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Zhang J, Ma A, Zhou H, Chen X, Zhou X, Liu G, Zhuang X, Qin X, Priemé A, Zhuang G. Unexpected high carbon losses in a continental glacier foreland on the Tibetan Plateau. ISME COMMUNICATIONS 2022; 2:68. [PMID: 37938688 PMCID: PMC9723710 DOI: 10.1038/s43705-022-00148-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Closely related with microbial activities, soil developments along the glacier forelands are generally considered a carbon sink; however, those of continental glacier forelands remain unclear. Continental glaciers are characterized by dry conditions and low temperature that limit microbial growth. We investigated the carbon characteristics along a chronosequence of the Laohugou Glacier No. 12 foreland, a typical continental glacier on the Tibetan Plateau, by analyzing soil bacterial community structure and microbial carbon-related functional potentials. We found an unexpected carbon loss in which soil organic carbon decreased from 22.21 g kg-1 to 10.77 g kg-1 after receding 50 years. Structural equation modeling verified the important positive impacts from bacterial community. Lower carbon fixation efficiency along the chronosequence was supported by less autotrophic bacteria and carbon fixation genes relating to the reductive tricarboxylic acid cycle. Lower carbon availability and higher carbon requirements were identified by an increasing bacterial copy number and a shift of the dominant bacterial community from Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes (r-strategists) to Actinobacteria and Acidobacteria (K-strategists). Our findings show that the carbon loss of continental glacier foreland was significantly affected by the changes of bacterial community, and can help to avoid overestimating the carbon sink characteristics of glacier forelands in climate models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiejie Zhang
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
- Sino-Danish College of University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101400, China
- Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research, Beijing, 101400, China
| | - Anzhou Ma
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Hanchang Zhou
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xianke Chen
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
- Sino-Danish College of University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101400, China
- Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research, Beijing, 101400, China
| | - Xiaorong Zhou
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Guohua Liu
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Xuliang Zhuang
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
- Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Xiang Qin
- Qilian Shan Station of Glaciology and Eco-environment, State Key Laboratory of Cryospheric Science, Northwest Institute of Eco-environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Anders Priemé
- Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-2100, Denmark
- Center for Permafrost, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, DK-1350, Denmark
| | - Guoqiang Zhuang
- Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China.
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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2
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Shabaga JA, Bracho R, Klockow PA, Lucash MS, Vogel JG. Shortened Fire Intervals Stimulate Carbon Losses from Heterotrophic Respiration and Reduce Understorey Plant Productivity in Boreal Forests. Ecosystems 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-022-00761-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AbstractFire frequency is increasing with climate warming in the boreal regions of interior Alaska, with short fire return intervals (< 50 years) becoming more common. Recent studies suggest these “reburns” will reduce the insulating surface organic layer (SOL) and seedbanks, inhibiting black spruce regeneration and increasing deciduous cover. These changes are projected to amplify soil warming, increasing mineral soil organic carbon (SOC) decomposition rates, and impair re-establishment of understorey vegetation and the SOL. We examined how reburns changed soil temperature, heterotrophic soil respiration (RH), and understorey gross primary production (GPP), and related these to shifts in vegetation composition and SOL depths. Two distinct burn complexes previously covered by spruce were measured; both included areas burned 1x, 2x, and 3x over 60 years and mature (≈ 90 year old) spruce forests underlain by permafrost. A 2.7 °C increase in annual near-surface soil temperatures from 1x to 3x burns was correlated with a decrease in SOL depths and a 1.9 Mg C ha−1 increase in annual RH efflux. However, near-surface soil warming accounted for ≤ 23% of higher RH efflux; increases in deciduous overstorey vegetation and root biomass with reburning better correlated with RH than soil temperature. Reburning also warmed deeper soils and reduced the biomass and GPP of understory plants, lessening their potential to offset elevated RH and contribute to SOL development. This suggests that reburning led to losses of mineral SOC previously stored in permafrost due to warming soils and changes in vegetation composition, illustrating how burn frequency creates pathways for accelerated regional C loss.
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Serk H, Nilsson MB, Bohlin E, Ehlers I, Wieloch T, Olid C, Grover S, Kalbitz K, Limpens J, Moore T, Münchberger W, Talbot J, Wang X, Knorr KH, Pancotto V, Schleucher J. Global CO 2 fertilization of Sphagnum peat mosses via suppression of photorespiration during the twentieth century. Sci Rep 2021; 11:24517. [PMID: 34972838 PMCID: PMC8720097 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02953-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural peatlands contribute significantly to global carbon sequestration and storage of biomass, most of which derives from Sphagnum peat mosses. Atmospheric CO2 levels have increased dramatically during the twentieth century, from 280 to > 400 ppm, which has affected plant carbon dynamics. Net carbon assimilation is strongly reduced by photorespiration, a process that depends on the CO2 to O2 ratio. Here we investigate the response of the photorespiration to photosynthesis ratio in Sphagnum mosses to recent CO2 increases by comparing deuterium isotopomers of historical and contemporary Sphagnum tissues collected from 36 peat cores from five continents. Rising CO2 levels generally suppressed photorespiration relative to photosynthesis but the magnitude of suppression depended on the current water table depth. By estimating the changes in water table depth, temperature, and precipitation during the twentieth century, we excluded potential effects of these climate parameters on the observed isotopomer responses. Further, we showed that the photorespiration to photosynthesis ratio varied between Sphagnum subgenera, indicating differences in their photosynthetic capacity. The global suppression of photorespiration in Sphagnum suggests an increased net primary production potential in response to the ongoing rise in atmospheric CO2, in particular for mire structures with intermediate water table depths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Serk
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.,Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Mats B Nilsson
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden.
| | - Elisabet Bohlin
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Ina Ehlers
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Thomas Wieloch
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Carolina Olid
- Department of Forest Ecology and Management, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden.,Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Samantha Grover
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Karsten Kalbitz
- Institute of Soil Science and Site Ecology, Dresden University of Technology, Tharandt, Germany
| | - Juul Limpens
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tim Moore
- Department of Geography, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Julie Talbot
- Department of Geography, Université de Montréal, Montreal, Canada
| | - Xianwei Wang
- Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, People's Republic of China
| | | | - Verónica Pancotto
- Centro Austral de Investigaciones Científicas (CADIC-CONICET), Ushuaia, Argentina
| | - Jürgen Schleucher
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden.
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Khedim N, Cécillon L, Poulenard J, Barré P, Baudin F, Marta S, Rabatel A, Dentant C, Cauvy‐Fraunié S, Anthelme F, Gielly L, Ambrosini R, Franzetti A, Azzoni RS, Caccianiga MS, Compostella C, Clague J, Tielidze L, Messager E, Choler P, Ficetola GF. Topsoil organic matter build-up in glacier forelands around the world. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2021; 27:1662-1677. [PMID: 33342032 PMCID: PMC8048894 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Since the last glacial maximum, soil formation related to ice-cover shrinkage has been one major sink of carbon accumulating as soil organic matter (SOM), a phenomenon accelerated by the ongoing global warming. In recently deglacierized forelands, processes of SOM accumulation, including those that control carbon and nitrogen sequestration rates and biogeochemical stability of newly sequestered carbon, remain poorly understood. Here, we investigate the build-up of SOM during the initial stages (up to 410 years) of topsoil development in 10 glacier forelands distributed on four continents. We test whether the net accumulation of SOM on glacier forelands (i) depends on the time since deglacierization and local climatic conditions (temperature and precipitation); (ii) is accompanied by a decrease in its stability and (iii) is mostly due to an increasing contribution of organic matter from plant origin. We measured total SOM concentration (carbon, nitrogen), its relative hydrogen/oxygen enrichment, stable isotopic (13 C, 15 N) and carbon functional groups (C-H, C=O, C=C) compositions, and its distribution in carbon pools of different thermal stability. We show that SOM content increases with time and is faster on forelands experiencing warmer climates. The build-up of SOM pools shows consistent trends across the studied soil chronosequences. During the first decades of soil development, the low amount of SOM is dominated by a thermally stable carbon pool with a small and highly thermolabile pool. The stability of SOM decreases with soil age at all sites, indicating that SOM storage is dominated by the accumulation of labile SOM during the first centuries of soil development, and suggesting plant carbon inputs to soil (SOM depleted in nitrogen, enriched in hydrogen and in aromatic carbon). Our findings highlight the potential vulnerability of SOM stocks from proglacial areas to decomposition and suggest that their durability largely depends on the relative contribution of carbon inputs from plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norine Khedim
- Univ. Savoie Mont‐BlancUniv. Grenoble AlpesCNRSEDYTEMChambéryFrance
- Univ. Grenoble AlpesUniv. Savoie Mont‐BlancCNRSLECAGrenobleFrance
| | - Lauric Cécillon
- Univ. NormandieUNIROUENINRAEECODIVFR Scale CNRS 3730RouenFrance
- Laboratoire de GéologieCNRSÉcole normale supérieurePSL UniversityIPSLParisFrance
| | - Jérôme Poulenard
- Univ. Savoie Mont‐BlancUniv. Grenoble AlpesCNRSEDYTEMChambéryFrance
| | - Pierre Barré
- Laboratoire de GéologieCNRSÉcole normale supérieurePSL UniversityIPSLParisFrance
| | | | - Silvio Marta
- Department of Environmental Science and PolicyUniv. of MilanMilanItaly
| | - Antoine Rabatel
- Institut des Géosciences de l'EnvironnementUMR 5001Univ. Grenoble AlpesCNRSIRDGrenobleFrance
| | | | | | | | - Ludovic Gielly
- Univ. Grenoble AlpesUniv. Savoie Mont‐BlancCNRSLECAGrenobleFrance
| | - Roberto Ambrosini
- Department of Environmental Science and PolicyUniv. of MilanMilanItaly
| | - Andrea Franzetti
- Department of Earth and Environmental ScienceUniv. of Milano BicoccaMilanItaly
| | | | | | | | - John Clague
- Department of Earth SciencesSimon Fraser UniversityBurnabyBCCanada
| | - Levan Tielidze
- Antarctic Research CentreVictoria University of WellingtonWellingtonNew Zealand
- School of GeographyEnvironment and Earth SciencesVictoria University of WellingtonWellingtonNew Zealand
| | - Erwan Messager
- Univ. Savoie Mont‐BlancUniv. Grenoble AlpesCNRSEDYTEMChambéryFrance
| | - Philippe Choler
- Univ. Grenoble AlpesUniv. Savoie Mont‐BlancCNRSLECAGrenobleFrance
| | - Gentile Francesco Ficetola
- Univ. Grenoble AlpesUniv. Savoie Mont‐BlancCNRSLECAGrenobleFrance
- Department of Environmental Science and PolicyUniv. of MilanMilanItaly
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5
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Kluber LA, Johnston ER, Allen SA, Hendershot JN, Hanson PJ, Schadt CW. Constraints on microbial communities, decomposition and methane production in deep peat deposits. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0223744. [PMID: 32027653 PMCID: PMC7004313 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Peatlands play outsized roles in the global carbon cycle. Despite occupying a rather small fraction of the terrestrial biosphere (~3%), these ecosystems account for roughly one third of the global soil carbon pool. This carbon is largely comprised of undecomposed deposits of plant material (peat) that may be meters thick. The fate of this deep carbon stockpile with ongoing and future climate change is thus of great interest and has large potential to induce positive feedback to climate warming. Recent in situ warming of an ombrotrophic peatland indicated that the deep peat microbial communities and decomposition rates were resistant to elevated temperatures. In this experiment, we sought to understand how nutrient and pH limitations may interact with temperature to limit microbial activity and community composition. Anaerobic microcosms of peat collected from 1.5 to 2 meters in depth were incubated at 6°C and 15°C with elevated pH, nitrogen (NH4Cl), and/or phosphorus (KH2PO4) in a full factorial design. The production of CO2 and CH4 was significantly greater in microcosms incubated at 15°C, although the structure of the microbial community did not differ between the two temperatures. Increasing the pH from ~3.5 to ~5.5 altered microbial community structure, however increases in CH4 production were non-significant. Contrary to expectations, N and P additions did not increase CO2 and CH4 production, indicating that nutrient availability was not a primary constraint in microbial decomposition of deep peat. Our findings indicate that temperature is a key factor limiting the decomposition of deep peat, however other factors such as the availability of O2 or alternative electron donors and high concentrations of phenolic compounds, may also exert constraints. Continued experimental peat warming studies will be necessary to assess if the deep peat carbon bank is susceptible to increased temperatures over the longer time scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel A. Kluber
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
- Climate Change Sciences Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Eric R. Johnston
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
- Climate Change Sciences Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Samantha A. Allen
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
- Climate Change Sciences Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - J. Nicholas Hendershot
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
- Climate Change Sciences Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Paul J. Hanson
- Climate Change Sciences Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
- Environmental Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
| | - Christopher W. Schadt
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
- Climate Change Sciences Institute, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, United States of America
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6
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Abstract
During the Holocene (11,600 y ago to present), northern peatlands accumulated significant C stocks over millennia. However, virtually nothing is known about peatlands that are no longer in the landscape, including ones formed prior to the Holocene: Where were they, when did they form, and why did they disappear? We used records of peatlands buried by mineral sediments for a reconstruction of peat-forming wetlands for the past 130,000 y. Northern peatlands expanded across high latitudes during warm periods and were buried during periods of glacial advance in northern latitudes. Thus, peat accumulation and burial represent a key long-term C storage mechanism in the Earth system. Glacial−interglacial variations in CO2 and methane in polar ice cores have been attributed, in part, to changes in global wetland extent, but the wetland distribution before the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 21 ka to 18 ka) remains virtually unknown. We present a study of global peatland extent and carbon (C) stocks through the last glacial cycle (130 ka to present) using a newly compiled database of 1,063 detailed stratigraphic records of peat deposits buried by mineral sediments, as well as a global peatland model. Quantitative agreement between modeling and observations shows extensive peat accumulation before the LGM in northern latitudes (>40°N), particularly during warmer periods including the last interglacial (130 ka to 116 ka, MIS 5e) and the interstadial (57 ka to 29 ka, MIS 3). During cooling periods of glacial advance and permafrost formation, the burial of northern peatlands by glaciers and mineral sediments decreased active peatland extent, thickness, and modeled C stocks by 70 to 90% from warmer times. Tropical peatland extent and C stocks show little temporal variation throughout the study period. While the increased burial of northern peats was correlated with cooling periods, the burial of tropical peat was predominately driven by changes in sea level and regional hydrology. Peat burial by mineral sediments represents a mechanism for long-term terrestrial C storage in the Earth system. These results show that northern peatlands accumulate significant C stocks during warmer times, indicating their potential for C sequestration during the warming Anthropocene.
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Andrieux B, Beguin J, Bergeron Y, Grondin P, Paré D. Drivers of postfire soil organic carbon accumulation in the boreal forest. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2018; 24:4797-4815. [PMID: 29963722 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.14365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The accumulation of soil carbon (C) is regulated by a complex interplay between abiotic and biotic factors. Our study aimed to identify the main drivers of soil C accumulation in the boreal forest of eastern North America. Ecosystem C pools were measured in 72 sites of fire origin that burned 2-314 years ago over a vast region with a range of ∆ mean annual temperature of 3°C and one of ∆ 500 mm total precipitation. We used a set of multivariate a priori causal hypotheses to test the influence of time since fire (TSF), climate, soil physico-chemistry and bryophyte dominance on forest soil organic C accumulation. Integrating the direct and indirect effects among abiotic and biotic variables explained as much as 50% of the full model variability. The main direct drivers of soil C stocks were: TSF >bryophyte dominance of the FH layer and metal oxide content >pH of the mineral soil. Only climate parameters related to water availability contributed significantly to explaining soil C stock variation. Importantly, climate was found to affect FH layer and mineral soil C stocks indirectly through its effects on bryophyte dominance and organo-metal complexation, respectively. Soil texture had no influence on soil C stocks. Soil C stocks increased both in the FH layer and mineral soil with TSF and this effect was linked to a decrease in pH with TSF in mineral soil. TSF thus appears to be an important factor of soil development and of C sequestration in mineral soil through its influence on soil chemistry. Overall, this work highlights that integrating the complex interplay between the main drivers of soil C stocks into mechanistic models of C dynamics could improve our ability to assess C stocks and better anticipate the response of the boreal forest to global change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Andrieux
- NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, Forest Research Institute, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada
- Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Julien Beguin
- Canadian Wood Fibre Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - Yves Bergeron
- NSERC-UQAT-UQAM Industrial Chair in Sustainable Forest Management, Forest Research Institute, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada
| | - Pierre Grondin
- Direction de la recherche forestière, Ministère des Forêts, de la Faune et des Parcs du Québéc, Québec, QC, Canada
| | - David Paré
- Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, Canada
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Extensive loss of past permafrost carbon but a net accumulation into present-day soils. Nature 2018; 560:219-222. [PMID: 30069043 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-018-0371-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide increased between the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, around 21,000 years ago) and the preindustrial era1. It is thought that the evolution of this atmospheric carbon dioxide (and that of atmospheric methane) during the glacial-to-interglacial transition was influenced by organic carbon that was stored in permafrost during the LGM and then underwent decomposition and release following thaw2,3. It has also been suggested that the rather erratic atmospheric δ13C and ∆14C signals seen during deglaciation1,4 could partly be explained by the presence of a large terrestrial inert LGM carbon stock, despite the biosphere being less productive (and therefore storing less carbon)5,6. Here we present an empirically derived estimate of the carbon stored in permafrost during the LGM by reconstructing the extent and carbon content of LGM biomes, peatland regions and deep sedimentary deposits. We find that the total estimated soil carbon stock for the LGM northern permafrost region is smaller than the estimated present-day storage (in both permafrost and non-permafrost soils) for the same region. A substantial decrease in the permafrost area from the LGM to the present day has been accompanied by a roughly 400-petagram increase in the total soil carbon stock. This increase in soil carbon suggests that permafrost carbon has made no net contribution to the atmospheric carbon pool since the LGM. However, our results also indicate potential postglacial reductions in the portion of the carbon stock that is trapped in permafrost, of around 1,000 petagrams, supporting earlier studies7. We further find that carbon has shifted from being primarily stored in permafrost mineral soils and loess deposits during the LGM, to being roughly equally divided between peatlands, mineral soils and permafrost loess deposits today.
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Delgado-Baquerizo M, Eldridge DJ, Maestre FT, Karunaratne SB, Trivedi P, Reich PB, Singh BK. Response to comment on "Climate legacies drive global soil carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystem". SCIENCE ADVANCES 2018; 4:eaat1296. [PMID: 29546246 PMCID: PMC5851665 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aat1296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The technical comment from Sanderman provides a unique opportunity to deepen our understanding of the mechanisms explaining the role of paleoclimate in the contemporary distribution of global soil C content, as reported in our article. Sanderman argues that the role of paleoclimate in predicting soil C content might be accounted for by using slowly changing soil properties as predictors. This is a key point that we highlighted in the supplementary materials of our article, which demonstrated, to the degree possible given available data, that soil properties alone cannot account for the unique portion of the variation in soil C explained by paleoclimate. Sanderman also raised an interesting question about how paleoclimate might explain the contemporary amount of C in our soils if such a C is relatively new, particularly in the topsoil layer. There is one relatively simple, yet plausible, reason. A soil with a higher amount of C, a consequence of accumulation over millennia, might promote higher contemporary C fixation rates, leading to a higher amount of new C in our soils. Thus, paleoclimate can be a good predictor of the amount of soil C in soil, but not necessarily of its age. In summary, Sanderman did not question the validity of our results but rather provides an alternative potential mechanistic explanation for the conclusion of our original article, that is, that paleoclimate explains a unique portion of the global variation of soil C content that cannot be accounted for by current climate, vegetation attributes, or soil properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Delgado-Baquerizo
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Escuela Superior de Ciencias Experimentales y Tecnología, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Calle Tulipán Sin Número, Móstoles 28933, Spain
| | - David J. Eldridge
- Centre for Ecosystem Science, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Fernando T. Maestre
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Escuela Superior de Ciencias Experimentales y Tecnología, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Calle Tulipán Sin Número, Móstoles 28933, Spain
| | - Senani B. Karunaratne
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Building L9, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
| | - Pankaj Trivedi
- Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Peter B. Reich
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Building L9, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Brajesh K. Singh
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Building L9, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Global Centre for Land Based Innovation, University of Western Sydney, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
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10
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Genet H, He Y, Lyu Z, McGuire AD, Zhuang Q, Clein J, D'Amore D, Bennett A, Breen A, Biles F, Euskirchen ES, Johnson K, Kurkowski T, Kushch Schroder S, Pastick N, Rupp TS, Wylie B, Zhang Y, Zhou X, Zhu Z. The role of driving factors in historical and projected carbon dynamics of upland ecosystems in Alaska. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2018; 28:5-27. [PMID: 29044791 DOI: 10.1002/eap.1641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
It is important to understand how upland ecosystems of Alaska, which are estimated to occupy 84% of the state (i.e., 1,237,774 km2 ), are influencing and will influence state-wide carbon (C) dynamics in the face of ongoing climate change. We coupled fire disturbance and biogeochemical models to assess the relative effects of changing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2 ), climate, logging and fire regimes on the historical and future C balance of upland ecosystems for the four main Landscape Conservation Cooperatives (LCCs) of Alaska. At the end of the historical period (1950-2009) of our analysis, we estimate that upland ecosystems of Alaska store ~50 Pg C (with ~90% of the C in soils), and gained 3.26 Tg C/yr. Three of the LCCs had gains in total ecosystem C storage, while the Northwest Boreal LCC lost C (-6.01 Tg C/yr) because of increases in fire activity. Carbon exports from logging affected only the North Pacific LCC and represented less than 1% of the state's net primary production (NPP). The analysis for the future time period (2010-2099) consisted of six simulations driven by climate outputs from two climate models for three emission scenarios. Across the climate scenarios, total ecosystem C storage increased between 19.5 and 66.3 Tg C/yr, which represents 3.4% to 11.7% increase in Alaska upland's storage. We conducted additional simulations to attribute these responses to environmental changes. This analysis showed that atmospheric CO2 fertilization was the main driver of ecosystem C balance. By comparing future simulations with constant and with increasing atmospheric CO2 , we estimated that the sensitivity of NPP was 4.8% per 100 ppmv, but NPP becomes less sensitive to CO2 increase throughout the 21st century. Overall, our analyses suggest that the decreasing CO2 sensitivity of NPP and the increasing sensitivity of heterotrophic respiration to air temperature, in addition to the increase in C loss from wildfires weakens the C sink from upland ecosystems of Alaska and will ultimately lead to a source of CO2 to the atmosphere beyond 2100. Therefore, we conclude that the increasing regional C sink we estimate for the 21st century will most likely be transitional.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Genet
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775, USA
| | - Yujie He
- Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, USA
| | - Zhou Lyu
- Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, USA
| | - A David McGuire
- U.S. Geological Survey, Alaska Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775, USA
| | - Qianlai Zhuang
- Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, 47907, USA
| | - Joy Clein
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775, USA
| | - David D'Amore
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Juneau, Alaska, 99801, USA
| | - Alec Bennett
- Scenarios Network for Alaska and Arctic Planning, International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775, USA
| | - Amy Breen
- Scenarios Network for Alaska and Arctic Planning, International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775, USA
| | - Frances Biles
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Juneau, Alaska, 99801, USA
| | - Eugénie S Euskirchen
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775, USA
| | - Kristofer Johnson
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, 19073, USA
| | - Tom Kurkowski
- Scenarios Network for Alaska and Arctic Planning, International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775, USA
| | - Svetlana Kushch Schroder
- School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 98195, USA
| | - Neal Pastick
- Stinger Ghaffarian Technologies Inc., contractor to the U.S. Geological Survey, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, 57198, USA
- Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, 55108, USA
| | - T Scott Rupp
- Scenarios Network for Alaska and Arctic Planning, International Arctic Research Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, Alaska, 99775, USA
| | - Bruce Wylie
- U.S. Geological Survey, The Earth Resources Observation Systems Center, Sioux Falls, South Dakota, 57198, USA
| | | | - Xiaoping Zhou
- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon, 97208, USA
| | - Zhiliang Zhu
- U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia, 12201, USA
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Delgado-Baquerizo M, Eldridge DJ, Maestre FT, Karunaratne SB, Trivedi P, Reich PB, Singh BK. Climate legacies drive global soil carbon stocks in terrestrial ecosystems. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2017; 3:e1602008. [PMID: 28439540 PMCID: PMC5389782 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1602008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/14/2017] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Climatic conditions shift gradually over millennia, altering the rates at which carbon (C) is fixed from the atmosphere and stored in the soil. However, legacy impacts of past climates on current soil C stocks are poorly understood. We used data from more than 5000 terrestrial sites from three global and regional data sets to identify the relative importance of current and past (Last Glacial Maximum and mid-Holocene) climatic conditions in regulating soil C stocks in natural and agricultural areas. Paleoclimate always explained a greater amount of the variance in soil C stocks than current climate at regional and global scales. Our results indicate that climatic legacies help determine global soil C stocks in terrestrial ecosystems where agriculture is highly dependent on current climatic conditions. Our findings emphasize the importance of considering how climate legacies influence soil C content, allowing us to improve quantitative predictions of global C stocks under different climatic scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Delgado-Baquerizo
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Building L9, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - David J. Eldridge
- Centre for Ecosystem Science, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Fernando T. Maestre
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Escuela Superior de Ciencias Experimentales y Tecnología, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Calle Tulipán Sin Número, Móstoles 28933, Spain
| | - Senani B. Karunaratne
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Building L9, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
| | - Pankaj Trivedi
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Building L9, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Department of Bioagricultural Sciences and Pest Management, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Peter B. Reich
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Building L9, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Brajesh K. Singh
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, University of Western Sydney, Building L9, Locked Bag 1797, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
- Global Centre for Land Based Innovation, University of Western Sydney, Penrith South, New South Wales 2751, Australia
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12
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He Y, Trumbore SE, Torn MS, Harden JW, Vaughn LJS, Allison SD, Randerson JT. Radiocarbon constraints imply reduced carbon uptake by soils during the 21st century. Science 2016; 353:1419-1424. [DOI: 10.1126/science.aad4273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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13
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Williams CJ, Yavitt JB. Botanical composition of peat and degree of peat decomposition in three temperate peatlands. ECOSCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/11956860.2003.11682755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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14
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Peng F, You Q, Xu M, Guo J, Wang T, Xue X. Effects of warming and clipping on ecosystem carbon fluxes across two hydrologically contrasting years in an alpine meadow of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109319. [PMID: 25291187 PMCID: PMC4188580 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 08/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Responses of ecosystem carbon (C) fluxes to human disturbance and climatic warming will affect terrestrial ecosystem C storage and feedback to climate change. We conducted a manipulative experiment to investigate the effects of warming and clipping on soil respiration (Rs), ecosystem respiration (ER), net ecosystem exchange (NEE) and gross ecosystem production (GEP) in an alpine meadow in a permafrost region during two hydrologically contrasting years (2012, with 29.9% higher precipitation than the long-term mean, and 2013, with 18.9% lower precipitation than the long-tem mean). Our results showed that GEP was higher than ER, leading to a net C sink (measured by NEE) over the two growing seasons. Warming significantly stimulated ecosystem C fluxes in 2012 but did not significantly affect these fluxes in 2013. On average, the warming-induced increase in GEP (1.49 µ mol m−2s−1) was higher than in ER (0.80 µ mol m−2s−1), resulting in an increase in NEE (0.70 µ mol m−2s−1). Clipping and its interaction with warming had no significant effects on C fluxes, whereas clipping significantly reduced aboveground biomass (AGB) by 51.5 g m−2 in 2013. These results suggest the response of C fluxes to warming and clipping depends on hydrological variations. In the wet year, the warming treatment caused a reduction in water, but increases in soil temperature and AGB contributed to the positive response of ecosystem C fluxes to warming. In the dry year, the reduction in soil moisture, caused by warming, and the reduction in AGB, caused by clipping, were compensated by higher soil temperatures in warmed plots. Our findings highlight the importance of changes in soil moisture in mediating the responses of ecosystem C fluxes to climate warming in an alpine meadow ecosystem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Peng
- Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- * E-mail: (FP); (XX)
| | - Quangang You
- Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Manhou Xu
- Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Jian Guo
- Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xian Xue
- Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- * E-mail: (FP); (XX)
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15
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Belshe EF, Schuur EAG, Bolker BM. Tundra ecosystems observed to be CO2sources due to differential amplification of the carbon cycle. Ecol Lett 2013; 16:1307-15. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.12164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Revised: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. F. Belshe
- Department of Biology; University of Florida; Gainesville FL 32611 USA
| | - E. A. G. Schuur
- Department of Biology; University of Florida; Gainesville FL 32611 USA
| | - B. M. Bolker
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics; McMaster University; Hamilton ON L8S 4K1 USA
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16
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Yuan FM, Yi SH, McGuire AD, Johnson KD, Liang J, Harden JW, Kasischke ES, Kurz WA. Assessment of boreal forest historical C dynamics in the Yukon River Basin: relative roles of warming and fire regime change. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2012; 22:2091-2109. [PMID: 23387112 DOI: 10.1890/11-1957.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Carbon (C) dynamics of boreal forest ecosystems have substantial implications for efforts to mitigate the rise of atmospheric CO2 and may be substantially influenced by warming and changing wildfire regimes. In this study we applied a large-scale ecosystem model that included dynamics of organic soil horizons and soil organic matter characteristics of multiple pools to assess forest C stock changes of the Yukon River Basin (YRB) in Alaska, USA, and Canada from 1960 through 2006, a period characterized by substantial climate warming and increases in wildfire. The model was calibrated for major forests with data from long-term research sites and evaluated using a forest inventory database. The regional assessment indicates that forest vegetation C storage increased by 46 Tg C, but that total soil C storage did not change appreciably during this period. However, further analysis suggests that C has been continuously lost from the mineral soil horizon since warming began in the 1970s, but has increased in the amorphous organic soil horizon. Based on a factorial experiment, soil C stocks would have increased by 158 Tg C if the YRB had not undergone warming and changes in fire regime. The analysis also identified that warming and changes in fire regime were approximately equivalent in their effects on soil C storage, and interactions between these two suggests that the loss of organic horizon thickness associated with increases in wildfire made deeper soil C stocks more vulnerable to loss via decomposition. Subbasin analyses indicate that C stock changes were primarily sensitive to the fraction of burned forest area within each subbasin and that boreal forest ecosystems in the YRB are currently transitioning from being sinks to sources at -0.7% annual area burned. We conclude that it is important for international mitigation efforts focused on controlling atmospheric CO2 to consider how climate warming and changes in fire regime may concurrently affect the CO2 sink strength of boreal forests. It is also important for large-scale biogeochemical and earth system models to include organic soil dynamics in applications to assess regional C dynamics of boreal forests responding to warming and changes in fire regime.
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Affiliation(s)
- F M Yuan
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska 99775, USA.
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17
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Organic carbon transformations in high-Arctic peat soils: key functions and microorganisms. ISME JOURNAL 2012; 7:299-311. [PMID: 22955232 PMCID: PMC3554415 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2012.99] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A substantial part of the Earths' soil organic carbon (SOC) is stored in Arctic permafrost peatlands, which represent large potential sources for increased emissions of the greenhouse gases CH4 and CO2 in a warming climate. The microbial communities and their genetic repertoire involved in the breakdown and mineralisation of SOC in these soils are, however, poorly understood. In this study, we applied a combined metagenomic and metatranscriptomic approach on two Arctic peat soils to investigate the identity and the gene pool of the microbiota driving the SOC degradation in the seasonally thawed active layers. A large and diverse set of genes encoding plant polymer-degrading enzymes was found, comparable to microbiotas from temperate and subtropical soils. This indicates that the metabolic potential for SOC degradation in Arctic peat is not different from that of other climatic zones. The majority of these genes were assigned to three bacterial phyla, Actinobacteria, Verrucomicrobia and Bacteroidetes. Anaerobic metabolic pathways and the fraction of methanogenic archaea increased with peat depth, evident for a gradual transition from aerobic to anaerobic lifestyles. A population of CH4-oxidising bacteria closely related to Methylobacter tundripaludum was the dominating active group of methanotrophs. Based on the in-depth characterisation of the microbes and their genes, we conclude that these Arctic peat soils will turn into CO2 sources owing to increased active layer depth and prolonged growing season. However, the extent of future CH4 emissions will critically depend on the response of the methanotrophic bacteria.
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18
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Glaser PH, Volin JC, Givnish TJ, Hansen BCS, Stricker CA. Carbon and sediment accumulation in the Everglades (USA) during the past 4000 years: Rates, drivers, and sources of error. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.1029/2011jg001821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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19
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Measuring Soil Erosion Rates Using Natural (7Be, 210Pb) and Anthropogenic (137Cs, 239,240Pu) Radionuclides. ADVANCES IN ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-10637-8_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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20
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The Effects of Permafrost Thaw on Soil Hydrologic, Thermal, and Carbon Dynamics in an Alaskan Peatland. Ecosystems 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-011-9504-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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21
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Grosse G, Harden J, Turetsky M, McGuire AD, Camill P, Tarnocai C, Frolking S, Schuur EAG, Jorgenson T, Marchenko S, Romanovsky V, Wickland KP, French N, Waldrop M, Bourgeau-Chavez L, Striegl RG. Vulnerability of high-latitude soil organic carbon in North America to disturbance. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jg001507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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22
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Carbon loss from an unprecedented Arctic tundra wildfire. Nature 2011; 475:489-92. [DOI: 10.1038/nature10283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 313] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2010] [Accepted: 06/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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23
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Harmon ME, Bond-Lamberty B, Tang J, Vargas R. Heterotrophic respiration in disturbed forests: A review with examples from North America. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jg001495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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24
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Peltzer DA, Wardle DA, Allison VJ, Baisden WT, Bardgett RD, Chadwick OA, Condron LM, Parfitt RL, Porder S, Richardson SJ, Turner BL, Vitousek PM, Walker J, Walker LR. Understanding ecosystem retrogression. ECOL MONOGR 2010. [DOI: 10.1890/09-1552.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 308] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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25
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Gudasz C, Bastviken D, Steger K, Premke K, Sobek S, Tranvik LJ. Temperature-controlled organic carbon mineralization in lake sediments. Nature 2010; 466:478-81. [PMID: 20651689 DOI: 10.1038/nature09186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2009] [Accepted: 05/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Peatlands, soils and the ocean floor are well-recognized as sites of organic carbon accumulation and represent important global carbon sinks. Although the annual burial of organic carbon in lakes and reservoirs exceeds that of ocean sediments, these inland waters are components of the global carbon cycle that receive only limited attention. Of the organic carbon that is being deposited onto the sediments, a certain proportion will be mineralized and the remainder will be buried over geological timescales. Here we assess the relationship between sediment organic carbon mineralization and temperature in a cross-system survey of boreal lakes in Sweden, and with input from a compilation of published data from a wide range of lakes that differ with respect to climate, productivity and organic carbon source. We find that the mineralization of organic carbon in lake sediments exhibits a strongly positive relationship with temperature, which suggests that warmer water temperatures lead to more mineralization and less organic carbon burial. Assuming that future organic carbon delivery to the lake sediments will be similar to that under present-day conditions, we estimate that temperature increases following the latest scenarios presented by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change could result in a 4-27 per cent (0.9-6.4 Tg C yr(-1)) decrease in annual organic carbon burial in boreal lakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristian Gudasz
- Limnology, Department of Ecology and Evolution, Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18D, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Abstract
Northern peatlands represent one of the largest biospheric carbon (C) reservoirs; however, the role of peatlands in the global carbon cycle remains intensely debated, owing in part to the paucity of detailed regional datasets and the complexity of the role of climate, ecosystem processes, and environmental factors in controlling peatland C dynamics. Here we used detailed C accumulation data from four peatlands and a compilation of peatland initiation ages across Alaska to examine Holocene peatland dynamics and climate sensitivity. We find that 75% of dated peatlands in Alaska initiated before 8,600 years ago and that early Holocene C accumulation rates were four times higher than the rest of the Holocene. Similar rapid peatland expansion occurred in West Siberia during the Holocene thermal maximum (HTM). Our results suggest that high summer temperature and strong seasonality during the HTM in Alaska might have played a major role in causing the highest rates of C accumulation and peatland expansion. The rapid peatland expansion and C accumulation in these vast regions contributed significantly to the peak of atmospheric methane concentrations in the early Holocene. Furthermore, we find that Alaskan peatlands began expanding much earlier than peatlands in other regions, indicating an important contribution of these peatlands to the pre-Holocene increase in atmospheric methane concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam C Jones
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA 18015, USA.
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27
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Vogel J, Schuur EAG, Trucco C, Lee H. Response of CO2exchange in a tussock tundra ecosystem to permafrost thaw and thermokarst development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1029/2008jg000901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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28
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McGuire AD, Anderson LG, Christensen TR, Dallimore S, Guo L, Hayes DJ, Heimann M, Lorenson TD, Macdonald RW, Roulet N. Sensitivity of the carbon cycle in the Arctic to climate change. ECOL MONOGR 2009. [DOI: 10.1890/08-2025.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 725] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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29
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Schuur EAG, Vogel JG, Crummer KG, Lee H, Sickman JO, Osterkamp TE. The effect of permafrost thaw on old carbon release and net carbon exchange from tundra. Nature 2009; 459:556-9. [PMID: 19478781 DOI: 10.1038/nature08031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 278] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2008] [Accepted: 03/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Permafrost soils in boreal and Arctic ecosystems store almost twice as much carbon as is currently present in the atmosphere. Permafrost thaw and the microbial decomposition of previously frozen organic carbon is considered one of the most likely positive climate feedbacks from terrestrial ecosystems to the atmosphere in a warmer world. The rate of carbon release from permafrost soils is highly uncertain, but it is crucial for predicting the strength and timing of this carbon-cycle feedback effect, and thus how important permafrost thaw will be for climate change this century and beyond. Sustained transfers of carbon to the atmosphere that could cause a significant positive feedback to climate change must come from old carbon, which forms the bulk of the permafrost carbon pool that accumulated over thousands of years. Here we measure net ecosystem carbon exchange and the radiocarbon age of ecosystem respiration in a tundra landscape undergoing permafrost thaw to determine the influence of old carbon loss on ecosystem carbon balance. We find that areas that thawed over the past 15 years had 40 per cent more annual losses of old carbon than minimally thawed areas, but had overall net ecosystem carbon uptake as increased plant growth offset these losses. In contrast, areas that thawed decades earlier lost even more old carbon, a 78 per cent increase over minimally thawed areas; this old carbon loss contributed to overall net ecosystem carbon release despite increased plant growth. Our data document significant losses of soil carbon with permafrost thaw that, over decadal timescales, overwhelms increased plant carbon uptake at rates that could make permafrost a large biospheric carbon source in a warmer world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward A G Schuur
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.
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30
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O’Donnell JA, Turetsky MR, Harden JW, Manies KL, Pruett LE, Shetler G, Neff JC. Interactive Effects of Fire, Soil Climate, and Moss on CO2 Fluxes in Black Spruce Ecosystems of Interior Alaska. Ecosystems 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-008-9206-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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31
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Horwath JL, Sletten RS, Hagedorn B, Hallet B. Spatial and temporal distribution of soil organic carbon in nonsorted striped patterned ground of the High Arctic. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1029/2007jg000511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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32
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Fire as the dominant driver of central Canadian boreal forest carbon balance. Nature 2007; 450:89-92. [DOI: 10.1038/nature06272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 377] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2006] [Accepted: 09/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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33
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Czimczik CI, Trumbore SE. Short-term controls on the age of microbial carbon sources in boreal forest soils. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jg000389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia I. Czimczik
- Department of Earth System Science; University of California; Irvine California USA
| | - Susan E. Trumbore
- Department of Earth System Science; University of California; Irvine California USA
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34
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Rhew RC, Teh YA, Abel T. Methyl halide and methane fluxes in the northern Alaskan coastal tundra. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007. [DOI: 10.1029/2006jg000314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Cole JJ, Prairie YT, Caraco NF, McDowell WH, Tranvik LJ, Striegl RG, Duarte CM, Kortelainen P, Downing JA, Middelburg JJ, Melack J. Plumbing the Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating Inland Waters into the Terrestrial Carbon Budget. Ecosystems 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-006-9013-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1711] [Impact Index Per Article: 100.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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36
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Smittenberg RH, Eglinton TI, Schouten S, Damsté JSS. Ongoing buildup of refractory organic carbon in boreal soils during the Holocene. Science 2006; 314:1283-6. [PMID: 17124318 DOI: 10.1126/science.1129376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Radiocarbon ages of vascular plant wax-derived n-alkanes preserved in well-dated Holocene sediments in an anoxic fjord (Saanich Inlet, Canada) were found to be not only substantially older than the depositional age but increasingly so during the Holocene. Assuming that n-alkanes serve as a proxy for recalcitrant terrigenous organic matter, this indicates that the accumulation of refractory organic carbon in soils that developed after the deglaciation of the American Pacific Northwest is ongoing and may still be far from equilibrium with mineralization and erosion rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- R H Smittenberg
- Department of Marine Biogeochemistry and Toxicology, Royal Netherlands Institute of Sea Research, Post Office Box 59, 1790 AB, Den Burg, Netherlands.
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Carrasco JJ, Neff JC, Harden JW. Modeling physical and biogeochemical controls over carbon accumulation in a boreal forest soil. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1029/2005jg000087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J. Carrasco
- U.S. Geological Survey; Menlo Park California USA
- Geological Sciences Department; University of Colorado; Boulder Colorado USA
| | - Jason C. Neff
- Geological Sciences Department; University of Colorado; Boulder Colorado USA
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Smith LC, MacDonald GM, Velichko AA, Beilman DW, Borisova OK, Frey KE, Kremenetski KV, Sheng Y. Siberian Peatlands a Net Carbon Sink and Global Methane Source Since the Early Holocene. Science 2004; 303:353-6. [PMID: 14726587 DOI: 10.1126/science.1090553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 318] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Interpolar methane gradient (IPG) data from ice cores suggest the "switching on" of a major Northern Hemisphere methane source in the early Holocene. Extensive data from Russia's West Siberian Lowland show (i) explosive, widespread peatland establishment between 11.5 and 9 thousand years ago, predating comparable development in North America and synchronous with increased atmospheric methane concentrations and IPGs, (ii) larger carbon stocks than previously thought (70.2 Petagrams, up to approximately 26% of all terrestrial carbon accumulated since the Last Glacial Maximum), and (iii) little evidence for catastrophic oxidation, suggesting the region represents a long-term carbon dioxide sink and global methane source since the early Holocene.
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Affiliation(s)
- L C Smith
- Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1524, USA.
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39
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O'Neill KP. Seasonal and decadal patterns of soil carbon uptake and emission along an age sequence of burned black spruce stands in interior Alaska. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2001jd000443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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40
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Dioumaeva I, Trumbore S, Schuur EAG, Goulden ML, Litvak M, Hirsch AI. Decomposition of peat from upland boreal forest: Temperature dependence and sources of respired carbon. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2002. [DOI: 10.1029/2001jd000848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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41
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Schimel DS, House JI, Hibbard KA, Bousquet P, Ciais P, Peylin P, Braswell BH, Apps MJ, Baker D, Bondeau A, Canadell J, Churkina G, Cramer W, Denning AS, Field CB, Friedlingstein P, Goodale C, Heimann M, Houghton RA, Melillo JM, Moore B, Murdiyarso D, Noble I, Pacala SW, Prentice IC, Raupach MR, Rayner PJ, Scholes RJ, Steffen WL, Wirth C. Recent patterns and mechanisms of carbon exchange by terrestrial ecosystems. Nature 2001; 414:169-72. [PMID: 11700548 DOI: 10.1038/35102500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 959] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge of carbon exchange between the atmosphere, land and the oceans is important, given that the terrestrial and marine environments are currently absorbing about half of the carbon dioxide that is emitted by fossil-fuel combustion. This carbon uptake is therefore limiting the extent of atmospheric and climatic change, but its long-term nature remains uncertain. Here we provide an overview of the current state of knowledge of global and regional patterns of carbon exchange by terrestrial ecosystems. Atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen data confirm that the terrestrial biosphere was largely neutral with respect to net carbon exchange during the 1980s, but became a net carbon sink in the 1990s. This recent sink can be largely attributed to northern extratropical areas, and is roughly split between North America and Eurasia. Tropical land areas, however, were approximately in balance with respect to carbon exchange, implying a carbon sink that offset emissions due to tropical deforestation. The evolution of the terrestrial carbon sink is largely the result of changes in land use over time, such as regrowth on abandoned agricultural land and fire prevention, in addition to responses to environmental changes, such as longer growing seasons, and fertilization by carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Nevertheless, there remain considerable uncertainties as to the magnitude of the sink in different regions and the contribution of different processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Schimel
- Max Planck Institute für Biogeochemie, Jena, Germany.
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42
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Hobbie SE, Schimel JP, Trumbore SE, Randerson JR. Controls over carbon storage and turnover in high-latitude soils. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2000; 6:196-210. [PMID: 35026936 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2486.2000.06021.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Despite the importance of Arctic and boreal regions in the present carbon cycle, estimates of annual high-latitude carbon fluxes vary in sign and magnitude. Without accurate estimates of current carbon fluxes from Arctic and boreal ecosystems, predicting the response of these systems to global change is daunting. A number of factors control carbon turnover in high-latitude soils, but because they are unique to northern systems, they are mostly ignored by biogeochemical models used to predict the response of these systems to global change. Here, we review those factors. First, many northern systems are dominated by mosses, whose extremely slow decomposition is not predicted by commonly used indices of litter quality. Second, cold temperature, permafrost, waterlogging, and substrate quality interact to stabilize soil organic matter, but the relative importance of these factors, and how they respond to climate change, is unknown. Third, recent evidence suggests that biological activity occurring over winter can contribute significantly to annual soil carbon fluxes. However, the controls over this winter activity remain poorly understood. Finally, processes at the landscape scale, such as fire, permafrost dynamics, and drainage, control regional carbon fluxes, complicating the extrapolation of site-level measurements to regional scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Hobbie
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, 100 Ecology Bldg, 1987 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN 55108
| | - Joshua P Schimel
- Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106
| | - Susan E Trumbore
- Geochemistry Department, University of California, Irvine, CA 92717-3100
| | - James R Randerson
- Center for Atmospheric Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94702, Institute for Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
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Harden JW, Trumbore SE, Stocks BJ, Hirsch A, Gower ST, O'neill KP, Kasischke ES. The role of fire in the boreal carbon budget. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2000; 6:174-184. [PMID: 35026928 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2486.2000.06019.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
To reconcile observations of decomposition rates, carbon inventories, and net primary production (NPP), we estimated long-term averages for C exchange in boreal forests near Thompson, Manitoba. Soil drainage as defined by water table, moss cover, and permafrost dynamics, is the dominant control on direct fire emissions. In upland forests, an average of about 10-30% of annual NPP was likely consumed by fire over the past 6500 years since these landforms and ecosystems were established. This long-term, average fire emission is much larger than has been accounted for in global C cycle models and may forecast an increase in fire activity for this region. While over decadal to century times these boreal forests may be acting as slight net sinks for C from the atmosphere to land, periods of drought and severe fire activity may result in net sources of C from these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Harden
- U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Rd., ms 962, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - S E Trumbore
- Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - B J Stocks
- Natural Resources Canada, 1219 Queen St. E. Ste. St. Marie, Ontario, Canada
| | - A Hirsch
- Department of Earth System Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - S T Gower
- Forest Ecosystem Ecology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - K P O'neill
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC 27706, USA
| | - E S Kasischke
- ERIM International, PO Box 134008 Ann Arbor, MI 481103-4008, USA
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Smith LC, MacDonald GA, Frey KE, Velichko A, Kremenetski K, Borisova O, Dubinin P, Forster RR. U.S.-Russia venture probes Siberian peatlands' sensitivity to climate. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2000. [DOI: 10.1029/00eo00357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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45
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Richter DD, O’Neill KP, Kasischke ES. Postfire Stimulation of Microbial Decomposition in Black Spruce (Picea mariana L.) Forest Soils: A Hypothesis. ECOLOGICAL STUDIES 2000. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-21629-4_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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46
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Trumbore SE, Bubier JL, Harden JW, Crill PM. Carbon cycling in boreal wetlands: A comparison of three approaches. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1029/1999jd900433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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47
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Bubier JL, Frolking S, Crill PM, Linder E. Net ecosystem productivity and its uncertainty in a diverse boreal peatland. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1029/1999jd900219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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48
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Sellers PJ, Hall FG, Kelly RD, Black A, Baldocchi D, Berry J, Ryan M, Ranson KJ, Crill PM, Lettenmaier DP, Margolis H, Cihlar J, Newcomer J, Fitzjarrald D, Jarvis PG, Gower ST, Halliwell D, Williams D, Goodison B, Wickland DE, Guertin FE. BOREAS in 1997: Experiment overview, scientific results, and future directions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1029/97jd03300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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49
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Harden JW, O'Neill KP, Trumbore SE, Veldhuis H, Stocks BJ. Moss and soil contributions to the annual net carbon flux of a maturing boreal forest. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1029/97jd02237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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50
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Trumbore SE, Harden JW. Accumulation and turnover of carbon in organic and mineral soils of the BOREAS northern study area. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1997. [DOI: 10.1029/97jd02231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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