. Because Nox5 is missing from the mouse genome, a knock-in mouse model expressing human Nox5 in its physiological location of endothelial cells (eNOX5^ki/ki) was tested as a possible new humanised mouse atherosclerosis model. However, whether just on a high cholesterol diet or by crossing in aortic atherosclerosis-prone ApoE^−/− mice with and without induction of diabetes, Nox5 neither induced on its own nor aggravated aortic atherosclerosis. Surprisingly, however, diabetic ApoE^−/− x eNOX5^ki/ki mice developed aortic aneurysms more than twice as often correlating with lower vascular collagens, as assessed by trichrome staining, without changes in inflammatory gene expression, suggesting that endothelial Nox5 directly affects extracellular matrix remodelling associated with aneurysm formation in diabetes. Thus Nox5-derived reactive oxygen species are not a new independent mechanism of atherosclerosis but may enhance the frequency of abdominal aortic aneurysms in the context of diabetes. Together with similar clinical findings, our preclinical target validation opens up a first-in-class mechanism-based approach to treat or even prevent abdominal aortic aneurysms.

Pericyte-derived heme-binding protein 1 promotes angiogenesis and improves erectile function in diabetic mice

PURPOSE

To comprehensively evaluate the effect on angiogenesis of heme-binding protein 1 (Hebp1) in the treatment of diabetes-induced erectile dysfunction.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mouse corpus cavernosum endothelial cells and pericytes were used for in vitro study. Four groups of mice were used: control nondiabetic mice and streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice receiving two intracavernous injections of phosphate-buffered saline, Hebp1 (1 µg), or Hebp1 (5 µg). The function of Hebp1 in diabetic conditions was evaluated by tube formation assay, aorta ring assay, migration assay, intracavernous pressure, immunofluorescence staining, and Western blot experiments.

RESULTS

We report that Hebp1 is more highly expressed in mouse corpus cavernosum pericytes and can effectively promote endothelial cell angiogenesis under high-glucose conditions. Following exogenous administration of Hebp1 protein, we found that elevated Hebp1 levels can improve the erectile function of diabetic mice, which is achieved by reducing reactive oxygen species levels and activating the PI3K/AKT/eNOS signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate that Hebp1 can promote angiogenesis and improve erectile function under diabetic conditions.

Defining roles of specific reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cell biology and physiology

'Reactive oxygen species' (ROS) is a generic term that defines a wide variety of oxidant molecules with vastly different properties and biological functions that range from signalling to causing cell damage. Consequently, the description of oxidants needs to be chemically precise to translate research on their biological effects into therapeutic benefit in redox medicine. This Expert Recommendation article pinpoints key issues associated with identifying the physiological roles of oxidants, focusing on H₂O₂ and O₂^.-. The generic term ROS should not be used to describe specific molecular agents. We also advocate for greater precision in measurement of H₂O₂, O₂^.- and other oxidants, along with more specific identification of their signalling targets. Future work should also consider inter-organellar communication and the interactions of redox-sensitive signalling targets within organs and whole organisms, including the contribution of environmental exposures. To achieve these goals, development of tools that enable site-specific and real-time detection and quantification of individual oxidants in cells and model organisms are needed. We also stress that physiological O₂ levels should be maintained in cell culture to better mimic in vivo redox reactions associated with specific cell types. Use of precise definitions and analytical tools will help harmonize research among the many scientific disciplines working on the common goal of understanding redox biology.

NADPH Oxidases Connecting Fatty Liver Disease, Insulin Resistance and Type 2 Diabetes: Current Knowledge and Therapeutic Outlook

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), characterized by ectopic fat accumulation in hepatocytes, is closely linked to insulin resistance and is the most frequent complication of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). One of the features connecting NAFLD, insulin resistance and T2DM is cellular oxidative stress. Oxidative stress refers to a redox imbalance due to an inequity between the capacity of production and the elimination of reactive oxygen species (ROS). One of the major cellular ROS sources is NADPH oxidase enzymes (NOX-es). In physiological conditions, NOX-es produce ROS purposefully in a timely and spatially regulated manner and are crucial regulators of various cellular events linked to metabolism, receptor signal transmission, proliferation and apoptosis. In contrast, dysregulated NOX-derived ROS production is related to the onset of diverse pathologies. This review provides a synopsis of current knowledge concerning NOX enzymes as connective elements between NAFLD, insulin resistance and T2DM and weighs their potential relevance as pharmacological targets to alleviate fatty liver disease.

p66Shc in Cardiovascular Pathology

p66Shc is a widely expressed protein that governs a variety of cardiovascular pathologies by generating, and exacerbating, pro-apoptotic ROS signals. Here, we review p66Shc’s connections to reactive oxygen species, expression, localization, and discuss p66Shc signaling and mitochondrial functions. Emphasis is placed on recent p66Shc mitochondrial function discoveries including structure/function relationships, ROS identity and regulation, mechanistic insights, and how p66Shc-cyt c interactions can influence p66Shc mitochondrial function. Based on recent findings, a new p66Shc mitochondrial function model is also put forth wherein p66Shc acts as a rheostat that can promote or antagonize apoptosis. A discussion of how the revised p66Shc model fits previous findings in p66Shc-mediated cardiovascular pathology follows.

Synthesis, Characterization and Antitumor Mechanism Investigation of Heterometallic Ru(Ⅱ)-Re(Ⅰ) Complexes

The development of heteronuclear metal complexes as potent anticancer agents has received increasing attention in recent years. In this study, two new heteronuclear Ru(Ⅱ)-Re(Ⅰ) metal complexes, [Ru(bpy)₂LRe(CO)₃(DIP)](PF₆)₃ and [Ru(phen)₂LRe(CO)₃(DIP)](PF₆)₃ [RuRe-1 and RuRe-2, L = 2-(4-pyridinyl)imidazolio[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthroline, bpy = 2,2′-bipyridine, DIP = 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline, phen = 1,10-phenanthroline], were synthesized and characterized. Cytotoxicity assay shows that RuRe-1 and RuRe-2 exhibit higher anticancer activity than cisplatin, and exist certain selectivity toward human cancer cells over normal cells. The anticancer mechanistic studies reveal that RuRe-1 and RuRe-2 can induce apoptosis through the regulation of cell cycle, depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), elevation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and caspase cascade. Moreover, RuRe-1 and RuRe-2 can effectively inhibit cell migration and colony formation. Taken together, heteronuclear Ru(Ⅱ)-Re(Ⅰ) metal complexes possess the prospect of developing new anticancer agents with high efficacy.

Reactive Oxygen Species Induce Fatty Liver and Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury by Promoting Inflammation and Cell Death

Liver transplantation is the ultimate method for treating end-stage liver disease. With the increasing prevalence of obesity, the number of patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver, a common cause of chronic liver disease, is on the rise and may become the main cause of liver transplantation in the future. With the increasing gap between the number of donor livers and patients waiting for liver transplantation and the increasing prevalence of non-alcoholic fatty liver, the proportion of steatosis livers among non-standard donor organs is also increasing. Ischemia-reperfusion injury has historically been the focus of attention in the liver transplantation process, and severe ischemia-reperfusion injury leads to adverse outcomes of liver transplantation. Studies have shown that the production of reactive oxygen species and subsequent oxidative stress play a key role in the pathogenesis of hepatic ischemia and reperfusion injury and non-alcoholic fatty liver. Furthermore, the sensitivity of fatty liver transplantation to ischemia-reperfusion injury has been suggested to be related to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress. In ischemia-reperfusion injury, Kupffer cell and macrophage activation along with mitochondrial damage and the xanthine/xanthine oxidase system promote marked reactive oxygen species production and the inflammatory response and apoptosis, resulting in liver tissue injury. The increased levels of ROS and lipid peroxidation products, vicious circle of ROS and oxidative stress along with mitochondrial dysfunction promoted the progress of non-alcoholic fatty liver. In contrast to the non-fatty liver, a non-alcoholic fatty liver produces more reactive oxygen species and suffers more serious oxidative stress when subjected to ischemia-reperfusion injury. We herein review the effects of reactive oxygen species on ischemia-reperfusion injury and non-alcoholic fatty liver injury as well as highlight several treatment approaches.

Reactive Oxygen Species-Mediated Diabetic Heart Disease: Mechanisms and Therapies

Significance: Diabetic heart disease (DHD) is the primary cause of mortality in people with diabetes. A significant contributor to the development of DHD is the disruption of redox balance due to reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction resulting from sustained high glucose levels. Therapies specifically focusing on the suppression of ROS will hugely benefit patients with DHD. Recent Advances: In addition to the gold standard pharmacological therapies, the recent development of gene therapy provides an exciting avenue for developing new therapeutics to treat ROS-mediated DHD. In particular, microRNAs (miRNAs) are gaining interest due to their crucial role in several physiological and pathological processes, including DHD. Critical Issues: miRNAs have many targets and differential function depending on the environment. Therefore, a proper understanding of the function of miRNAs in specific cell types and cell states is required for the successful application of this technology. In the present review, we first provide an overview of the role of ROS in contributing to DHD and the currently available treatments. We then discuss the newer gene therapies with a specific focus on the role of miRNAs as the causative factors and therapeutic targets to combat ROS-mediated DHD. Future Directions: The future of miRNA therapeutics in tackling ROS-mediated DHD is dependent on a complete understanding of how miRNAs behave in different cells and environments. Future research should also aim to develop conditional miRNA therapeutic platforms capable of switching on and off in response to disruptions in the redox state. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 36, 608-630.

Redox signaling at the crossroads of human health and disease

Redox biology is at the core of life sciences, accompanied by the close correlation of redox processes with biological activities. Redox homeostasis is a prerequisite for human health, in which the physiological levels of nonradical reactive oxygen species (ROS) function as the primary second messengers to modulate physiological redox signaling by orchestrating multiple redox sensors. However, excessive ROS accumulation, termed oxidative stress (OS), leads to biomolecule damage and subsequent occurrence of various diseases such as type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, and cancer. Herein, starting with the evolution of redox biology, we reveal the roles of ROS as multifaceted physiological modulators to mediate redox signaling and sustain redox homeostasis. In addition, we also emphasize the detailed OS mechanisms involved in the initiation and development of several important diseases. ROS as a double‐edged sword in disease progression suggest two different therapeutic strategies to treat redox‐relevant diseases, in which targeting ROS sources and redox‐related effectors to manipulate redox homeostasis will largely promote precision medicine. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the redox signaling networks under physiological and pathological conditions will facilitate the development of redox medicine and benefit patients with redox‐relevant diseases.

Metabolic Response to Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus Infection and Bacterial Co-Infections

Ticks are vectors of various pathogens, including tick-borne encephalitis virus and bacteria such as B. burgdorferi and A. phagocytophilum, causing infections/co-infections, which are still a diagnostic and therapeutic problem. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the effects of TBEV infection/bacterial co-infection on metabolic changes in the blood of patients before and after treatment. It was found that those infections promote plasma ROS enhanced generation and antioxidant defence reduction, especially in relation to glutathione and thioredoxin systems, despite the increased effectiveness of Nrf2 transcription factor in granulocytes. Observed oxidative stress promotes the oxidative modifications of phospholipids containing polyunsaturated fatty acids (LA, AA, EPA) with increased lipid peroxidation (estimated as 8-isoPGF2α, 4-HNE). It is accompanied by protein modifications measured as 4-HNE-protein adducts, carbonyl groups, dityrosine increase, and tryptophan level decrease, which promote structural and functional modification of the following transcription factors: Nrf2 and NFkB inhibitors. The lower level of 8-iso-PGF2α in co-infections indicates an impairment of the body’s ability to intensify inflammation and fight co-infections, while an increased level of Trx after therapy may contribute to the intensification of the inflammatory process. The obtained results indicate the potential possibility of using the assessed metabolic parameters to introduce targeted pharmacotherapy in cases of TBEV infections/bacterial co-infections.

Current Knowledge on the Oxidative-Stress-Mediated Antimicrobial Properties of Metal-Based Nanoparticles

The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria in recent years has been alarming and represents a major public health problem. The development of effective antimicrobial agents remains a key challenge. Nanotechnologies have provided opportunities for the use of nanomaterials as components in the development of antibacterial agents. Indeed, metal-based nanoparticles (NPs) show an effective role in targeting and killing bacteria via different mechanisms, such as attraction to the bacterial surface, destabilization of the bacterial cell wall and membrane, and the induction of a toxic mechanism mediated by a burst of oxidative stress (e.g., the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS)). Considering the lack of new antimicrobial drugs with novel mechanisms of action, the induction of oxidative stress represents a valuable and powerful antimicrobial strategy to fight MDR bacteria. Consequently, it is of particular interest to determine and precisely characterize whether NPs are able to induce oxidative stress in such bacteria. This highlights the particular interest that NPs represent for the development of future antibacterial drugs. Therefore, this review aims to provide an update on the latest advances in research focusing on the study and characterization of the induction of oxidative-stress-mediated antimicrobial mechanisms by metal-based NPs.

Widespread discrepancy in Nnt genotypes and genetic backgrounds complicates granzyme A and other knockout mouse studies

Granzyme A (GZMA) is a serine protease secreted by cytotoxic lymphocytes, with Gzma-/- mouse studies having informed our understanding of GZMA's physiological function. We show herein that Gzma-/- mice have a mixed C57BL/6J and C57BL/6N genetic background and retain the full-length nicotinamide nucleotide transhydrogenase (Nnt) gene, whereas Nnt is truncated in C57BL/6J mice. Chikungunya viral arthritis was substantially ameliorated in Gzma-/- mice; however, the presence of Nnt and the C57BL/6N background, rather than loss of GZMA expression, was responsible for this phenotype. A new CRISPR active site mutant C57BL/6J GzmaS211A mouse provided the first insights into GZMA's bioactivity free of background issues, with circulating proteolytically active GZMA promoting immune-stimulating and pro-inflammatory signatures. Remarkably, k-mer mining of the Sequence Read Archive illustrated that ≈27% of Run Accessions and ≈38% of BioProjects listing C57BL/6J as the mouse strain had Nnt sequencing reads inconsistent with a C57BL/6J genetic background. Nnt and C57BL/6N background issues have clearly complicated our understanding of GZMA and may similarly have influenced studies across a broad range of fields.

Network pharmacology: curing causal mechanisms instead of treating symptoms

For complex diseases, most drugs are highly ineffective, and the success rate of drug discovery is in constant decline. While low quality, reproducibility issues, and translational irrelevance of most basic and preclinical research have contributed to this, the current organ-centricity of medicine and the 'one disease-one target-one drug' dogma obstruct innovation in the most profound manner. Systems and network medicine and their therapeutic arm, network pharmacology, revolutionize how we define, diagnose, treat, and, ideally, cure diseases. Descriptive disease phenotypes are replaced by endotypes defined by causal, multitarget signaling modules that also explain respective comorbidities. Precise and effective therapeutic intervention is achieved by synergistic multicompound network pharmacology and drug repurposing, obviating the need for drug discovery and speeding up clinical translation.