1
|
Chen W, Zou R, Mei Y, Li J, Xuan Y, Cui B, Zou J, Wang J, Lin S, Zhang Z, Wang C. Structural insights into drug transport by an aquaglyceroporin. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3985. [PMID: 38734677 PMCID: PMC11088622 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48445-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Pentamidine and melarsoprol are primary drugs used to treat the lethal human sleeping sickness caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Cross-resistance to these two drugs has recently been linked to aquaglyceroporin 2 of the trypanosome (TbAQP2). TbAQP2 is the first member of the aquaporin family described as capable of drug transport; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we present cryo-electron microscopy structures of TbAQP2 bound to pentamidine or melarsoprol. Our structural studies, together with the molecular dynamic simulations, reveal the mechanisms shaping substrate specificity and drug permeation. Multiple amino acids in TbAQP2, near the extracellular entrance and inside the pore, create an expanded conducting tunnel, sterically and energetically allowing the permeation of pentamidine and melarsoprol. Our study elucidates the mechanism of drug transport by TbAQP2, providing valuable insights to inform the design of drugs against trypanosomiasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wanbiao Chen
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China
| | - Rongfeng Zou
- Shenzhen Jingtai Technology Co., Ltd. (XtalPi), Shenzhen, 518000, China
| | - Yi Mei
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Anesthesia and Analgesia Application Technology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China
| | - Jiawei Li
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, 518110, China
| | - Yumi Xuan
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China
| | - Bing Cui
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China
- School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Junjie Zou
- Shenzhen Jingtai Technology Co., Ltd. (XtalPi), Shenzhen, 518000, China
| | - Juncheng Wang
- Advanced Medical Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Shaoquan Lin
- Centre for Polymers in Medicine, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Shenzhen, 581055, China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China.
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Anesthesia and Analgesia Application Technology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China.
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China.
| | - Chongyuan Wang
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ungogo MA, de Koning HP. Drug resistance in animal trypanosomiases: Epidemiology, mechanisms and control strategies. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2024; 25:100533. [PMID: 38555795 PMCID: PMC10990905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2024.100533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Animal trypanosomiasis (AT) is a complex of veterinary diseases known under various names such as nagana, surra, dourine and mal de caderas, depending on the country, the infecting trypanosome species and the host. AT is caused by parasites of the genus Trypanosoma, and the main species infecting domesticated animals are T. brucei brucei, T. b. rhodesiense, T. congolense, T. simiae, T. vivax, T. evansi and T. equiperdum. AT transmission, again depending on species, is through tsetse flies or common Stomoxys and tabanid flies or through copulation. Therefore, the geographical spread of all forms of AT together is not restricted to the habitat of a single vector like the tsetse fly and currently includes almost all of Africa, and most of South America and Asia. The disease is a threat to millions of companion and farm animals in these regions, creating a financial burden in the billions of dollars to developing economies as well as serious impacts on livestock rearing and food production. Despite the scale of these impacts, control of AT is neglected and under-resourced, with diagnosis and treatments being woefully inadequate and not improving for decades. As a result, neither the incidence of the disease, nor the effectiveness of treatment is documented in most endemic countries, although it is clear that there are serious issues of resistance to the few old drugs that are available. In this review we particularly look at the drugs, their application to the various forms of AT, and their mechanisms of action and resistance. We also discuss the spread of veterinary trypanocide resistance and its drivers, and highlight current and future strategies to combat it.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marzuq A Ungogo
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Harry P de Koning
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jamabo M, Mahlalela M, Edkins AL, Boshoff A. Tackling Sleeping Sickness: Current and Promising Therapeutics and Treatment Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12529. [PMID: 37569903 PMCID: PMC10420020 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by the extracellular protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, and targeted for eradication by 2030. The COVID-19 pandemic contributed to the lengthening of the proposed time frame for eliminating human African trypanosomiasis as control programs were interrupted. Armed with extensive antigenic variation and the depletion of the B cell population during an infectious cycle, attempts to develop a vaccine have remained unachievable. With the absence of a vaccine, control of the disease has relied heavily on intensive screening measures and the use of drugs. The chemotherapeutics previously available for disease management were plagued by issues such as toxicity, resistance, and difficulty in administration. The approval of the latest and first oral drug, fexinidazole, is a major chemotherapeutic achievement for the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis in the past few decades. Timely and accurate diagnosis is essential for effective treatment, while poor compliance and resistance remain outstanding challenges. Drug discovery is on-going, and herein we review the recent advances in anti-trypanosomal drug discovery, including novel potential drug targets. The numerous challenges associated with disease eradication will also be addressed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miebaka Jamabo
- Biotechnology Innovation Centre, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6139, South Africa; (M.J.); (M.M.)
| | - Maduma Mahlalela
- Biotechnology Innovation Centre, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6139, South Africa; (M.J.); (M.M.)
| | - Adrienne L. Edkins
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Biomedical Biotechnology Research Centre (BioBRU), Rhodes University, Makhanda 6139, South Africa;
| | - Aileen Boshoff
- Biotechnology Innovation Centre, Rhodes University, Makhanda 6139, South Africa; (M.J.); (M.M.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Paul NP, Galván AE, Yoshinaga-Sakurai K, Rosen BP, Yoshinaga M. Arsenic in medicine: past, present and future. Biometals 2023; 36:283-301. [PMID: 35190937 PMCID: PMC8860286 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-022-00371-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Arsenicals are one of the oldest treatments for a variety of human disorders. Although infamous for its toxicity, arsenic is paradoxically a therapeutic agent that has been used since ancient times for the treatment of multiple diseases. The use of most arsenic-based drugs was abandoned with the discovery of antibiotics in the 1940s, but a few remained in use such as those for the treatment of trypanosomiasis. In the 1970s, arsenic trioxide, the active ingredient in a traditional Chinese medicine, was shown to produce dramatic remission of acute promyelocytic leukemia similar to the effect of all-trans retinoic acid. Since then, there has been a renewed interest in the clinical use of arsenicals. Here the ancient and modern medicinal uses of inorganic and organic arsenicals are reviewed. Included are antimicrobial, antiviral, antiparasitic and anticancer applications. In the face of increasing antibiotic resistance and the emergence of deadly pathogens such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, we propose revisiting arsenicals with proven efficacy to combat emerging pathogens. Current advances in science and technology can be employed to design newer arsenical drugs with high therapeutic index. These novel arsenicals can be used in combination with existing drugs or serve as valuable alternatives in the fight against cancer and emerging pathogens. The discovery of the pentavalent arsenic-containing antibiotic arsinothricin, which is effective against multidrug-resistant pathogens, illustrates the future potential of this new class of organoarsenical antibiotics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ngozi P Paul
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Adriana E Galván
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Kunie Yoshinaga-Sakurai
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Barry P Rosen
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
| | - Masafumi Yoshinaga
- Department of Cellular Biology and Pharmacology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ungogo MA, Aldfer MM, Natto MJ, Zhuang H, Chisholm R, Walsh K, McGee M, Ilbeigi K, Asseri JI, Burchmore RJS, Caljon G, Van Calenbergh S, De Koning HP. Cloning and Characterization of Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax Nucleoside Transporters Reveal the Potential of P1-Type Carriers for the Discovery of Broad-Spectrum Nucleoside-Based Therapeutics against Animal African Trypanosomiasis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043144. [PMID: 36834557 PMCID: PMC9960827 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT), caused predominantly by Trypanosoma brucei brucei, T. vivax and T. congolense, is a fatal livestock disease throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. Treatment options are very limited and threatened by resistance. Tubercidin (7-deazaadenosine) analogs have shown activity against individual parasites but viable chemotherapy must be active against all three species. Divergence in sensitivity to nucleoside antimetabolites could be caused by differences in nucleoside transporters. Having previously characterized the T. brucei nucleoside carriers, we here report the functional expression and characterization of the main adenosine transporters of T. vivax (TvxNT3) and T. congolense (TcoAT1/NT10), in a Leishmania mexicana cell line ('SUPKO') lacking adenosine uptake. Both carriers were similar to the T. brucei P1-type transporters and bind adenosine mostly through interactions with N3, N7 and 3'-OH. Expression of TvxNT3 and TcoAT1 sensitized SUPKO cells to various 7-substituted tubercidins and other nucleoside analogs although tubercidin itself is a poor substrate for P1-type transporters. Individual nucleoside EC50s were similar for T. b. brucei, T. congolense, T. evansi and T. equiperdum but correlated less well with T. vivax. However, multiple nucleosides including 7-halogentubercidines displayed pEC50>7 for all species and, based on transporter and anti-parasite SAR analyses, we conclude that nucleoside chemotherapy for AAT is viable.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marzuq A. Ungogo
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 810107, Kaduna State, Nigeria
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Mustafa M. Aldfer
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Manal J. Natto
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Hainan Zhuang
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Robyn Chisholm
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Katy Walsh
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - MarieClaire McGee
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Kayhan Ilbeigi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Jamal Ibrahim Asseri
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Richard J. S. Burchmore
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Serge Van Calenbergh
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry (Campus Heymans), Ghent University, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Harry P. De Koning
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nucleoside Transport and Nucleobase Uptake Null Mutants in Leishmania mexicana for the Routine Expression and Characterization of Purine and Pyrimidine Transporters. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158139. [PMID: 35897714 PMCID: PMC9331716 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of transporters is highly challenging, as they cannot be isolated or studied in suspension, requiring a cellular or vesicular system, and, when mediated by more than one carrier, difficult to interpret. Nucleoside analogues are important drug candidates, and all protozoan pathogens express multiple equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT) genes. We have therefore developed a system for the routine expression of nucleoside transporters, using CRISPR/cas9 to delete both copies of all three nucleoside transporters from Leishmania mexicana (ΔNT1.1/1.2/2 (SUPKO)). SUPKO grew at the same rate as the parental strain and displayed no apparent deficiencies, owing to the cells’ ability to synthesize pyrimidines, and the expression of the LmexNT3 purine nucleobase transporter. Nucleoside transport was barely measurable in SUPKO, but reintroduction of L. mexicana NT1.1, NT1.2, and NT2 restored uptake. Thus, SUPKO provides an ideal null background for the expression and characterization of single ENT transporter genes in isolation. Similarly, an LmexNT3-KO strain provides a null background for transport of purine nucleobases and was used for the functional characterization of T. cruzi NB2, which was determined to be adenine-specific. A 5-fluorouracil-resistant strain (Lmex5FURes) displayed null transport for uracil and 5FU, and was used to express the Aspergillus nidulans uracil transporter FurD.
Collapse
|
7
|
Okello I, Mafie E, Eastwood G, Nzalawahe J, Mboera LEG. African Animal Trypanosomiasis: A Systematic Review on Prevalence, Risk Factors and Drug Resistance in Sub-Saharan Africa. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 59:1099-1143. [PMID: 35579072 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjac018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) a parasitic disease of livestock in sub-Saharan Africa causing tremendous loses. Sub-Saharan continental estimation of mean prevalence in both large and small domestic animals, risk factors, tsetse and non-tsetse prevalence and drug resistance is lacking. A review and meta-analysis was done to better comprehend changes in AAT prevalence and drug resistance. Publish/Perish software was used to search and extract peer-reviewed articles in Google scholar, PubMed and CrossRef. In addition, ResearchGate and African Journals Online (AJOL) were used. Screening and selection of articles from 2000-2021 was performed according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). Articles 304 were retrieved; on domestic animals 192, tsetse and non-tsetse vectors 44, risk factors 49 and trypanocidal drug resistance 30. Prevalence varied by, host animals in different countries, diagnostic methods and species of Trypanosoma. Cattle had the highest prevalence with Ethiopia and Nigeria leading, T. congolense (11.80-13.40%) and T. vivax (10.50-18.80%) being detected most. This was followed by camels and pigs. Common diagnostic method used was buffy coat microscopy. However; polymerase chain reaction (PCR), CATT and ELISA had higher detection rates. G. pallidipes caused most infections in Eastern regions while G. palpalis followed by G. mortisans in Western Africa. Eastern Africa reported more non-tsetse biting flies with Stomoxys leading. Common risk factors were, body conditions, breed type, age, sex and seasons. Ethiopia and Nigeria had the highest trypanocidal resistance 30.00-35.00% and highest AAT prevalence. Isometamidium and diminazene showed more resistance with T. congolense being most resistant species 11.00-83.00%.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivy Okello
- SACIDS Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals in East and Southern Africa, P.O. Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
- Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Eliakunda Mafie
- Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Gillian Eastwood
- Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Jahashi Nzalawahe
- Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Leonard E G Mboera
- SACIDS Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases of Humans and Animals in East and Southern Africa, P.O. Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Bobba V, Li Y, Afrin M, Dano R, Zhang W, Li B, Su B. Synthesis and biological evaluation of imidamide analogs as selective anti-trypanosomal agents. Bioorg Med Chem 2022; 61:116740. [PMID: 35396128 PMCID: PMC9074797 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2022.116740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis is caused by a protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei majorly infecting people living in sub-Saharan Africa. Current limited available treatments suffer from drug resistance, severe adverse effects, low efficacy, and costly administrative procedures in African countries with limited medical resources. Therefore, there is always a perpetual demand for advanced drug development and invention of new strategies to combat the disease. Previous work in our lab generated a library of sulfonamide analogs as selective tubulin inhibitors, based on the structural difference between mammalian and trypanosome tubulin proteins. Further lead derivatization was performed in the current study and generated 25 potential drug candidates to improve the drug efficacy and uptake by selectively targeting the parasite's P2 membrane transporter protein with imidamide moiety. One of the newly synthesized analogs, compound 25 with a di-imidamide moiety, has shown greater potency with an IC50 of 1 nM to selectively inhibit the growth of trypanosome cells without affecting the viability of mammalian cells. Western blot analyses reveal that the compound suppressed tubulin polymerization in T. brucei cells. A detailed structure-activity relationship (SAR) was summarized that will be used to guide future lead optimization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Viharika Bobba
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA
| | - Yaxin Li
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA
| | - Marjia Afrin
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA
| | - Raina Dano
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA
| | - Wenjing Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA
| | - Bibo Li
- Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA.
| | - Bin Su
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Beilstein S, El Phil R, Sahraoui SS, Scapozza L, Kaiser M, Mäser P. Laboratory Selection of Trypanosomatid Pathogens for Drug Resistance. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15020135. [PMID: 35215248 PMCID: PMC8879015 DOI: 10.3390/ph15020135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The selection of parasites for drug resistance in the laboratory is an approach frequently used to investigate the mode of drug action, estimate the risk of emergence of drug resistance, or develop molecular markers for drug resistance. Here, we focused on the How rather than the Why of laboratory selection, discussing different experimental set-ups based on research examples with Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, and Leishmania spp. The trypanosomatids are particularly well-suited to illustrate different strategies of selecting for drug resistance, since it was with African trypanosomes that Paul Ehrlich performed such an experiment for the first time, more than a century ago. While breakthroughs in reverse genetics and genome editing have greatly facilitated the identification and validation of candidate resistance mutations in the trypanosomatids, the forward selection of drug-resistant mutants still relies on standard in vivo models and in vitro culture systems. Critical questions are: is selection for drug resistance performed in vivo or in vitro? With the mammalian or with the insect stages of the parasites? Under steady pressure or by sudden shock? Is a mutagen used? While there is no bona fide best approach, we think that a methodical consideration of these questions provides a helpful framework for selection of parasites for drug resistance in the laboratory.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Beilstein
- Department Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland; (S.B.); (M.K.)
- Swiss TPH, University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Radhia El Phil
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland; (R.E.P.); (S.S.S.); (L.S.)
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Suzanne Sherihan Sahraoui
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland; (R.E.P.); (S.S.S.); (L.S.)
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Leonardo Scapozza
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland; (R.E.P.); (S.S.S.); (L.S.)
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Department Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland; (S.B.); (M.K.)
- Swiss TPH, University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Department Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland; (S.B.); (M.K.)
- Swiss TPH, University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +41-61-284-8338
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Wittlin S, Mäser P. From Magic Bullet to Magic Bomb: Reductive Bioactivation of Antiparasitic Agents. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:2777-2786. [PMID: 34472830 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.1c00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Paul Ehrlich coined the term "magic bullet" to describe how a drug kills the parasite inside its human host without harming the host itself. Ehrlich concluded that the drug must have a greater affinity to the parasite than to human cells. Today, the specificity of drug action is understood in terms of the drug target. An ideal target is a protein that is essential for the proliferation of the pathogen but absent in human cells. Examples are the enzymes of folate synthesis or of the nonmevalonate pathway in the malaria parasites. However, there are other ways how a drug can kill selectively. Of particular relevance is the specific activation of a prodrug inside the pathogen but not in the host, as this is how the current frontrunners of parasite chemotherapy work. Artemisinins for malaria, fexinidazole for human African trypanosomiasis, benznidazole for Chagas' disease, metronidazole for intestinal protozoa: these molecules are "magic bombs" that are triggered selectively. They are prodrugs that need to be activated by chemical reduction, i.e., the acquisition of an electron, which occurs in the parasite. Such a mode of action is shared by the novel antimalarial peroxides arterolane and artefenomel, which are activated by reduction of the endoperoxide bond with ferrous heme as the likely electron donor, a metabolic end-product of Plasmodium falciparum. Here we provide an overview on the molecular basis of selectivity of antiparasitic drug action with particular reference to the ozonides, the new generation of antimalarial peroxides designed by Jonathan Vennerstrom.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Wittlin
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Infection Biology, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4051 Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4001 Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Horn D. Genome-scale RNAi screens in African trypanosomes. Trends Parasitol 2021; 38:160-173. [PMID: 34580035 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Genome-scale genetic screens allow researchers to rapidly identify the genes and proteins that impact a particular phenotype of interest. In African trypanosomes, RNA interference (RNAi) knockdown screens have revealed mechanisms underpinning drug resistance, drug transport, prodrug metabolism, quorum sensing, genome replication, and gene expression control. RNAi screening has also been remarkably effective at highlighting promising potential antitrypanosomal drug targets. The first ever RNAi library screen was implemented in African trypanosomes, and genome-scale RNAi screens and other related approaches continue to have a major impact on trypanosomatid research. Here, I review those impacts in terms of both discovery and translation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David Horn
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Quintana JF, Field MC. Evolution, function and roles in drug sensitivity of trypanosome aquaglyceroporins. Parasitology 2021; 148:1137-1142. [PMID: 33602349 PMCID: PMC8311954 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182021000354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Aquaglyceroporins (AQPs) are membrane proteins that function in osmoregulation and the uptake of low molecular weight solutes, in particular glycerol and urea. The AQP family is highly conserved, with two major subfamilies having arisen very early in prokaryote evolution and retained by eukaryotes. A complex evolutionary history indicates multiple lineage-specific expansions, losses and not uncommonly a complete loss. Consequently, the AQP family is highly evolvable and has been associated with significant events in life on Earth. In the African trypanosomes, a role for the AQP2 paralogue, in sensitivity to two chemotherapeutic agents, pentamidine and melarsoprol, is well established, albeit with the mechanisms for cell entry and resistance unclear until very recently. Here, we discuss AQP evolution, structure and mechanisms by which AQPs impact drug sensitivity, suggesting that AQP2 stability is highly sensitive to mutation while serving as the major uptake pathway for pentamidine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan F. Quintana
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology (WCIP), Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine (IBAHCM), University of Glasgow, GlasgowG61 1QH, UK
| | - Mark C. Field
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, DundeeDD1 5EH, UK
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, 37005Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Robertson J, Ungogo MA, Aldfer MM, Lemgruber L, McWhinnie FS, Bode BE, Jones KL, Watson AJB, de Koning HP, Burley GA. Direct, Late-Stage Mono-N-arylation of Pentamidine: Method Development, Mechanistic Insight, and Expedient Access to Novel Antiparastitics against Diamidine-Resistant Parasites. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:3396-3401. [PMID: 34357687 PMCID: PMC9291547 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A selective mono‐N‐arylation strategy of amidines under Chan‐Lam conditions is described. During the reaction optimization phase, the isolation of a mononuclear Cu(II) complex provided unique mechanistic insight into the operation of Chan‐Lam mono‐N‐arylation. The scope of the process is demonstrated, and then applied to access the first mono‐N‐arylated analogues of pentamidine. Sub‐micromolar activity against kinetoplastid parasites was observed for several analogues with no cross‐resistance in pentamidine and diminazene‐resistant trypanosome strains and against Leishmania mexicana. A fluorescent mono‐N‐arylated pentamidine analogue revealed rapid cellular uptake, accumulating in parasite nuclei and the kinetoplasts. The DNA binding capability of the mono‐N‐arylated pentamidine series was confirmed by UV‐melt measurements using AT‐rich DNA. This work highlights the potential to use Chan‐Lam mono‐N‐arylation to develop therapeutic leads against diamidine‐resistant trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jack Robertson
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK
| | - Marzuq A Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Mustafa M Aldfer
- Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Leandro Lemgruber
- Glasgow Imaging Facility, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Fergus S McWhinnie
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK
| | - Bela E Bode
- EaStCHEM, School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Katherine L Jones
- GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Allan J B Watson
- EaStCHEM, School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Glenn A Burley
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Carruthers LV, Munday JC, Ebiloma GU, Steketee P, Jayaraman S, Campagnaro GD, Ungogo MA, Lemgruber L, Donachie AM, Rowan TG, Peter R, Morrison LJ, Barrett MP, De Koning HP. Diminazene resistance in Trypanosoma congolense is not caused by reduced transport capacity but associated with reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. Mol Microbiol 2021; 116:564-588. [PMID: 33932053 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma congolense is a principal agent causing livestock trypanosomiasis in Africa, costing developing economies billions of dollars and undermining food security. Only the diamidine diminazene and the phenanthridine isometamidium are regularly used, and resistance is widespread but poorly understood. We induced stable diminazene resistance in T. congolense strain IL3000 in vitro. There was no cross-resistance with the phenanthridine drugs, melaminophenyl arsenicals, oxaborole trypanocides, or with diamidine trypanocides, except the close analogs DB829 and DB75. Fluorescence microscopy showed that accumulation of DB75 was inhibited by folate. Uptake of [3 H]-diminazene was slow with low affinity and partly but reciprocally inhibited by folate and by competing diamidines. Expression of T. congolense folate transporters in diminazene-resistant Trypanosoma brucei brucei significantly sensitized the cells to diminazene and DB829, but not to oxaborole AN7973. However, [3 H]-diminazene transport studies, whole-genome sequencing, and RNA-seq found no major changes in diminazene uptake, folate transporter sequence, or expression. Instead, all resistant clones displayed a moderate reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential Ψm. We conclude that diminazene uptake in T. congolense proceed via multiple low affinity mechanisms including folate transporters; while resistance is associated with a reduction in Ψm it is unclear whether this is the primary cause of the resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren V Carruthers
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Godwin U Ebiloma
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.,School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - Pieter Steketee
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Siddharth Jayaraman
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Gustavo D Campagnaro
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Marzuq A Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Leandro Lemgruber
- Glasgow Imaging Facility, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Anne-Marie Donachie
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Tim G Rowan
- Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicine, Pentlands Science Park, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Rose Peter
- Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicine, Pentlands Science Park, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Liam J Morrison
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.,Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Harry P De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Galocha M, Costa IV, Teixeira MC. Carrier-Mediated Drug Uptake in Fungal Pathogens. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11111324. [PMID: 33182427 PMCID: PMC7697741 DOI: 10.3390/genes11111324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida, Aspergillus, and Cryptococcus species are the most frequent cause of severe human fungal infections. Clinically relevant antifungal drugs are scarce, and their effectiveness are hampered by the ability of fungal cells to develop drug resistance mechanisms. Drug effectiveness and drug resistance in human pathogens is very often affected by their “transportome”. Many studies have covered a panoply of drug resistance mechanisms that depend on drug efflux pumps belonging to the ATP-Binding Cassette and Major Facilitator Superfamily. However, the study of drug uptake mechanisms has been, to some extent, overlooked in pathogenic fungi. This review focuses on discussing current knowledge on drug uptake systems in fungal pathogens, highlighting the need for further studies on this topic of great importance. The following subjects are covered: (i) drugs imported by known transporter(s) in pathogenic fungi; and (ii) drugs imported by known transporter(s) in the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae or in human parasites, aimed at the identification of their homologs in pathogenic fungi. Besides its contribution to increase the understanding of drug-pathogen interactions, the practical implications of identifying drug importers in human pathogens are discussed, particularly focusing on drug development strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Galocha
- Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (M.G.); (I.V.C.)
- Biological Sciences Research Group, iBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Inês Vieira Costa
- Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (M.G.); (I.V.C.)
- Biological Sciences Research Group, iBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Miguel Cacho Teixeira
- Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (M.G.); (I.V.C.)
- Biological Sciences Research Group, iBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-21-841-7772; Fax: +351-21-841-9199
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Hulpia F, Campagnaro GD, Alzahrani KJ, Alfayez IA, Ungogo MA, Mabille D, Maes L, de Koning HP, Caljon G, Van Calenbergh S. Structure-Activity Relationship Exploration of 3'-Deoxy-7-deazapurine Nucleoside Analogues as Anti- Trypanosoma brucei Agents. ACS Infect Dis 2020; 6:2045-2056. [PMID: 32568511 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei parasites. These protists are unable to produce the purine ring, making them vulnerable to the effects of purine nucleoside analogues. Starting from 3'-deoxytubercidin (5), a lead compound with activity against central-nervous-stage human African trypanosomiasis, we investigate the structure-activity relationships of the purine and ribofuranose rings. The purine ring tolerated only modifications at C7, while from the many alterations of the 3'-deoxyribofuranosyl moiety only the arabino analogue 48 showed pronounced antitrypanosomal activity. Profiling of the most potent analogues against resistant T. brucei strains (resistant to pentamidine, diminazene, and isometamidium) showed reduced dependence on uptake mediated by the P2 aminopurine transporter relative to 5. The introduction of a 7-substituent confers up to 10-fold increased affinity for the P1 nucleoside transporter while generally retaining high affinity for P2. Four of the most promising analogues were found to be metabolically stable, earmarking them as suitable backup analogues for lead 5.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Hulpia
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry (Campus Heymans), Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Gustavo D. Campagnaro
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Khalid J. Alzahrani
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Taif University, Taif 21974, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim A. Alfayez
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Marzuq A. Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ahmadu Bello University, 810211 Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria
| | - Dorien Mabille
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1 (S7), B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Louis Maes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1 (S7), B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Harry P. de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, United Kingdom
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1 (S7), B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Serge Van Calenbergh
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry (Campus Heymans), Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Alghamdi AH, Munday JC, Campagnaro GD, Gurvic D, Svensson F, Okpara CE, Kumar A, Quintana J, Martin Abril ME, Milić P, Watson L, Paape D, Settimo L, Dimitriou A, Wielinska J, Smart G, Anderson LF, Woodley CM, Kelly SPY, Ibrahim HM, Hulpia F, Al-Salabi MI, Eze AA, Sprenger T, Teka IA, Gudin S, Weyand S, Field M, Dardonville C, Tidwell RR, Carrington M, O'Neill P, Boykin DW, Zachariae U, De Koning HP. Positively selected modifications in the pore of TbAQP2 allow pentamidine to enter Trypanosoma brucei. eLife 2020; 9:56416. [PMID: 32762841 PMCID: PMC7473772 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the Trypanosoma brucei aquaporin AQP2 are associated with resistance to pentamidine and melarsoprol. We show that TbAQP2 but not TbAQP3 was positively selected for increased pore size from a common ancestor aquaporin. We demonstrate that TbAQP2’s unique architecture permits pentamidine permeation through its central pore and show how specific mutations in highly conserved motifs affect drug permeation. Introduction of key TbAQP2 amino acids into TbAQP3 renders the latter permeable to pentamidine. Molecular dynamics demonstrates that permeation by dicationic pentamidine is energetically favourable in TbAQP2, driven by the membrane potential, although aquaporins are normally strictly impermeable for ionic species. We also identify the structural determinants that make pentamidine a permeant although most other diamidine drugs are excluded. Our results have wide-ranging implications for optimising antitrypanosomal drugs and averting cross-resistance. Moreover, these new insights in aquaporin permeation may allow the pharmacological exploitation of other members of this ubiquitous gene family. African sleeping sickness is a potentially deadly illness caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei. The disease is treatable, but many of the current treatments are old and are becoming increasingly ineffective. For instance, resistance is growing against pentamidine, a drug used in the early stages in the disease, as well as against melarsoprol, which is deployed when the infection has progressed to the brain. Usually, cases resistant to pentamidine are also resistant to melarsoprol, but it is still unclear why, as the drugs are chemically unrelated. Studies have shown that changes in a water channel called aquaglyceroporin 2 (TbAQP2) contribute to drug resistance in African sleeping sickness; this suggests that it plays a role in allowing drugs to kill the parasite. This molecular ‘drain pipe’ extends through the surface of T. brucei, and should allow only water and a molecule called glycerol in and out of the cell. In particular, the channel should be too narrow to allow pentamidine or melarsoprol to pass through. One possibility is that, in T. brucei, the TbAQP2 channel is abnormally wide compared to other members of its family. Alternatively, pentamidine and melarsoprol may only bind to TbAQP2, and then ‘hitch a ride’ when the protein is taken into the parasite as part of the natural cycle of surface protein replacement. Alghamdi et al. aimed to tease out these hypotheses. Computer models of the structure of the protein were paired with engineered changes in the key areas of the channel to show that, in T. brucei, TbAQP2 provides a much broader gateway into the cell than observed for similar proteins. In addition, genetic analysis showed that this version of TbAQP2 has been actively selected for during the evolution process of T. brucei. This suggests that the parasite somehow benefits from this wider aquaglyceroporin variant. This is a new resistance mechanism, and it is possible that aquaglyceroporins are also larger than expected in other infectious microbes. The work by Alghamdi et al. therefore provides insight into how other germs may become resistant to drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ali H Alghamdi
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Dominik Gurvic
- Computational Biology Centre for Translational and Interdisciplinary Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Fredrik Svensson
- IOTA Pharmaceuticals Ltd, St Johns Innovation Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Chinyere E Okpara
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Arvind Kumar
- Chemistry Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, United States
| | - Juan Quintana
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | | | - Patrik Milić
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Watson
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Paape
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Luca Settimo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Dimitriou
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Joanna Wielinska
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Graeme Smart
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Laura F Anderson
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Siu Pui Ying Kelly
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Hasan Ms Ibrahim
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Fabian Hulpia
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Mohammed I Al-Salabi
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Anthonius A Eze
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Teresa Sprenger
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Ibrahim A Teka
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Gudin
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Simone Weyand
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Field
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom.,Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | | | - Richard R Tidwell
- Department of Pathology and Lab Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States
| | - Mark Carrington
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul O'Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - David W Boykin
- Chemistry Department, Georgia State University, Atlanta, United States
| | - Ulrich Zachariae
- Computational Biology Centre for Translational and Interdisciplinary Research, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Harry P De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kulohoma BW, Wamwenje SAO, Wangwe II, Masila N, Mirieri CK, Wambua L. Prevalence of trypanosomes associated with drug resistance in Shimba Hills, Kwale County, Kenya. BMC Res Notes 2020; 13:234. [PMID: 32349785 PMCID: PMC7191804 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-020-05077-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Animal African trypanosomiasis (AAT) is a life-threatening vector-borne disease, caused by trypanosome parasites, which are principally transmitted by tsetse flies. In Kenya, the prevalence of drug-resistant trypanosomes in endemic regions remains poorly understood. The objective of this study was to establish AAT point prevalence, drug susceptibility of associated trypanosomes, and measure infectivity by multiple AAT mammalian hosts to tsetse flies in Shimba hills, a resource-poor region with high bovine trypanosomiasis prevalence and morbidity rates at the coast of Kenya. We collected tsetse flies using traps (1 Ngu and 2 biconical), and then sorted them on sex and species. Trypanosomes present in tsetse flies were detected by first extracting all genomic DNA, and then performing PCR reactions with established primers of the internal transcribed spacer regions. Polymorphisms associated with trypanocide resistance in the TbAT1 gene were also detected by performing PCR reactions with established primers. Results Our findings suggest low trypanosome prevalence (3.7%), low trypanocide resistance, and low infectivity by multiple mammalian hosts to tsetse flies in Shimba hills. We conclude that enhanced surveillance is crucial for informing disease management practices that help prevent the spread of drug-resistant trypanosomiasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benard W Kulohoma
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya. .,International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Sarah A O Wamwenje
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya.,International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Ibrahim I Wangwe
- Centre for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya.,International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Nicodemus Masila
- Kenya Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Eradication Council (KENTTEC), Kwale County, Kenya
| | - Caroline K Mirieri
- Directorate of Veterinary Services, Vector Regulatory and Zoological Services, Makindu, Kenya
| | - Lillian Wambua
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya.,School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.,International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Álvarez-Bardón M, Pérez-Pertejo Y, Ordóñez C, Sepúlveda-Crespo D, Carballeira NM, Tekwani BL, Murugesan S, Martinez-Valladares M, García-Estrada C, Reguera RM, Balaña-Fouce R. Screening Marine Natural Products for New Drug Leads against Trypanosomatids and Malaria. Mar Drugs 2020; 18:E187. [PMID: 32244488 PMCID: PMC7230869 DOI: 10.3390/md18040187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) represent a serious threat to humans, especially for those living in poor or developing countries. Almost one-sixth of the world population is at risk of suffering from these diseases and many thousands die because of NTDs, to which we should add the sanitary, labor and social issues that hinder the economic development of these countries. Protozoan-borne diseases are responsible for more than one million deaths every year. Visceral leishmaniasis, Chagas disease or sleeping sickness are among the most lethal NTDs. Despite not being considered an NTD by the World Health Organization (WHO), malaria must be added to this sinister group. Malaria, caused by the apicomplexan parasite Plasmodium falciparum, is responsible for thousands of deaths each year. The treatment of this disease has been losing effectiveness year after year. Many of the medicines currently in use are obsolete due to their gradual loss of efficacy, their intrinsic toxicity and the emergence of drug resistance or a lack of adherence to treatment. Therefore, there is an urgent and global need for new drugs. Despite this, the scant interest shown by most of the stakeholders involved in the pharmaceutical industry makes our present therapeutic arsenal scarce, and until recently, the search for new drugs has not been seriously addressed. The sources of new drugs for these and other pathologies include natural products, synthetic molecules or repurposing drugs. The most frequent sources of natural products are microorganisms, e.g., bacteria, fungi, yeasts, algae and plants, which are able to synthesize many drugs that are currently in use (e.g. antimicrobials, antitumor, immunosuppressants, etc.). The marine environment is another well-established source of bioactive natural products, with recent applications against parasites, bacteria and other pathogens which affect humans and animals. Drug discovery techniques have rapidly advanced since the beginning of the millennium. The combination of novel techniques that include the genetic modification of pathogens, bioimaging and robotics has given rise to the standardization of High-Performance Screening platforms in the discovery of drugs. These advancements have accelerated the discovery of new chemical entities with antiparasitic effects. This review presents critical updates regarding the use of High-Throughput Screening (HTS) in the discovery of drugs for NTDs transmitted by protozoa, including malaria, and its application in the discovery of new drugs of marine origin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Álvarez-Bardón
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; University of León, 24071 León, Spain; (M.Á.-B.); (Y.P.-P.); (C.O.); (D.S.-C.); (R.M.R.)
| | - Yolanda Pérez-Pertejo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; University of León, 24071 León, Spain; (M.Á.-B.); (Y.P.-P.); (C.O.); (D.S.-C.); (R.M.R.)
| | - César Ordóñez
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; University of León, 24071 León, Spain; (M.Á.-B.); (Y.P.-P.); (C.O.); (D.S.-C.); (R.M.R.)
| | - Daniel Sepúlveda-Crespo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; University of León, 24071 León, Spain; (M.Á.-B.); (Y.P.-P.); (C.O.); (D.S.-C.); (R.M.R.)
| | - Nestor M. Carballeira
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras 00925-2537, San Juan, Puerto Rico;
| | - Babu L. Tekwani
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Drug Discovery, Southern Research, Birmingham, AL 35205, USA;
| | - Sankaranarayanan Murugesan
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani Campus, Vidya Vihar, Pilani 333031, India;
| | - Maria Martinez-Valladares
- Department of Animal Health, Instituto de Ganadería de Montaña (CSIC-Universidad de León), Grulleros, 24346 León, Spain;
| | - Carlos García-Estrada
- INBIOTEC (Instituto de Biotecnología de León), Avda. Real 1-Parque Científico de León, 24006 León, Spain;
| | - Rosa M. Reguera
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; University of León, 24071 León, Spain; (M.Á.-B.); (Y.P.-P.); (C.O.); (D.S.-C.); (R.M.R.)
| | - Rafael Balaña-Fouce
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; University of León, 24071 León, Spain; (M.Á.-B.); (Y.P.-P.); (C.O.); (D.S.-C.); (R.M.R.)
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Campagnaro GD, de Koning HP. Purine and pyrimidine transporters of pathogenic protozoa - conduits for therapeutic agents. Med Res Rev 2020; 40:1679-1714. [PMID: 32144812 DOI: 10.1002/med.21667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Purines and pyrimidines are essential nutrients for any cell. Most organisms are able to synthesize their own purines and pyrimidines, but this ability was lost in protozoans that adapted to parasitism, leading to a great diversification in transporter activities in these organisms, especially for the acquisition of amino acids and nucleosides from their hosts throughout their life cycles. Many of these transporters have been shown to have sufficiently different substrate affinities from mammalian transporters, making them good carriers for therapeutic agents. In this review, we summarize the knowledge obtained on purine and pyrimidine activities identified in protozoan parasites to date and discuss their importance for the survival of these parasites and as drug carriers, as well as the perspectives of developments in the field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo D Campagnaro
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, UK
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow, UK
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
P De Koning H. The Drugs of Sleeping Sickness: Their Mechanisms of Action and Resistance, and a Brief History. Trop Med Infect Dis 2020; 5:E14. [PMID: 31963784 PMCID: PMC7157662 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed5010014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
With the incidence of sleeping sickness in decline and genuine progress being made towards the WHO goal of eliminating sleeping sickness as a major public health concern, this is a good moment to evaluate the drugs that 'got the job done': their development, their limitations and the resistance that the parasites developed against them. This retrospective looks back on the remarkable story of chemotherapy against trypanosomiasis, a story that goes back to the very origins and conception of chemotherapy in the first years of the 20 century and is still not finished today.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Harry P De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Landfear SM. Protean permeases: Diverse roles for membrane transport proteins in kinetoplastid protozoa. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2018; 227:39-46. [PMID: 30590069 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2018.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Revised: 12/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Kinetoplastid parasites such as Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, and Leishmania species rely upon their insect and vertebrate hosts to provide a plethora of nutrients throughout their life cycles. Nutrients and ions critical for parasite survival are taken up across the parasite plasma membrane by transporters and channels, polytopic membrane proteins that provide substrate-specific pores across the hydrophobic barrier. However, transporters and channels serve a wide range of biological functions beyond uptake of nutrients. This article highlights the diversity of activities that these integral membrane proteins serve and underscores the emerging complexity of their functions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Landfear
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Lauri N, Bazzi Z, Alvarez CL, Leal Denis MF, Schachter J, Herlax V, Ostuni MA, Schwarzbaum PJ. ATPe Dynamics in Protozoan Parasites. Adapt or Perish. Genes (Basel) 2018; 10:E16. [PMID: 30591699 PMCID: PMC6356682 DOI: 10.3390/genes10010016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
In most animals, transient increases of extracellular ATP (ATPe) are used for physiological signaling or as a danger signal in pathological conditions. ATPe dynamics are controlled by ATP release from viable cells and cell lysis, ATPe degradation and interconversion by ecto-nucleotidases, and interaction of ATPe and byproducts with cell surface purinergic receptors and purine salvage mechanisms. Infection by protozoan parasites may alter at least one of the mechanisms controlling ATPe concentration. Protozoan parasites display their own set of proteins directly altering ATPe dynamics, or control the activity of host proteins. Parasite dependent activation of ATPe conduits of the host may promote infection and systemic responses that are beneficial or detrimental to the parasite. For instance, activation of organic solute permeability at the host membrane can support the elevated metabolism of the parasite. On the other hand ecto-nucleotidases of protozoan parasites, by promoting ATPe degradation and purine/pyrimidine salvage, may be involved in parasite growth, infectivity, and virulence. In this review, we will describe the complex dynamics of ATPe regulation in the context of protozoan parasite⁻host interactions. Particular focus will be given to features of parasite membrane proteins strongly controlling ATPe dynamics. This includes evolutionary, genetic and cellular mechanisms, as well as structural-functional relationships.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Lauri
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Biological Chemistry, Chair of Biological Chemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Zaher Bazzi
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Cora L Alvarez
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, Department of Biodiversity and Experimental Biology, University of Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes, Buenos Aires 2160, Argentina.
| | - María F Leal Denis
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Chair of Analytical Chemistry and Physicochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Julieta Schachter
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Vanesa Herlax
- Biochemistry Research Institute of La Plata (INIBIOLP) "Prof. Dr. Rodolfo R. Brenner", Faculty of Medical Sciences, National University of La Plata, National Scientific and Technical Research Council, Av. 60 y Av. 120 La Plata, Argentina.
- National University of La Plata, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Av. 60 y Av. 120 La Plata, Argentina.
| | - Mariano A Ostuni
- UMR-S1134, Integrated Biology of Red Blood Cells, INSERM, Paris Diderot University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, University of La Réunion, University of Antilles, F-75015 Paris, France.
- National Institute of Blood Transfusion (INTS), Laboratory of Excellence GR-Ex, F-75015 Paris, France.
| | - Pablo J Schwarzbaum
- Institute of Biological Chemistry and Physicochemistry (IQUIFIB) "Prof. Alejandro C. Paladini", Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET), Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Department of Biological Chemistry, Chair of Biological Chemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Junín 956 Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Thomas JA, Baker N, Hutchinson S, Dominicus C, Trenaman A, Glover L, Alsford S, Horn D. Insights into antitrypanosomal drug mode-of-action from cytology-based profiling. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018; 12:e0006980. [PMID: 30475806 PMCID: PMC6283605 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemotherapy continues to have a major impact on reducing the burden of disease caused by trypanosomatids. Unfortunately though, the mode-of-action (MoA) of antitrypanosomal drugs typically remains unclear or only partially characterised. This is the case for four of five current drugs used to treat Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT); eflornithine is a specific inhibitor of ornithine decarboxylase. Here, we used a panel of T. brucei cellular assays to probe the MoA of the current HAT drugs. The assays included DNA-staining followed by microscopy and quantitative image analysis, or flow cytometry; terminal dUTP nick end labelling to monitor mitochondrial (kinetoplast) DNA replication; antibody-based detection of sites of nuclear DNA damage; and fluorescent dye-staining of mitochondria or lysosomes. We found that melarsoprol inhibited mitosis; nifurtimox reduced mitochondrial protein abundance; pentamidine triggered progressive loss of kinetoplast DNA and disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential; and suramin inhibited cytokinesis. Thus, current antitrypanosomal drugs perturb distinct and specific cellular compartments, structures or cell cycle phases. Further exploiting the findings, we show that putative mitogen-activated protein-kinases contribute to the melarsoprol-induced mitotic defect, reminiscent of the mitotic arrest associated signalling cascade triggered by arsenicals in mammalian cells, used to treat leukaemia. Thus, cytology-based profiling can rapidly yield novel insight into antitrypanosomal drug MoA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James A. Thomas
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola Baker
- The Centre for Immunology and Infection, University of York, Heslington, York, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Anna Trenaman
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sam Alsford
- London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London, United Kingdom
| | - David Horn
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Venkatesh D, Zhang N, Zoltner M, del Pino RC, Field MC. Evolution of protein trafficking in kinetoplastid parasites: Complexity and pathogenesis. Traffic 2018; 19:803-812. [DOI: 10.1111/tra.12601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 06/24/2018] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ning Zhang
- School of Life Sciences; University of Dundee; Dundee UK
| | - Martin Zoltner
- School of Life Sciences; University of Dundee; Dundee UK
| | | | - Mark C. Field
- School of Life Sciences; University of Dundee; Dundee UK
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Melarsoprol Resistance in African Trypanosomiasis. Trends Parasitol 2018; 34:481-492. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2018.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
|
27
|
Abstract
Sleeping sickness is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma brucei parasites, affecting the poorest communities in sub-Saharan Africa. The great efforts done by the scientific community, local governments, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) via active patients' screening, vector control, and introduction of improved treatment regimens have significantly contributed to the reduction of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) incidence during the last 15 years. Consequently, the WHO has announced the objective of HAT elimination as a public health problem by 2020. Studies at both parasite and host levels have improved our understanding of the parasite biology and the mechanisms of parasite interaction with its mammalian host. In this review, the impact that 'omics studies have had on sleeping sickness by revealing novel properties of parasite's subcellular organelles are summarized, by highlighting changes induced in the host during the infection and by proposing potential disease markers and therapeutic targets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Tiberti
- Translational Biomarker Group, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Campagnaro GD, Alzahrani KJ, Munday JC, De Koning HP. Trypanosoma brucei bloodstream forms express highly specific and separate transporters for adenine and hypoxanthine; evidence for a new protozoan purine transporter family? Mol Biochem Parasitol 2018; 220:46-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 01/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
29
|
Franco J, Scarone L, Comini MA. Drugs and Drug Resistance in African and American Trypanosomiasis. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.armc.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
30
|
Schmidt RS, Macêdo JP, Steinmann ME, Salgado AG, Bütikofer P, Sigel E, Rentsch D, Mäser P. Transporters of Trypanosoma brucei-phylogeny, physiology, pharmacology. FEBS J 2017; 285:1012-1023. [PMID: 29063677 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei comprise the causative agents of sleeping sickness, T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense, as well as the livestock-pathogenic T. b. brucei. The parasites are transmitted by the tsetse fly and occur exclusively in sub-Saharan Africa. T. brucei are not only lethal pathogens but have also become model organisms for molecular parasitology. We focus here on membrane transport proteins of T. brucei, their contribution to homeostasis and metabolism in the context of a parasitic lifestyle, and their pharmacological role as potential drug targets or routes of drug entry. Transporters and channels in the plasma membrane are attractive drug targets as they are accessible from the outside. Alternatively, they can be exploited to selectively deliver harmful substances into the trypanosome's interior. Both approaches require the targeted transporter to be essential: in the first case to kill the trypanosome, in the second case to prevent drug resistance due to loss of the transporter. By combining functional and phylogenetic analyses, we were mining the T. brucei predicted proteome for transporters of pharmacological significance. Here, we review recent progress in the identification of transporters of lipid precursors, amino acid permeases and ion channels in T. brucei.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Remo S Schmidt
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Switzerland
| | - Juan P Macêdo
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michael E Steinmann
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Peter Bütikofer
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Erwin Sigel
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Doris Rentsch
- Institute of Plant Sciences, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Abstract
In the last 2 decades, renewed attention to neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) has spurred the development of antiparasitic agents, especially in light of emerging drug resistance. The need for new drugs has required in vitro screening methods using parasite culture. Furthermore, clinical laboratories sought to correlate in vitro susceptibility methods with treatment outcomes, most notably with malaria. Parasites with their various life cycles present greater complexity than bacteria, for which standardized susceptibility methods exist. This review catalogs the state-of-the-art methodologies used to evaluate the effects of drugs on key human parasites from the point of view of drug discovery as well as the need for laboratory methods that correlate with clinical outcomes.
Collapse
|
32
|
El Kouni MH. Pyrimidine metabolism in schistosomes: A comparison with other parasites and the search for potential chemotherapeutic targets. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 213:55-80. [PMID: 28735972 PMCID: PMC5593796 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Schistosomes are responsible for the parasitic disease schistosomiasis, an acute and chronic parasitic ailment that affects >240 million people in 70 countries worldwide. It is the second most devastating parasitic disease after malaria. At least 200,000 deaths per year are associated with the disease. In the absence of the availability of vaccines, chemotherapy is the main stay for combating schistosomiasis. The antischistosomal arsenal is currently limited to a single drug, Praziquantel, which is quite effective with a single-day treatment and virtually no host-toxicity. Recently, however, the question of reduced activity of Praziquantel has been raised. Therefore, the search for alternative antischistosomal drugs merits the study of new approaches of chemotherapy. The rational design of a drug is usually based on biochemical and physiological differences between pathogens and host. Pyrimidine metabolism is an excellent target for such studies. Schistosomes, unlike most of the host tissues, require a very active pyrimidine metabolism for the synthesis of DNA and RNA. This is essential for the production of the enormous numbers of eggs deposited daily by the parasite to which the granulomas response precipitates the pathogenesis of schistosomiasis. Furthermore, there are sufficient differences between corresponding enzymes of pyrimidine metabolism from the host and the parasite that can be exploited to design specific inhibitors or "subversive substrates" for the parasitic enzymes. Specificities of pyrimidine transport also diverge significantly between parasites and their mammalian host. This review deals with studies on pyrimidine metabolism in schistosomes and highlights the unique characteristic of this metabolism that could constitute excellent potential targets for the design of safe and effective antischistosomal drugs. In addition, pyrimidine metabolism in schistosomes is compared with that in other parasites where studies on pyrimidine metabolism have been more elaborate, in the hope of providing leads on how to identify likely chemotherapeutic targets which have not been looked at in schistosomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud H El Kouni
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for AIDS Research, Comprehensive Cancer Center, General Clinical Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
9-(2'-Deoxy-2'-Fluoro-β-d-Arabinofuranosyl) Adenine Is a Potent Antitrypanosomal Adenosine Analogue That Circumvents Transport-Related Drug Resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.02719-16. [PMID: 28373184 PMCID: PMC5444181 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02719-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Current chemotherapy against African sleeping sickness, a disease caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei, is limited by toxicity, inefficacy, and drug resistance. Nucleoside analogues have been successfully used to cure T. brucei-infected mice, but they have the limitation of mainly being taken up by the P2 nucleoside transporter, which, when mutated, is a common cause of multidrug resistance in T. brucei We report here that adenine arabinoside (Ara-A) and the newly tested drug 9-(2'-deoxy-2'-fluoro-β-d-arabinofuranosyl) adenine (FANA-A) are instead taken up by the P1 nucleoside transporter, which is not associated with drug resistance. Like Ara-A, FANA-A was found to be resistant to cleavage by methylthioadenosine phosphorylase, an enzyme that protects T. brucei against the antitrypanosomal effects of deoxyadenosine. Another important factor behind the selectivity of nucleoside analogues is how well they are phosphorylated within the cell. We found that the T. brucei adenosine kinase had a higher catalytic efficiency with FANA-A than the mammalian enzyme, and T. brucei cells treated with FANA-A accumulated high levels of FANA-A triphosphate, which even surpassed the level of ATP and led to cell cycle arrest, inhibition of DNA synthesis, and the accumulation of DNA breaks. FANA-A inhibited nucleic acid biosynthesis and parasite proliferation with 50% effective concentrations (EC50s) in the low nanomolar range, whereas mammalian cell proliferation was inhibited in the micromolar range. Both Ara-A and FANA-A, in combination with deoxycoformycin, cured T. brucei-infected mice, but FANA-A did so at a dose 100 times lower than that of Ara-A.
Collapse
|
34
|
Jeacock L, Baker N, Wiedemar N, Mäser P, Horn D. Aquaglyceroporin-null trypanosomes display glycerol transport defects and respiratory-inhibitor sensitivity. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006307. [PMID: 28358927 PMCID: PMC5388498 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aquaglyceroporins (AQPs) transport water and glycerol and play important roles in drug-uptake in pathogenic trypanosomatids. For example, AQP2 in the human-infectious African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, is responsible for melarsoprol and pentamidine-uptake, and melarsoprol treatment-failure has been found to be due to AQP2-defects in these parasites. To further probe the roles of these transporters, we assembled a T. b. brucei strain lacking all three AQP-genes. Triple-null aqp1-2-3 T. b. brucei displayed only a very moderate growth defect in vitro, established infections in mice and recovered effectively from hypotonic-shock. The aqp1-2-3 trypanosomes did, however, display glycerol uptake and efflux defects. They failed to accumulate glycerol or to utilise glycerol as a carbon-source and displayed increased sensitivity to salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM), octyl gallate or propyl gallate; these inhibitors of trypanosome alternative oxidase (TAO) can increase intracellular glycerol to toxic levels. Notably, disruption of AQP2 alone generated cells with glycerol transport defects. Consistent with these findings, AQP2-defective, melarsoprol-resistant clinical isolates were sensitive to the TAO inhibitors, SHAM, propyl gallate and ascofuranone, relative to melarsoprol-sensitive reference strains. We conclude that African trypanosome AQPs are dispensable for viability and osmoregulation but they make important contributions to drug-uptake, glycerol-transport and respiratory-inhibitor sensitivity. We also discuss how the AQP-dependent inverse sensitivity to melarsoprol and respiratory inhibitors described here might be exploited.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Jeacock
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola Baker
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Natalie Wiedemar
- Parasite Chemotherapy Unit, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Parasite Chemotherapy Unit, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - David Horn
- The Wellcome Trust Centre for Anti-Infectives Research, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Daunes S, Yardley V, Croft SL, D'Silva C. Antiprotozoal glutathione derivatives with flagellar membrane binding activity against T. brucei rhodesiense. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 25:1329-1340. [PMID: 28131508 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2016] [Revised: 12/05/2016] [Accepted: 12/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A new series of N-substituted S-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)glutathione dibutyl diesters were synthesized to improve in vitro anti-protozoal activity against the pathogenic parasites Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania donovani. The results obtained indicate that N-substituents enhance the inhibitory properties of glutathione diesters whilst showing reduced toxicity against KB cells as in the cases of compounds 5, 9, 10, 16, 18 and 19. We suggest that the interaction of N-substituted S-(2,4-dinitrophenyl) glutathione dibutyl diesters with T. b. brucei occurs mainly by weak hydrophobic interactions such as London and van der Waals forces. A QSAR study indicated that the inhibitory activity of the peptide is associated negatively with the average number of C atoms, NC and positively to SZX, the ZX shadow a geometric descriptor related to molecular size and orientation of the compound. HPLC-UV studies in conjunction with optical microscopy indicate that the observed selectivity of inhibition of these compounds against bloodstream form T. b. brucei parasites in comparison to L. donovani under the same conditions is due to intracellular uptake via endocytosis in the flagellar pocket.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sylvie Daunes
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Faculty of Science and Engineering, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK
| | - Vanessa Yardley
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Simon L Croft
- Department of Immunology and Infection, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, UK
| | - Claudius D'Silva
- School of Chemistry and Environmental Sciences, The Manchester Metropolitan University, Faculty of Science and Engineering, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK; School of Chemistry, Central University of Rajasthan, Bandar Sindari, Jaipur-Ajmer Highway (Rajasthan), India.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Garcia-Salcedo JA, Unciti-Broceta JD, Valverde-Pozo J, Soriano M. New Approaches to Overcome Transport Related Drug Resistance in Trypanosomatid Parasites. Front Pharmacol 2016; 7:351. [PMID: 27733833 PMCID: PMC5039210 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2016.00351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Leishmania and Trypanosoma are members of the Trypanosomatidae family that cause severe human infections such as leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and sleeping sickness affecting millions of people worldwide. Despite efforts to eradicate them, migrations are expanding these infections to developing countries. There are no vaccines available and current treatments depend only on chemotherapy. Drug resistance is a major obstacle for the treatment of these diseases given that existing drugs are old and limited, with some having severe side effects. Most resistance mechanisms developed by these parasites are related with a decreased uptake or increased efflux of the drug due to mutations or altered expression of membrane transporters. Different new approaches have been elaborated that can overcome these mechanisms of resistance including the use of inhibitors of efflux pumps and drug carriers for both active and passive targeting. Here we review new formulations that have been successfully applied to circumvent resistance related to drug transporters, opening alternative ways to solve drug resistance in protozoan parasitic diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jose A Garcia-Salcedo
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria, ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada - Universidad de Granada, GranadaSpain; Centro de Genómica e Investigación Oncológica - Pfizer/Universidad de Granada/Junta de Andalucía, GranadaSpain
| | - Juan D Unciti-Broceta
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria, ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada - Universidad de Granada, Granada Spain
| | - Javier Valverde-Pozo
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria, ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada - Universidad de Granada, GranadaSpain; Centro de Genómica e Investigación Oncológica - Pfizer/Universidad de Granada/Junta de Andalucía, GranadaSpain
| | - Miguel Soriano
- Centro de Genómica e Investigación Oncológica - Pfizer/Universidad de Granada/Junta de Andalucía, GranadaSpain; Departamento de Agronomía, Universidad de Almería, AlmeríaSpain
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Zoltner M, Horn D, de Koning HP, Field MC. Exploiting the Achilles' heel of membrane trafficking in trypanosomes. Curr Opin Microbiol 2016; 34:97-103. [PMID: 27614711 PMCID: PMC5176092 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2016.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenic protozoa are evolutionarily highly divergent from their metazoan hosts, reflected in many aspects of their biology. One particularly important parasite taxon is the trypanosomatids. Multiple transmission modes, distinct life cycles and exploitation of many host species attests to great prowess as parasites, and adaptability for efficient, chronic infection. Genome sequencing has begun uncovering how trypanosomatids are well suited to parasitism, and recent genetic screening and cell biology are revealing new aspects of how to control these organisms and prevent disease. Importantly, several lines of evidence suggest that membrane transport processes are central for the sensitivity towards several frontline drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin Zoltner
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, Scotland, UK
| | - David Horn
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, Scotland, UK
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, Scotland, UK
| | - Mark C Field
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, Scotland, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Graf FE, Ludin P, Arquint C, Schmidt RS, Schaub N, Kunz Renggli C, Munday JC, Krezdorn J, Baker N, Horn D, Balmer O, Caccone A, de Koning HP, Mäser P. Comparative genomics of drug resistance in Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense. Cell Mol Life Sci 2016; 73:3387-400. [PMID: 26973180 PMCID: PMC4967103 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-016-2173-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense is one of the causative agents of human sleeping sickness, a fatal disease that is transmitted by tsetse flies and restricted to Sub-Saharan Africa. Here we investigate two independent lines of T. b. rhodesiense that have been selected with the drugs melarsoprol and pentamidine over the course of 2 years, until they exhibited stable cross-resistance to an unprecedented degree. We apply comparative genomics and transcriptomics to identify the underlying mutations. Only few mutations have become fixed during selection. Three genes were affected by mutations in both lines: the aminopurine transporter AT1, the aquaporin AQP2, and the RNA-binding protein UBP1. The melarsoprol-selected line carried a large deletion including the adenosine transporter gene AT1, whereas the pentamidine-selected line carried a heterozygous point mutation in AT1, G430R, which rendered the transporter non-functional. Both resistant lines had lost AQP2, and both lines carried the same point mutation, R131L, in the RNA-binding motif of UBP1. The finding that concomitant deletion of the known resistance genes AT1 and AQP2 in T. b. brucei failed to phenocopy the high levels of resistance of the T. b. rhodesiense mutants indicated a possible role of UBP1 in melarsoprol-pentamidine cross-resistance. However, homozygous in situ expression of UBP1-Leu(131) in T. b. brucei did not affect the sensitivity to melarsoprol or pentamidine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice E Graf
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4000, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Ludin
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4000, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Arquint
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4000, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Remo S Schmidt
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4000, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nadia Schaub
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4000, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christina Kunz Renggli
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4000, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Jessica Krezdorn
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Nicola Baker
- Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH, UK
- The University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7NZ, UK
| | - David Horn
- Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee, DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Oliver Balmer
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4000, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Adalgisa Caccone
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Socinstrasse 57, 4051, Basel, Switzerland.
- University of Basel, 4000, Basel, Switzerland.
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Eze AA, Gould MK, Munday JC, Tagoe DNA, Stelmanis V, Schnaufer A, De Koning HP. Reduced Mitochondrial Membrane Potential Is a Late Adaptation of Trypanosoma brucei brucei to Isometamidium Preceded by Mutations in the γ Subunit of the F1Fo-ATPase. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004791. [PMID: 27518185 PMCID: PMC4982688 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Isometamidium is the main prophylactic drug used to prevent the infection of livestock with trypanosomes that cause Animal African Trypanosomiasis. As well as the animal infective trypanosome species, livestock can also harbor the closely related human infective subspecies T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense. Resistance to isometamidium is a growing concern, as is cross-resistance to the diamidine drugs diminazene and pentamidine. Methodology/Principal Findings Two isometamidium resistant Trypanosoma brucei clones were generated (ISMR1 and ISMR15), being 7270- and 16,000-fold resistant to isometamidium, respectively, which retained their ability to grow in vitro and establish an infection in mice. Considerable cross-resistance was shown to ethidium bromide and diminazene, with minor cross-resistance to pentamidine. The mitochondrial membrane potentials of both resistant cell lines were significantly reduced compared to the wild type. The net uptake rate of isometamidium was reduced 2-3-fold but isometamidium efflux was similar in wild-type and resistant lines. Fluorescence microscopy and PCR analysis revealed that ISMR1 and ISMR15 had completely lost their kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) and both lines carried a mutation in the nuclearly encoded γ subunit gene of F1 ATPase, truncating the protein by 22 amino acids. The mutation compensated for the loss of the kinetoplast in bloodstream forms, allowing near-normal growth, and conferred considerable resistance to isometamidium and ethidium as well as significant resistance to diminazene and pentamidine, when expressed in wild type trypanosomes. Subsequent exposure to either isometamidium or ethidium led to rapid loss of kDNA and a further increase in isometamidium resistance. Conclusions/Significance Sub-lethal exposure to isometamidium gives rise to viable but highly resistant trypanosomes that, depending on sub-species, are infective to humans and cross-resistant to at least some diamidine drugs. The crucial mutation is in the F1 ATPase γ subunit, which allows loss of kDNA and results in a reduction of the mitochondrial membrane potential. Isometamidium is the only prophylactic treatment of Animal African Trypanosomiasis, a wasting disease of livestock and domestic animals in sub-Saharan Africa. Unfortunately resistance threatens the continued utility of this drug after decades of use. Not only does this disease have severe impacts on agriculture, but some subspecies of Trypanosoma brucei are human-infective as well (causing sleeping sickness) and there is concern that cross-resistance with trypanocides of the diamidine class could further undermine treatment of both veterinary and human infections. It is therefore essential to understand the mechanism of isometamidium resistance and the likelihood for cross-resistance with other first-line trypanocides. Here, we report that isometamidium resistance can be caused by a mutation in an important mitochondrial protein, the γ subunit of the F1 ATPase, and that this mutation alone is sufficient for high levels of resistance, cross-resistance to various drugs, and a strongly reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. This report will for the first time enable a structural assessment of isometamidium resistance genes in T. brucei spp.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anthonius A. Eze
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew K. Gould
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research and Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jane C. Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel N. A. Tagoe
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Valters Stelmanis
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Achim Schnaufer
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research and Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Harry P. De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Abstract
Eukaryotic microbial pathogens are major contributors to illness and death globally. Although much of their impact can be controlled by drug therapy as with prokaryotic microorganisms, the emergence of drug resistance has threatened these treatment efforts. Here, we discuss the challenges posed by eukaryotic microbial pathogens and how these are similar to, or differ from, the challenges of prokaryotic antibiotic resistance. The therapies used for several major eukaryotic microorganisms are then detailed, and the mechanisms that they have evolved to overcome these therapies are described. The rapid emergence of resistance and the restricted pipeline of new drug therapies pose considerable risks to global health and are particularly acute in the developing world. Nonetheless, we detail how the integration of new technology, biological understanding, epidemiology and evolutionary analysis can help sustain existing therapies, anticipate the emergence of resistance or optimize the deployment of new therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alan H. Fairlamb
- Dundee Drug Discovery Unit, Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Neil A. R. Gow
- Aberdeen Fungal Group, Wellcome Trust Strategic Award in Medical Mycology and Fungal Immunology, School of Medical Sciences, Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Keith R. Matthews
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FL, UK
| | - Andrew P. Waters
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical and Veterinary Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Richardson JB, Evans B, Pyana PP, Van Reet N, Sistrom M, Büscher P, Aksoy S, Caccone A. Whole genome sequencing shows sleeping sickness relapse is due to parasite regrowth and not reinfection. Evol Appl 2016; 9:381-93. [PMID: 26834831 PMCID: PMC4721075 DOI: 10.1111/eva.12338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (Tbg) is a cause of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) endemic to many parts of sub-Saharan Africa. The disease is almost invariably fatal if untreated and there is no vaccine, which makes monitoring and managing drug resistance highly relevant. A recent study of HAT cases from the Democratic Republic of the Congo reported a high incidence of relapses in patients treated with melarsoprol. Of the 19 Tbg strains isolated from patients enrolled in this study, four pairs were obtained from the same patient before treatment and after relapse. We used whole genome sequencing to investigate whether these patients were infected with a new strain, or if the original strain had regrown to pathogenic levels. Clustering analysis of 5938 single nucleotide polymorphisms supports the hypothesis of regrowth of the original strain, as we found that strains isolated before and after treatment from the same patient were more similar to each other than to other isolates. We also identified 23 novel genes that could affect melarsoprol sensitivity, representing a promising new set of targets for future functional studies. This work exemplifies the utility of using evolutionary approaches to provide novel insights and tools for disease control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua B Richardson
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Yale University New Haven CT USA
| | - Benjamin Evans
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Yale University New Haven CT USA
| | - Patient P Pyana
- Department de Parasitologie Institut National de Recherche Biomedicale Kinshasa Gombe Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Nick Van Reet
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp Belgium
| | - Mark Sistrom
- School of Natural Sciences University of California Merced Merced CA USA
| | - Philippe Büscher
- Department of Biomedical Sciences Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp Belgium
| | - Serap Aksoy
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health Yale School of Public Health New Haven CT USA
| | - Adalgisa Caccone
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Yale University New Haven CT USA
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Unciti-Broceta JD, Arias JL, Maceira J, Soriano M, Ortiz-González M, Hernández-Quero J, Muñóz-Torres M, de Koning HP, Magez S, Garcia-Salcedo JA. Specific Cell Targeting Therapy Bypasses Drug Resistance Mechanisms in African Trypanosomiasis. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004942. [PMID: 26110623 PMCID: PMC4482409 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
African trypanosomiasis is a deadly neglected disease caused by the extracellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Current therapies are characterized by high drug toxicity and increasing drug resistance mainly associated with loss-of-function mutations in the transporters involved in drug import. The introduction of new antiparasitic drugs into therapeutic use is a slow and expensive process. In contrast, specific targeting of existing drugs could represent a more rapid and cost-effective approach for neglected disease treatment, impacting through reduced systemic toxicity and circumventing resistance acquired through impaired compound uptake. We have generated nanoparticles of chitosan loaded with the trypanocidal drug pentamidine and coated by a single domain nanobody that specifically targets the surface of African trypanosomes. Once loaded into this nanocarrier, pentamidine enters trypanosomes through endocytosis instead of via classical cell surface transporters. The curative dose of pentamidine-loaded nanobody-chitosan nanoparticles was 100-fold lower than pentamidine alone in a murine model of acute African trypanosomiasis. Crucially, this new formulation displayed undiminished in vitro and in vivo activity against a trypanosome cell line resistant to pentamidine as a result of mutations in the surface transporter aquaglyceroporin 2. We conclude that this new drug delivery system increases drug efficacy and has the ability to overcome resistance to some anti-protozoal drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan D. Unciti-Broceta
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada/Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina “López-Neyra” (IPBLN-CSIC), PTS Granada, Armilla, Spain
- Centro Pfizer-Universidad de Granada-Junta de Andalucía de Genómica e Investigación Oncológica (GENYO), PTS Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - José L. Arias
- Departamento de Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - José Maceira
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada/Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina “López-Neyra” (IPBLN-CSIC), PTS Granada, Armilla, Spain
- Centro Pfizer-Universidad de Granada-Junta de Andalucía de Genómica e Investigación Oncológica (GENYO), PTS Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel Soriano
- Centro Pfizer-Universidad de Granada-Junta de Andalucía de Genómica e Investigación Oncológica (GENYO), PTS Granada, Granada, Spain
- Departamento de Agronomía, Universidad de Almería, Almería, Spain
| | - Matilde Ortiz-González
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada/Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
- Centro Pfizer-Universidad de Granada-Junta de Andalucía de Genómica e Investigación Oncológica (GENYO), PTS Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - José Hernández-Quero
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada/Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Manuel Muñóz-Torres
- Unidad de Metabolismo Óseo, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada/Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - Harry P. de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Stefan Magez
- Unit of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Structural Biology, VIB, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - José A. Garcia-Salcedo
- Unidad de Enfermedades Infecciosas y Microbiología, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Hospitales Universitarios de Granada/Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina “López-Neyra” (IPBLN-CSIC), PTS Granada, Armilla, Spain
- Centro Pfizer-Universidad de Granada-Junta de Andalucía de Genómica e Investigación Oncológica (GENYO), PTS Granada, Granada, Spain
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
High yield expression and purification of equilibrative nucleoside transporter 7 (ENT7) from Arabidopsis thaliana. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2015; 1850:1921-9. [PMID: 26080001 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2015.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Revised: 05/31/2015] [Accepted: 06/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equilibrative nucleoside transporters (ENTs) facilitate the import of nucleosides and their analogs into cells in a bidirectional, non-concentrative manner. However, in contrast to their name, most characterized plant ENTs act in a concentrative manner. A direct characterization of any ENT protein has been hindered due to difficulties in overexpression and obtaining pure recombinant protein. METHODS The equilibrative nucleoside transporter 7 from Arabidopsis thaliana (AtENT7) was expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes to assess mechanism of substrate uptake. Recombinant protein fused to enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) was expressed in Pichia pastoris to characterize its oligomeric state by gel filtration and substrate binding by microscale thermophoresis (MST). RESULTS AtENT7 expressed in X. laevis oocytes works as a classic equilibrative transporter. The expression of AtENT7-eGFP in the P. pastoris system yielded milligram amounts of pure protein that exists as stable homodimers. The concentration dependent binding of purine and pyrimidine nucleosides to the purified recombinant protein, assessed by MST, confirmed that AtENT7-eGFP is properly folded. For the first time the binding of nucleobases was observed for AtENT7. SIGNIFICANCE The availability of pure recombinant AtENT7 will permit detailed kinetic and structural studies of this unique member of the ENT family and, given the functional similarity to mammalian ENTs, will serve as a good model for understanding the structural basis of translocation mechanism for the family.
Collapse
|
44
|
Shimogawa MM, Saada EA, Vashisht AA, Barshop WD, Wohlschlegel JA, Hill KL. Cell Surface Proteomics Provides Insight into Stage-Specific Remodeling of the Host-Parasite Interface in Trypanosoma brucei. Mol Cell Proteomics 2015; 14:1977-88. [PMID: 25963835 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m114.045146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
African trypanosomes are devastating human and animal pathogens transmitted by tsetse flies between mammalian hosts. The trypanosome surface forms a critical host interface that is essential for sensing and adapting to diverse host environments. However, trypanosome surface protein composition and diversity remain largely unknown. Here, we use surface labeling, affinity purification, and proteomic analyses to describe cell surface proteomes from insect-stage and mammalian bloodstream-stage Trypanosoma brucei. The cell surface proteomes contain most previously characterized surface proteins. We additionally identify a substantial number of novel proteins, whose functions are unknown, indicating the parasite surface proteome is larger and more diverse than generally appreciated. We also show stage-specific expression for individual paralogs within several protein families, suggesting that fine-tuned remodeling of the parasite surface allows adaptation to diverse host environments, while still fulfilling universally essential cellular needs. Our surface proteome analyses complement existing transcriptomic, proteomic, and in silico analyses by highlighting proteins that are surface-exposed and thereby provide a major step forward in defining the host-parasite interface.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michelle M Shimogawa
- From the ‡Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, 90095
| | - Edwin A Saada
- From the ‡Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, 90095
| | - Ajay A Vashisht
- §Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - William D Barshop
- §Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - James A Wohlschlegel
- §Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095; ¶Molecular Biology Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Kent L Hill
- From the ‡Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, 90095; ¶Molecular Biology Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Graf FE, Baker N, Munday JC, de Koning HP, Horn D, Mäser P. Chimerization at the AQP2-AQP3 locus is the genetic basis of melarsoprol-pentamidine cross-resistance in clinical Trypanosoma brucei gambiense isolates. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR PARASITOLOGY-DRUGS AND DRUG RESISTANCE 2015; 5:65-8. [PMID: 26042196 PMCID: PMC4443405 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Revised: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 04/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Expression of AQP2 restores drug susceptibility in a resistant Trypanosoma brucei gambiense isolate. The AQP2/3 chimera from the resistant isolate does not complement AQP2 deletion. Hence AQP2/3 chimerization accompanied by loss of AQP2 is the cause of drug resistance.
Aquaglyceroporin-2 is a known determinant of melarsoprol–pentamidine cross-resistance in Trypanosoma brucei brucei laboratory strains. Recently, chimerization at the AQP2–AQP3 tandem locus was described from melarsoprol–pentamidine cross-resistant Trypanosoma brucei gambiense isolates from sleeping sickness patients in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Here, we demonstrate that reintroduction of wild-type AQP2 into one of these isolates fully restores drug susceptibility while expression of the chimeric AQP2/3 gene in aqp2–aqp3 null T. b. brucei does not. This proves that AQP2–AQP3 chimerization is the cause of melarsoprol–pentamidine cross-resistance in the T. b. gambiense isolates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice E Graf
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland ; University of Basel, CH-4000 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nicola Baker
- Biological Chemistry & Drug Discovery, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - David Horn
- Biological Chemistry & Drug Discovery, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland ; University of Basel, CH-4000 Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
de Macêdo JP, Schumann Burkard G, Niemann M, Barrett MP, Vial H, Mäser P, Roditi I, Schneider A, Bütikofer P. An Atypical Mitochondrial Carrier That Mediates Drug Action in Trypanosoma brucei. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004875. [PMID: 25946070 PMCID: PMC4422618 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2014] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Elucidating the mechanism of action of trypanocidal compounds is an important step in the development of more efficient drugs against Trypanosoma brucei. In a screening approach using an RNAi library in T. brucei bloodstream forms, we identified a member of the mitochondrial carrier family, TbMCP14, as a prime candidate mediating the action of a group of anti-parasitic choline analogs. Depletion of TbMCP14 by inducible RNAi in both bloodstream and procyclic forms increased resistance of parasites towards the compounds by 7-fold and 3-fold, respectively, compared to uninduced cells. In addition, down-regulation of TbMCP14 protected bloodstream form mitochondria from a drug-induced decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential. Conversely, over-expression of the carrier in procyclic forms increased parasite susceptibility more than 13-fold. Metabolomic analyses of parasites over-expressing TbMCP14 showed increased levels of the proline metabolite, pyrroline-5-carboxylate, suggesting a possible involvement of TbMCP14 in energy production. The generation of TbMCP14 knock-out parasites showed that the carrier is not essential for survival of T. brucei bloodstream forms, but reduced parasite proliferation under standard culture conditions. In contrast, depletion of TbMCP14 in procyclic forms resulted in growth arrest, followed by parasite death. The time point at which parasite proliferation stopped was dependent on the major energy source, i.e. glucose versus proline, in the culture medium. Together with our findings that proline-dependent ATP production in crude mitochondria from TbMCP14-depleted trypanosomes was reduced compared to control mitochondria, the study demonstrates that TbMCP14 is involved in energy production in T. brucei. Since TbMCP14 belongs to a trypanosomatid-specific clade of mitochondrial carrier family proteins showing very poor similarity to mitochondrial carriers of mammals, it may represent an interesting target for drug action or targeting. Human and animal trypanosomiases caused by Trypanosoma brucei parasites represent major burdens to human welfare and agricultural development in rural sub-Saharan Africa. Although the numbers of infected humans have decreased continuously during the last decades, emerging resistance and adverse side effects against commonly used drugs require an urgent need for the identification of novel drug targets and the development of new drugs. Using an unbiased genome-wide screen to search for genes involved in the mode of action of trypanocidal compounds, we identified a member of the mitochondrial carrier family, TbMCP14, as prime candidate to mediate the action of a group of anti-parasitic choline analogs against T. brucei. Ablation of TbMCP14 expression by RNA interference or gene deletion decreases the susceptibility of parasites towards the compounds while over-expression of the carrier shows the opposite effect. In addition, down-regulation of TbMCP14 protects mitochondria from drug-induced decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential and reduces proline-dependent ATP production. Together, the results demonstrate that TbMCP14 is involved in energy production in T. brucei, possibly by acting as a mitochondrial proline carrier, and reveal TbMCP14 as candidate protein for drug action or targeting.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan P de Macêdo
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Moritz Niemann
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, and Glasgow Polyomics, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Henri Vial
- Dynamique Moléculaire des Interactions Membranaires, CNRS UMR 5235, Université Montpellier II, Montpellier, France
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Isabel Roditi
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - André Schneider
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Bütikofer
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Munday JC, Tagoe DNA, Eze AA, Krezdorn JAM, Rojas López KE, Alkhaldi AAM, McDonald F, Still J, Alzahrani KJ, Settimo L, De Koning HP. Functional analysis of drug resistance-associated mutations in the Trypanosoma brucei adenosine transporter 1 (TbAT1) and the proposal of a structural model for the protein. Mol Microbiol 2015; 96:887-900. [PMID: 25708978 PMCID: PMC4755147 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The Trypanosoma brucei aminopurine transporter P2/TbAT1 has long been implicated in the transport of, and resistance to, the diamidine and melaminophenyl arsenical classes of drugs that form the backbone of the pharmacopoeia against African trypanosomiasis. Genetic alterations including deletions and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been observed in numerous strains and clinical isolates. Here, we systematically investigate each reported mutation and assess their effects on transporter function after expression in a tbat1−/−T. brucei line. Out of a set of six reported SNPs from a reported ‘resistance allele’, none significantly impaired sensitivity to pentamidine, diminazene or melarsoprol, relative to the TbAT1‐WT allele, although several combinations, and the deletion of the codon for residue F316, resulted in highly significant impairment. These combinations of SNPs, and ΔF316, also strongly impaired the uptake of [3H]‐adenosine and [3H]‐diminazene, identical to the tbat1−/− control. The TbAT1 protein model predicted that residues F19, D140 and F316 interact with the substrate of the transporter. Mutation of D140 to alanine resulted in an inactive transporter, whereas the mutation F19A produced a transporter with a slightly increased affinity for [3H]‐diminazene but reduced the uptake rate. The results presented here validate earlier hypotheses of drug binding motifs for TbAT1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.,Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Daniel N A Tagoe
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.,Department of Laboratory Technology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
| | - Anthonius A Eze
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.,Department of Medical Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, Enugu, Nigeria
| | - Jessica A M Krezdorn
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Karla E Rojas López
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Abdulsalam A M Alkhaldi
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.,Department of Biology, College of Science, Aljouf University, Sakaka, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fiona McDonald
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Jennifer Still
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Khalid J Alzahrani
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.,Faculty of Medical Sciences, Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia
| | - Luca Settimo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.,Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, 417 Egan Research Center, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Harry P De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Munday JC, Settimo L, de Koning HP. Transport proteins determine drug sensitivity and resistance in a protozoan parasite, Trypanosoma brucei. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:32. [PMID: 25814953 PMCID: PMC4356943 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug resistance in pathogenic protozoa is very often caused by changes to the ‘transportome’ of the parasites. In Trypanosoma brucei, several transporters have been implicated in uptake of the main classes of drugs, diamidines and melaminophenyl arsenicals. The resistance mechanism had been thought to be due to loss of a transporter known to carry both types of agents: the aminopurine transporter P2, encoded by the gene TbAT1. However, although loss of P2 activity is well-documented as the cause of resistance to the veterinary diamidine diminazene aceturate (DA; Berenil®), cross-resistance between the human-use arsenical melarsoprol and the diamidine pentamidine (melarsoprol/pentamidine cross resistance, MPXR) is the result of loss of a separate high affinity pentamidine transporter (HAPT1). A genome-wide RNAi library screen for resistance to pentamidine, published in 2012, gave the key to the genetic identity of HAPT1 by linking the phenomenon to a locus that contains the closely related T. brucei aquaglyceroporin genes TbAQP2 and TbAQP3. Further analysis determined that knockdown of only one pore, TbAQP2, produced the MPXR phenotype. TbAQP2 is an unconventional aquaglyceroporin with unique residues in the “selectivity region” of the pore, and it was found that in several MPXR lab strains the WT gene was either absent or replaced by a chimeric protein, recombined with parts of TbAQP3. Importantly, wild-type AQP2 was also absent in field isolates of T. b. gambiense, correlating with the outcome of melarsoprol treatment. Expression of a wild-type copy of TbAQP2 in even the most resistant strain completely reversed MPXR and re-introduced HAPT1 function and transport kinetics. Expression of TbAQP2 in Leishmania mexicana introduced a pentamidine transport activity indistinguishable from HAPT1. Although TbAQP2 has been shown to function as a classical aquaglyceroporin it is now clear that it is also a high affinity drug transporter, HAPT1. We discuss here a possible structural rationale for this remarkable ability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK
| | - Luca Settimo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK ; Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University Boston, MA, USA
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow Glasgow, UK
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Pyana Pati P, Van Reet N, Mumba Ngoyi D, Ngay Lukusa I, Karhemere Bin Shamamba S, Büscher P. Melarsoprol sensitivity profile of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense isolates from cured and relapsed sleeping sickness patients from the Democratic Republic of the Congo. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3212. [PMID: 25275572 PMCID: PMC4183442 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei (T.b.) gambiense constitutes a serious health problem in sub-Sahara Africa. In some foci, alarmingly high relapse rates were observed in patients treated with melarsoprol, which used to be the first line treatment for patients in the neurological disease stage. Particularly problematic was the situation in Mbuji-Mayi, East Kasai Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo with a 57% relapse rate compared to a 5% relapse rate in Masi-Manimba, Bandundu Province. The present study aimed at investigating the mechanisms underlying the high relapse rate in Mbuji-Mayi using an extended collection of recently isolated T.b. gambiense strains from Mbuji-Mayi and from Masi-Manimba. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Forty five T.b. gambiense strains were used. Forty one were isolated from patients that were cured or relapsed after melarsoprol treatment in Mbuji-Mayi. In vivo drug sensitivity tests provide evidence of reduced melarsoprol sensitivity in these strains. This reduced melarsoprol sensitivity was not attributable to mutations in TbAT1. However, in all these strains, irrespective of the patient treatment outcome, the two aquaglyceroporin (AQP) 2 and 3 genes are replaced by chimeric AQP2/3 genes that may be associated with resistance to pentamidine and melarsoprol. The 4 T.b. gambiense strains isolated in Masi-Manimba contain both wild-type AQP2 and a different chimeric AQP2/3. These findings suggest that the reduced in vivo melarsoprol sensitivity of the Mbuji-Mayi strains and the high relapse rates in that sleeping sickness focus are caused by mutations in the AQP2/AQP3 locus and not by mutations in TbAT1. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE We conclude that mutations in the TbAQP2/3 locus of the local T.b. gambiense strains may explain the high melarsoprol relapse rates in the Mbuji-Mayi focus but other factors must also be involved in the treatment outcome of individual patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patient Pyana Pati
- Département de Parasitologie, Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale, Kinshasa Gombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo
- * E-mail:
| | - Nick Van Reet
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Dieudonné Mumba Ngoyi
- Département de Parasitologie, Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale, Kinshasa Gombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Ipos Ngay Lukusa
- Département de Parasitologie, Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale, Kinshasa Gombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Stomy Karhemere Bin Shamamba
- Département de Parasitologie, Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale, Kinshasa Gombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Philippe Büscher
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
In vitro and in vivo evaluation of 28DAP010, a novel diamidine for treatment of second-stage African sleeping sickness. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:4452-63. [PMID: 24867978 DOI: 10.1128/aac.02309-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
African sleeping sickness is a neglected tropical disease transmitted by tsetse flies. New and better drugs are still needed especially for its second stage, which is fatal if untreated. 28DAP010, a dipyridylbenzene analogue of DB829, is the second simple diamidine found to cure mice with central nervous system infections by a parenteral route of administration. 28DAP010 showed efficacy similar to that of DB829 in dose-response studies in mouse models of first- and second-stage African sleeping sickness. The in vitro time to kill, determined by microcalorimetry, and the parasite clearance time in mice were shorter for 28DAP010 than for DB829. No cross-resistance was observed between 28DAP010 and pentamidine on the tested Trypanosoma brucei gambiense isolates from melarsoprol-refractory patients. 28DAP010 is the second promising preclinical candidate among the diamidines for the treatment of second-stage African sleeping sickness.
Collapse
|