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Lin J, Xian H, Yang Y, Li S, Xi J, Lin X, Xiao Y, Chen S, Zhao C, Zhang M, Tsuchiyama A, Zhu J, He H, Xu YG. Differences in space weathering between the near and far side of the Moon: evidence from Chang'e-6 samples. Natl Sci Rev 2025; 12:nwaf087. [PMID: 40330048 PMCID: PMC12051863 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwaf087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2024] [Revised: 02/18/2025] [Accepted: 02/19/2025] [Indexed: 05/08/2025] Open
Abstract
The differences in terrain and chemical composition between the far side of the Moon (lunar farside) and the near side have been identified through remote sensing spectroscopy. The lunar farside samples returned by the Chang'e-6 mission show differences in terms of space weathering features compared to nearside samples. The studied farside samples lack vapor deposition layers found on the nearside and exhibit thinner amorphized layers, lower solar flare track densities, reduced number densities of nano phase metallic iron (npFe0) and larger npFe0 grain sizes. These findings suggest that the solar wind plays a dominant role in space weathering on the Chang'e-6 sampling site, surpassing micrometeorite impacts. This could provide critical sample-based evidence of the lunar space environment's dichotomy, enhancing our understanding of how solar wind and micrometeoroid impacts shape the lunar surface, even over short exposure periods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarui Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Haiyang Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Yiping Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Shan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Jiaxin Xi
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Xiaoju Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Yao Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Shengdong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Chenyi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Miaomiao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Akira Tsuchiyama
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Jianxi Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Hongping He
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mineral Physics and Materials, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Yi-Gang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Deep Earth Processes and Resources, Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Center for Advanced Planetary Science (CAPS), Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
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2
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He H, Hu S, Gao L, Li R, Hao J, Mitchell RN, Lu K, Gao Y, Li L, Qiu M, Zhou Z, Yang W, Cai S, Chen Y, Jia L, Li QL, Hui H, Lin Y, Li XH, Wu FY. Lunar dichotomy in surface water storage of impact glass beads. Nat Commun 2025; 16:4971. [PMID: 40436902 PMCID: PMC12119804 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-025-60388-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2025] [Indexed: 06/01/2025] Open
Abstract
Water is the one of most precious resources for planetary utilisation. Lunar nearside impact glass beads (IGBs) have been demonstrated to contain abundant solar wind-derived water (SW-H2O); however, little is known about its farside counterpart. Here, we report the water abundances and hydrogen isotope compositions and their distribution in farside IGBs collected by the Chang'e-6 mission to investigate the role of IGBs in the lunar surface water cycle. Farside IGBs are found to have water abundances of ~10-1,070 μg.g-1 with hydrogen isotopes (δD) ranging from -988‰ to >2000‰ and display typical SW-H2O hydration profiles. The SW-H2O hydration depths in farside IGBs are strikingly shallower than in nearside IGBs. Moreover, the hydration profiles are only found in mare IGBs, with none observed in non-mare IGBs, indicating that SW-H2O hydration in IGBs is likely composition dependent. These findings indicate that SW-H2O storage of IGBs exhibits a dichotomy distribution in lunar soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huicun He
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Sen Hu
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Liang Gao
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ruiying Li
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jialong Hao
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ross N Mitchell
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric and Environmental Coevolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Kai Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric and Environmental Coevolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yubing Gao
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Linxi Li
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Mengfan Qiu
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhan Zhou
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Yang
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shuhui Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric and Environmental Coevolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric and Environmental Coevolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Lihui Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric and Environmental Coevolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Qiu-Li Li
- State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric and Environmental Coevolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hejiu Hui
- State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research& Lunar and Planetary Science Institute, School of the Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yangting Lin
- Key Laboratory of the Earth and Planetary Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xian-Hua Li
- State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric and Environmental Coevolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fu-Yuan Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Lithospheric and Environmental Coevolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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3
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Shearer CK, Sharp ZD, Stopar J. Exploring, sampling, and interpreting lunar volatiles in polar cold traps. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2321071121. [PMID: 39680770 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2321071121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 12/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Numerous missions to the Moon have identified and documented volatile deposits associated with permanently shadowed regions. A series of science goals for the Artemis Program is to explore these volatile deposits and return samples to Earth. Volatiles in these reservoirs may consist of a variety of species whose stable isotope characteristics could elucidate both their sources and the processes instrumental in their formation. For example, the δD of potential contributors to the deposits can be used to identify a uniquely light solar wind component. Because of the exceptionally low temperatures of these volatile deposits, examining and interpreting their stable isotope systems to fulfill Artemis science goals through sampling, preserving, curating, and analyzing these samples are far more difficult than for other sample return missions. Collecting and preserving the samples at cryogenic temperatures dramatically increases science yield but is technologically demanding and poses increased risk during transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles K Shearer
- Institute of Meteoritics, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131
| | - Zachary D Sharp
- Center of Stable Isotopes, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87131
| | - Julie Stopar
- Lunar and Planetary Institute, Universities Space Research Association, Houston, TX 77058
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4
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Xiong M, Wu Y, Yao W, Chen Z, Yu Y, Li X, Yan P, Li X, Zeng X. The Formation Mechanisms of np-Fe in Lunar Regolith: A Review. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:5866. [PMID: 39685303 DOI: 10.3390/ma17235866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2024] [Revised: 11/20/2024] [Accepted: 11/26/2024] [Indexed: 12/18/2024]
Abstract
Nanophase iron (np-Fe) is widely distributed on the surface of lunar soil particles, forming as a result of space weathering. These np-Fe particles contribute to the reddening and darkening of the visible to near-infrared spectra of weathered lunar material and serve as critical indicators for assessing the maturity of lunar soil. (1) This article reviews the proposed formation mechanisms of np-Fe particles from studies of Apollo and Luna soils, including the thermal reduction of iron melts, vapor deposition caused by micrometeorite impacts, and hydrogen reduction due to solar wind exposure. (2) Additionally, recent findings from the analysis of Chang'E-5 lunar soil are highlighted, revealing new mechanisms such as sub-solidus decomposition of olivine, impact-driven disproportionation, and FeO eutectic reactions. (3) Experimental studies simulating space weathering through laser and ion irradiation are also discussed and compared. Despite extensive research, a definitive understanding of np-Fe particle formation remains elusive. Previous lunar soil samples have been collected from the near side of the Moon. This year, the Chang'E-6 mission has successfully returned the first-ever lunar soil samples from the far side. These samples are expected to exhibit unique space weathering characteristics, providing new insights into the formation mechanisms of np-Fe in lunar soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingchao Xiong
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
- Analysis and Test Center, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yanxue Wu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
- Analysis and Test Center, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Wenqing Yao
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zilei Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
- Analysis and Test Center, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yingying Yu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
- Analysis and Test Center, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xia Li
- Analysis and Test Center, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Pan Yan
- Planetary Environmental and Astrobiological Research Laboratory, School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Xiongyao Li
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China
| | - Xiaojia Zeng
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550081, China
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5
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Cao Z, Guo Z, Li C, Zhao S, Li Y, He Q, Wen Y, Xiao Z, Li X, Xiao L, Li L, Wang J, Liu J. Submicroscopic magnetite may be ubiquitous in the lunar regolith of the high-Ti region. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadn2301. [PMID: 39303040 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adn2301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/22/2024]
Abstract
Magnetite is rare on the Moon. The ubiquitous presence of magnetite in lunar soil has been hypothesized in previous Apollo Mössbauer spectroscopy and electron spin resonance studies, but there is currently no mineralogical evidence to prove it. Here, we report a large number of submicroscopic magnetite particles embedded within iron-sulfide on the surface of Chang'e-5 glass, with a close positive correlation between magnetite content and the TiO2 content of the surrounding glass. The morphology and mineralogy of the iron-sulfide grains suggest that these magnetite particles formed via an impact process between iron-sulfide droplets and silicate glass melt, and ilmenite is necessary for magnetite formation. Magnetite in lunar glass is a potential candidate for the "magnetite-like" phase detected in the Apollo era and suggests that impact-induced submicroscopic magnetite may be ubiquitous in high-Ti regions of the Moon. Moreover, these impact-induced magnetite particles may be crucial for understanding the lunar magnetic anomalies and mineral components of the deep Moon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Cao
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 550081 Guiyang, China
- Planetary Science Institute, State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, 430074 Wuhan, China
| | - Zhuang Guo
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 550081 Guiyang, China
- NWU-HKU Joint Center of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Department of Geology, Northwest University, Xi'an 710069, China
| | - Chen Li
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 550081 Guiyang, China
| | - Sizhe Zhao
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 550081 Guiyang, China
- State Key Laboratory of Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Macau University of Science and Technology, 999078 Macau, China
| | - Yang Li
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 550081 Guiyang, China
- Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 230026 Hefei, China
| | - Qi He
- Planetary Science Institute, State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, 430074 Wuhan, China
| | - Yuanyun Wen
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 550081 Guiyang, China
| | - Zhiyong Xiao
- Planetary Environmental and Astrobiological Research Laboratory, School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, 519082 Zhuhai, China
| | - Xiongyao Li
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 550081 Guiyang, China
- Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 230026 Hefei, China
| | - Long Xiao
- Planetary Science Institute, State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, 430074 Wuhan, China
| | - Lifang Li
- Laboratory for Space Environment and Physical Sciences, Harbin Institute of Technology, 150001 Harbin, China
| | - Junhu Wang
- Center for Advanced Mössbauer Spectroscopy, Mössbauer Effect Data Center, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 116023 Dalian, China
| | - Jianzhong Liu
- Center for Lunar and Planetary Sciences, Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 550081 Guiyang, China
- Center for Excellence in Comparative Planetology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 230026 Hefei, China
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6
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Zhou T, Tarduno JA, Cottrell RD, Neal CR, Nimmo F, Blackman EG, Ibañez-Mejia M. A lunar core dynamo limited to the Moon's first ~140 million years. COMMUNICATIONS EARTH & ENVIRONMENT 2024; 5:456. [PMID: 39246729 PMCID: PMC11379625 DOI: 10.1038/s43247-024-01551-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/10/2024]
Abstract
Single crystal paleointensity (SCP) reveals that the Moon lacked a long-lived core dynamo, though mysteries remain. An episodic dynamo, seemingly recorded by some Apollo basalts, is temporally and energetically problematic. We evaluate this enigma through study of ~3.7 billion-year-old (Ga) Apollo basalts 70035 and 75035. Whole rock analyses show unrealistically high nominal magnetizations, whereas SCP indicate null fields, illustrating that the former do not record an episodic dynamo. However, deep crustal magnetic anomalies might record an early lunar dynamo. SCP studies of 3.97 Ga Apollo breccia 61016 and 4.36 Ga ferroan anorthosite 60025 also yield null values, constraining any core dynamo to the Moon's first 140 million years. These findings suggest that traces of Earth's Hadean atmosphere, transferred to the Moon lacking a magnetosphere, could be trapped in the buried lunar regolith, presenting an exceptional target for future exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tinghong Zhou
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - John A Tarduno
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
- Laboratory for Laser Energetics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14623 USA
| | - Rory D Cottrell
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - Clive R Neal
- Department of Civil Engineering and Geological Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN 46556 USA
| | - Francis Nimmo
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064 USA
| | - Eric G Blackman
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
- Laboratory for Laser Energetics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14623 USA
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7
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Lin Y, Yang W, Zhang H, Hui H, Hu S, Xiao L, Liu J, Xiao Z, Yue Z, Zhang J, Liu Y, Yang J, Lin H, Zhang A, Guo D, Gou S, Xu L, He Y, Zhang X, Qin L, Ling Z, Li X, Du A, He H, Zhang P, Cao J, Li X. Return to the Moon: New perspectives on lunar exploration. Sci Bull (Beijing) 2024; 69:2136-2148. [PMID: 38777682 DOI: 10.1016/j.scib.2024.04.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Lunar exploration is deemed crucial for uncovering the origins of the Earth-Moon system and is the first step for advancing humanity's exploration of deep space. Over the past decade, the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (CLEP), also known as the Chang'e (CE) Project, has achieved remarkable milestones. It has successfully developed and demonstrated the engineering capability required to reach and return from the lunar surface. Notably, the CE Project has made historic firsts with the landing and on-site exploration of the far side of the Moon, along with the collection of the youngest volcanic samples from the Procellarum KREEP Terrane. These achievements have significantly enhanced our understanding of lunar evolution. Building on this success, China has proposed an ambitious crewed lunar exploration strategy, aiming to return to the Moon for scientific exploration and utilization. This plan encompasses two primary phases: the first crewed lunar landing and exploration, followed by a thousand-kilometer scale scientific expedition to construct a geological cross-section across the lunar surface. Recognizing the limitations of current lunar exploration efforts and China's engineering and technical capabilities, this paper explores the benefits of crewed lunar exploration while leveraging synergies with robotic exploration. The study refines fundamental lunar scientific questions that could lead to significant breakthroughs, considering the respective engineering and technological requirements. This research lays a crucial foundation for defining the objectives of future lunar exploration, emphasizing the importance of crewed missions and offering insights into potential advancements in lunar science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangting Lin
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Wei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Hejiu Hui
- State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research and School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Sen Hu
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Long Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jianzhong Liu
- Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550002, China
| | - Zhiyong Xiao
- Planetary Environmental and Astrobiological Research Laboratory, School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Zongyu Yue
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Jinhai Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Yang Liu
- National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550002, China
| | - Honglei Lin
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Aicheng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Mineral Deposits Research and School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Dijun Guo
- National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Sheng Gou
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Lin Xu
- National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Yuyang He
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xianguo Zhang
- National Space Science Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Liping Qin
- Deep Space Exploration Laboratory / CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Zongcheng Ling
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Optical Astronomy and Solar-Terrestrial Environment, Institute of Space Sciences, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China
| | - Xiongyao Li
- Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang 550002, China
| | - Aimin Du
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Huaiyu He
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Technology and Engineering Center for Space Utilization, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China
| | - Jinbin Cao
- School of Space and Environment, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xianhua Li
- Key Laboratory of Earth and Planetary Physics, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China.
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Guo Z, Li C, Li Y, Wen Y, Wu Y, Jia B, Tai K, Zeng X, Li X, Liu J, Ouyang Z. Sub-microscopic magnetite and metallic iron particles formed by eutectic reaction in Chang’E-5 lunar soil. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7177. [PMID: 36418346 PMCID: PMC9684415 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-35009-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Ferric iron as well as magnetite are rarely found in lunar samples, and their distribution and formation mechanisms on the Moon have not been well studied. Here, we discover sub-microscopic magnetite particles in Chang’E-5 lunar soil. Magnetite and pure metallic iron particles are embedded in oxygen-dissolved iron-sulfide grains from the Chang’E-5 samples. This mineral assemblage indicates a FeO eutectoid reaction (4FeO = Fe3O4 + Fe) for formation of magnetite. The iron-sulfide grains’ morphology features and the oxygen’s distribution suggest that a gas–melt phase reaction occurred during large-impact events. This could provide an effective method to form ubiquitous sub-microscopic magnetite in fine lunar soils and be a contributor to the presentation of ferric iron on the surface of the Moon. Additionally, the formation of sub-microscopic magnetite and metallic iron by eutectoid reaction may provide an alternative way for the formation of magnetic anomalies observed on the Moon. Magnetite is rarely present on the Moon. Here the authors report the magnetite formed by eutectic reaction during the impact process in Chang’E-5 lunar soil, and the potential contribution of this magnetite formation to magnetic anomalies on the Moon.
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Re-Visiting the Quantification of Hematite by Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy. MINERALS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/min12070872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Hematite concentration is an important climatic proxy for environmental (climatic) studies of soils and sediments. However, the accurate quantification of naturally occurring hematite has always been a difficult question, especially for those areas with lower hematite concentrations. Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) is an effective method for hematite identification and quantification with lower detection limits. In this study, we synthesized a set of samples with well-determined concentrations to explore the exact detectable range of hematite and propose the most effective transfer function between the DRS proxy and hematite concentration. In addition, natural sediments from Inland Asia and the Western Pacific Ocean were used to further test the feasibility of the new transfer function. Results show that the lowest DRS detection limit for hematite could reach ~0.00078%, but is affected by the natural matrix. We also find that the second derivative of the Kubelka–Munk (K–M) function is monotonically correlated with the hematite concentration (0.00078%–100%), but ambiguities exist for the first derivative. Therefore, the second derivative of the K–M function is highly suggested for the hematite quantification, especially when concentration exhibits a wide range of variations. This study provides important references for the application of hematite proxy and promotes the popularization and development of the DRS method.
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Review for Examining the Oxidation Process of the Moon Using Generative Adversarial Networks: Focusing on Landscape of Moon. ELECTRONICS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/electronics11091303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has collected and studied the data observed by the lunar probe, SELenological and ENgineering Explorer (SELENE), from 2007 to 2017. JAXA discovered that the oxygen of the upper atmosphere of the Earth is transported to the moon by the tail of the magnetic field. However, this research is still in progress, and more data are needed to clarify the oxidation process. Therefore, this paper supplements the insufficient observation data by using Generative Adversarial Networks (GAN) and proposes a review paper focusing on the methodology, enhancing the level of completion of the preceding research, and the trend of examining the oxidation process and landscape of the moon. We propose using Anokhin’s Conditionally-Independent Pixel Synthesis (CIPS) as a model to be used in future experiments as a result of the review. CIPS can generate pixels independently for each color value, and since it uses a Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) network rather than spatial convolutions, there is a significant advantage in scalability. It is concluded that the proposed methodology will save time and costs of the existing research in progress and will help reveal the causal relationship more clearly.
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Góbi S, Lin Z, Zhu C, Head-Gordon M, Kaiser RI. Oxygen Isotope Exchange between Carbon Dioxide and Iron Oxides on Mars' Surface. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:2600-2606. [PMID: 35290734 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c00289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
An investigation of the fundamental processes leading to the incorporation of 18O isotopes in carbon dioxide and in iron oxides is critical to understanding the atmospheric evolution and geochemistry of Mars. Whereas signatures of 18O have been observed by the Phoenix Lander and the sample analysis at Mars for carbon dioxide, the underlying isotopic exchange pathways with minerals of the crust of Mars are still elusive. Here, we reveal that reactions of gaseous 18O-carbon dioxide over goethite (FeO(OH)) and hematite (Fe2O3) lead to an 18O transfer from the atmosphere that enriches the 18O content of the iron oxides in the absence of water and light. This proof-of-concept study shows that isotopic enrichment processes on Mars not only are limited to the atmosphere but also proceed via chemical interaction with dry iron oxides. These processes are decisive to comprehending the 18O cycle between the atmosphere and the surface on the planetary scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sándor Góbi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Hawai'i at Ma̅noa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
- W.M. Keck Laboratory in Astrochemistry, University of Hawai'i at Ma̅noa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
| | - Zhou Lin
- Kenneth S. Pitzer Center for Theoretical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Cheng Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Hawai'i at Ma̅noa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
- W.M. Keck Laboratory in Astrochemistry, University of Hawai'i at Ma̅noa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
| | - Martin Head-Gordon
- Kenneth S. Pitzer Center for Theoretical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Ralf I Kaiser
- Department of Chemistry, University of Hawai'i at Ma̅noa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
- W.M. Keck Laboratory in Astrochemistry, University of Hawai'i at Ma̅noa, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, United States
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