Emerging applications for DNA writers and molecular recorders

Molecular circuits for genomic recording of cellular events

Advances in precise genome editing are enabling genomic recordings of cellular events. Since the initial demonstration of CRISPR-based genome editing, the field of genomic recording has witnessed key strides in lineage recording, where clonal lineage relationships among cells are indirectly recorded as synthetic mutations. However, methods for directly recording and reconstructing past cellular events are still limited, and their potential for revealing new insights into cell fate decisions has yet to be realized. The field needs new sensing modules and genetic circuit architectures that faithfully encode past cellular states into genomic DNA recordings to achieve such goals. Here we review recently developed strategies to construct diverse sensors and explore how emerging synthetic biology tools may help to build molecular circuits for genomic recording of diverse cellular events.

Engineered Living Memory Microspheroid-Based Archival File System for Random Accessible In Vivo DNA Storage

Given its exceptional durability and high information density, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has the potential to meet the escalating global demand for data storage if it can be stored efficiently and accessed randomly in exabyte-to-yottabyte-scale databases. Here, this work introduces the Engineered Living Memory Microspheroid (ELMM) as a novel material for DNA data storage, retrieval, and management. This work engineers a plasmid library and devises a random access strategy pairing plasmid function with DNA data in a key-value format. Each DNA segment is integrated with its corresponding plasmid, introduced into bacteria, and encapsulated within matrix material via droplet microfluidics within 5 min. ELMMs can be stored at room temperature following lyophilization and, upon rehydration, each type of ELMM exhibits specific functions expressed by the plasmids, allowing for physical differentiation based on these characteristics. This work demonstrates fluorescent expression as the plasmid function and employs fluorescence-based sorting access image files in a prototype database. By utilizing N optical channels, to retrieve 2N file types, each with a minimum of 10 copies. ELMM offers a digital-to-biological information solution, ensuring the preservation, access, replication, and management of files within large-scale DNA databases.

Gene Editing: An Effective Tool for the Future Treatment of Kidney Disease

Gene editing technology involves modifying target genes to alter genetic traits and generate new phenotypes. Beginning with zinc-finger nucleases (ZFN) and transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN), the field has evolved through the advent of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated protein (CRISPR-Cas) systems, and more recently to base editors (BE) and prime editors (PE). These innovations have provided deep insights into the molecular mechanisms of complex biological processes and have paved the way for novel therapeutic strategies for a range of diseases. Gene editing is now being applied in the treatment of both genetic and acquired kidney diseases, as well as in kidney transplantation and the correction of genetic mutations. This review explores the current applications of mainstream gene editing technologies in biology, with a particular emphasis on their roles in kidney disease research and treatment of. It also addresses the limitations and challenges associated with these technologies, while offering perspectives on their future potential in this field.

Reconstructing signaling history of single cells with imaging-based molecular recording

The intensity and duration of biological signals encode information that allows a few pathways to regulate a wide array of cellular behaviors. Despite the central importance of signaling in biomedical research, our ability to quantify it in individual cells over time remains limited. Here, we introduce INSCRIBE, an approach for reconstructing signaling history in single cells using endpoint fluorescence images. By regulating a CRISPR base editor, INSCRIBE generates mutations in genomic target sequences, at a rate proportional to signaling activity. The number of edits is then recovered through a novel ratiometric readout strategy, from images of two fluorescence channels. We engineered human cell lines for recording WNT and BMP pathway activity, and demonstrated that INSCRIBE faithfully recovers both the intensity and duration of signaling. Further, we used INSCRIBE to study the variability of cellular response to WNT and BMP stimulation, and test whether the magnitude of response is a stable, heritable trait. We found a persistent memory in the BMP pathway. Progeny of cells with higher BMP response levels are likely to respond more strongly to a second BMP stimulation, up to 3 weeks later. Together, our results establish a scalable platform for genetic recording and in situ readout of signaling history in single cells, advancing quantitative analysis of cell-cell communication during development and disease.

Molecular recording using DNA Typewriter

Recording molecular information to genomic DNA is a powerful means of investigating topics ranging from multicellular development to cancer evolution. With molecular recording based on genome editing, events such as cell divisions and signaling pathway activity drive specific alterations in a cell's DNA, marking the genome with information about a cell's history that can be read out after the fact. Although genome editing has been used for molecular recording, capturing the temporal relationships among recorded events in mammalian cells remains challenging. The DNA Typewriter system overcomes this limitation by leveraging prime editing to facilitate sequential insertions to an engineered genomic region. DNA Typewriter includes three distinct components: DNA Tape as the 'substrate' to which edits accrue in an ordered manner, the prime editor enzyme, and prime editing guide RNAs, which program insertional edits to DNA Tape. In this protocol, we describe general design considerations for DNA Typewriter, step-by-step instructions on how to perform recording experiments by using DNA Typewriter in HEK293T cells, and example scripts for analyzing DNA Typewriter data ( https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.22728758 ). This protocol covers two main applications of DNA Typewriter: recording sequential transfection events with programmed barcode insertions by using prime editing and recording lineage information during the expansion of a single cell to many. Compared with other methods that are compatible with mammalian cells, DNA Typewriter enables the recording of temporal information with higher recording capacities and can be completed within 4-6 weeks with basic expertise in molecular cloning, mammalian cell culturing and DNA sequencing data analysis.

Beyond 25 years of biomedical innovation in nano-bioelectronics

Nano-bioelectronics, which blend the precision of nanotechnology with the complexity of biological systems, are evolving with innovations such as silicon nanowires, carbon nanotubes, and graphene. These elements serve applications from biochemical sensing to brain-machine interfacing. This review examines nano-bioelectronics' role in advancing biomedical interventions and discusses their potential in environmental monitoring, agricultural productivity, energy efficiency, and creative fields. The field is transitioning from molecular to ecosystem-level applications, with research exploring complex cellular mechanisms and communication. This fosters understanding of biological interactions at various levels, such as suggesting transformative approaches for ecosystem management and food security. Future research is expected to focus on refining nano-bioelectronic devices for integration with biological systems and on scalable manufacturing to broaden their reach and functionality.

A DNA circuit that records molecular events

Characterizing the relative onset time, strength, and duration of molecular signals is critical for understanding the operation of signal transduction and genetic regulatory networks. However, detecting multiple such molecules as they are produced and then quickly consumed is challenging. A MER can encode information about transient molecular events as stable DNA sequences and are amenable to downstream sequencing or other analysis. Here, we report the development of a de novo molecular event recorder that processes information using a strand displacement reaction network and encodes the information using the primer exchange reaction, which can be decoded and quantified by DNA sequencing. The event recorder was able to classify the order at which different molecular signals appeared in time with 88% accuracy, the concentrations with 100% accuracy, and the duration with 75% accuracy. This simultaneous and highly programmable multiparameter recording could enable the large-scale deciphering of molecular events such as within dynamic reaction environments, living cells, or tissues.

Past, present, and future of CRISPR genome editing technologies

Genome editing has been a transformative force in the life sciences and human medicine, offering unprecedented opportunities to dissect complex biological processes and treat the underlying causes of many genetic diseases. CRISPR-based technologies, with their remarkable efficiency and easy programmability, stand at the forefront of this revolution. In this Review, we discuss the current state of CRISPR gene editing technologies in both research and therapy, highlighting limitations that constrain them and the technological innovations that have been developed in recent years to address them. Additionally, we examine and summarize the current landscape of gene editing applications in the context of human health and therapeutics. Finally, we outline potential future developments that could shape gene editing technologies and their applications in the coming years.

Precise genome-editing in human diseases: mechanisms, strategies and applications

Precise genome-editing platforms are versatile tools for generating specific, site-directed DNA insertions, deletions, and substitutions. The continuous enhancement of these tools has led to a revolution in the life sciences, which promises to deliver novel therapies for genetic disease. Precise genome-editing can be traced back to the 1950s with the discovery of DNA's double-helix and, after 70 years of development, has evolved from crude in vitro applications to a wide range of sophisticated capabilities, including in vivo applications. Nonetheless, precise genome-editing faces constraints such as modest efficiency, delivery challenges, and off-target effects. In this review, we explore precise genome-editing, with a focus on introduction of the landmark events in its history, various platforms, delivery systems, and applications. First, we discuss the landmark events in the history of precise genome-editing. Second, we describe the current state of precise genome-editing strategies and explain how these techniques offer unprecedented precision and versatility for modifying the human genome. Third, we introduce the current delivery systems used to deploy precise genome-editing components through DNA, RNA, and RNPs. Finally, we summarize the current applications of precise genome-editing in labeling endogenous genes, screening genetic variants, molecular recording, generating disease models, and gene therapy, including ex vivo therapy and in vivo therapy, and discuss potential future advances.

Programming human cell fate: overcoming challenges and unlocking potential through technological breakthroughs

In recent years, there have been notable advancements in the ability to programme human cell identity, enabling us to design and manipulate cell function in a Petri dish. However, current protocols for generating target cell types often lack efficiency and precision, resulting in engineered cells that do not fully replicate the desired identity or functional output. This applies to different methods of cell programming, which face similar challenges that hinder progress and delay the achievement of a more favourable outcome. However, recent technological and analytical breakthroughs have provided us with unprecedented opportunities to advance the way we programme cell fate. The Company of Biologists' 2023 workshop on 'Novel Technologies for Programming Human Cell Fate' brought together experts in human cell fate engineering and experts in single-cell genomics, manipulation and characterisation of cells on a single (sub)cellular level. Here, we summarise the main points that emerged during the workshop's themed discussions. Furthermore, we provide specific examples highlighting the current state of the field as well as its trajectory, offering insights into the potential outcomes resulting from the application of these breakthrough technologies in precisely engineering the identity and function of clinically valuable human cells.

Decoding the microbiome: advances in genetic manipulation for gut bacteria

Studies of the gut microbiota have revealed associations between specific bacterial species or community compositions with health and disease, yet the causal mechanisms underlying microbiota gene-host interactions remain poorly understood. This is partly due to limited genetic manipulation (GM) tools for gut bacteria. Here, we review current advances and challenges in the development of GM approaches, including clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas and transposase-based systems in either model or non-model gut bacteria. By overcoming barriers to 'taming' the gut microbiome, GM tools allow molecular understanding of host-microbiome associations and accelerate microbiome engineering for clinical treatment of cancer and metabolic disorders. Finally, we provide perspectives on the future development of GM for gut microbiome species, where more effort should be placed on assembling a generalized GM pipeline to accelerate the application of groundbreaking GM tools in non-model gut bacteria towards both basic understanding and clinical translation.

Digital data storage on DNA tape using CRISPR base editors

While the archival digital memory industry approaches its physical limits, the demand is significantly increasing, therefore alternatives emerge. Recent efforts have demonstrated DNA's enormous potential as a digital storage medium with superior information durability, capacity, and energy consumption. However, the majority of the proposed systems require on-demand de-novo DNA synthesis techniques that produce a large amount of toxic waste and therefore are not industrially scalable and environmentally friendly. Inspired by the architecture of semiconductor memory devices and recent developments in gene editing, we created a molecular digital data storage system called "DNA Mutational Overwriting Storage" (DMOS) that stores information by leveraging combinatorial, addressable, orthogonal, and independent in vitro CRISPR base-editing reactions to write data on a blank pool of greenly synthesized DNA tapes. As a proof of concept, this work illustrates writing and accurately reading of both a bitmap representation of our school's logo and the title of this study on the DNA tapes.

An outlook on the current challenges and opportunities in DNA data storage

Silicon is the gold standard for information storage systems. The exponential generation of digital information will exhaust the global supply of refined silicon. Therefore, investing in alternative information storage materials such as DNA has gained momentum. DNA as a memory material possesses several advantages over silicon-based data storage, including higher storage capacity, data retention, and lower operational energy. Routine DNA data storage approaches encode data into chemically synthesized nucleotide sequences. The scalability of DNA data storage depends on factors such as the cost and the generation of hazardous waste during DNA synthesis, latency of writing and reading, and limited rewriting capacity. Here, we review the current status of DNA data storage encoding, writing, storing, retrieving and reading, and discuss the technology's challenges and opportunities.

Magnetic control of self-assembly and disassembly in organic materials

Because organic molecules and materials are generally insensitive or weakly sensitive to magnetic fields, a certain means to enhance their magnetic responsiveness needs to be exploited. Here we show a strategy to amplify the magnetic responsiveness of self-assembled peptide nanostructures by synergistically combining the concepts of perfect α-helix and rod-coil supramolecular building blocks. Firstly, we develop a monomeric, nonpolar, and perfect α-helix (MNP-helix). Then, we employ the MNP-helix as the rod block of rod-coil amphiphiles (rod-coils) because rod-coils are well-suited for fabricating responsive assemblies. We show that the self-assembly processes of the designed rod-coils and disassembly of rod-coil/DNA complexes can be controlled in a magnetically responsive manner using the relatively weak magnetic field provided by the ordinary neodymium magnet [0.07 ~ 0.25 Tesla (T)]. These results demonstrate that magnetically responsive organic assemblies usable under practical conditions can be realized by using rod-coil supramolecular building blocks containing constructively organized diamagnetic moieties.

CRISPR for neuroscientists

Genome engineering technologies provide an entry point into understanding and controlling the function of genetic elements in health and disease. The discovery and development of the microbial defense system CRISPR-Cas yielded a treasure trove of genome engineering technologies and revolutionized the biomedical sciences. Comprising diverse RNA-guided enzymes and effector proteins that evolved or were engineered to manipulate nucleic acids and cellular processes, the CRISPR toolbox provides precise control over biology. Virtually all biological systems are amenable to genome engineering-from cancer cells to the brains of model organisms to human patients-galvanizing research and innovation and giving rise to fundamental insights into health and powerful strategies for detecting and correcting disease. In the field of neuroscience, these tools are being leveraged across a wide range of applications, including engineering traditional and non-traditional transgenic animal models, modeling disease, testing genomic therapies, unbiased screening, programming cell states, and recording cellular lineages and other biological processes. In this primer, we describe the development and applications of CRISPR technologies while highlighting outstanding limitations and opportunities.

Recording of cellular physiological histories along optically readable self-assembling protein chains

Observing cellular physiological histories is key to understanding normal and disease-related processes. Here we describe expression recording islands-a fully genetically encoded approach that enables both continual digital recording of biological information within cells and subsequent high-throughput readout in fixed cells. The information is stored in growing intracellular protein chains made of self-assembling subunits, human-designed filament-forming proteins bearing different epitope tags that each correspond to a different cellular state or function (for example, gene expression downstream of neural activity or pharmacological exposure), allowing the physiological history to be read out along the ordered subunits of protein chains with conventional optical microscopy. We use expression recording islands to record gene expression timecourse downstream of specific pharmacological and physiological stimuli in cultured neurons and in living mouse brain, with a time resolution of a fraction of a day, over periods of days to weeks.

Addressable and adaptable intercellular communication via DNA messaging

Engineered consortia are a major research focus for synthetic biologists because they can implement sophisticated behaviors inaccessible to single-strain systems. However, this functional capacity is constrained by their constituent strains' ability to engage in complex communication. DNA messaging, by enabling information-rich channel-decoupled communication, is a promising candidate architecture for implementing complex communication. But its major advantage, its messages' dynamic mutability, is still unexplored. We develop a framework for addressable and adaptable DNA messaging that leverages all three of these advantages and implement it using plasmid conjugation in E. coli. Our system can bias the transfer of messages to targeted receiver strains by 100- to 1000-fold, and their recipient lists can be dynamically updated in situ to control the flow of information through the population. This work lays the foundation for future developments that further utilize the unique advantages of DNA messaging to engineer previously-inaccessible levels of complexity into biological systems.

A reference cell tree will serve science better than a reference cell atlas

Single-cell biology is facing a crisis of sorts. Vast numbers of single-cell molecular profiles are being generated, clustered and annotated. However, this is overwhelmingly ad hoc, and we continue to lack a principled, unified, and well-moored system for defining, naming, and organizing cell types. In this perspective, we argue against an atlas or periodic table-like discretization as the right metaphor for a reference taxonomy of cell types. In its place, we advocate for a data-driven, tree-based nomenclature that is rooted in a "consensus ontogeny" spanning the life cycle of a given species. We explore how such a reference cell tree, inclusive of both lineage histories and molecular states, could be constructed, represented, and segmented in practice. Analogous to the taxonomic classification of species, a consensus ontogeny would provide a universal, stable, and extendable framework for precise scientific communication, both contemporaneously and across the ages.

Application of CRISPR Cas systems in DNA recorders and writers

The necessity to record and store biological data is increasing in due course of time. However, it is quite difficult to understand biological mechanisms and keep a track of these events in some storage mediums. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the best candidate for the storage of cellular events in the biological system. It is energy efficient as well as stable at the same time. DNA-based writers and memory devices are continually evolving and finding new avenues in terms of their wide range of applications. Among all the DNA-based storage devices that employ enzymes like recombinases, nucleases, integrases, and polymerases, one of the most popular tools used for these devices is the emerging and versatile CRISPR Cas technology. CRISPR Cas is a prokaryotic immune system that keeps a memory of viral attacks and protects prokaryotes from potential future infections. The main aim of this short review is to study such molecular recorders and writers that employ CRISPR Cas technologies and obtain an in-depth overview of the mechanisms involved and the applications of these molecular devices.

Biomarker-responsive engineered probiotic diagnoses, records, and ameliorates inflammatory bowel disease in mice

Rapid advances in synthetic biology have fueled interest in engineered microorganisms that can diagnose and treat disease. However, designing bacteria that detect dynamic disease-associated biomarkers that then drive treatment remains difficult. Here, we have developed an engineered probiotic that noninvasively monitors and records inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) occurrence and progression in real time and can release treatments via a self-tunable mechanism in response to these biomarkers. These intelligent responsive bacteria for diagnosis and therapy (i-ROBOT) consists of E. coli Nissle 1917 that responds to levels of the inflammatory marker thiosulfate by activating a base-editing system to generate a heritable genomic DNA sequence as well as producing a colorimetric signal. Fluctuations in thiosulfate also drive the tunable release of the immunomodulator AvCystatin. Orally administering i-ROBOT to mice with colitis generated molecular recording signals in processed fecal and colon samples and effectively ameliorated disease. i-ROBOT provides a promising paradigm for gastrointestinal and other metabolic disorders.

Scalable biological signal recording in mammalian cells using Cas12a base editors

Biological signal recording enables the study of molecular inputs experienced throughout cellular history. However, current methods are limited in their ability to scale up beyond a single signal in mammalian contexts. Here, we develop an approach using a hyper-efficient dCas12a base editor for multi-signal parallel recording in human cells. We link signals of interest to expression of guide RNAs to catalyze specific nucleotide conversions as a permanent record, enabled by Cas12's guide-processing abilities. We show this approach is plug-and-play with diverse biologically relevant inputs and extend it for more sophisticated applications, including recording of time-delimited events and history of chimeric antigen receptor T cells' antigen exposure. We also demonstrate efficient recording of up to four signals in parallel on an endogenous safe-harbor locus. This work provides a versatile platform for scalable recording of signals of interest for a variety of biological applications.

Computationally designed hyperactive Cas9 enzymes

The ability to alter the genomes of living cells is key to understanding how genes influence the functions of organisms and will be critical to modify living systems for useful purposes. However, this promise has long been limited by the technical challenges involved in genetic engineering. Recent advances in gene editing have bypassed some of these challenges but they are still far from ideal. Here we use FuncLib to computationally design Cas9 enzymes with substantially higher donor-independent editing activities. We use genetic circuits linked to cell survival in yeast to quantify Cas9 activity and discover synergistic interactions between engineered regions. These hyperactive Cas9 variants function efficiently in mammalian cells and introduce larger and more diverse pools of insertions and deletions into targeted genomic regions, providing tools to enhance and expand the possible applications of CRISPR-based gene editing.

The ability to alter the genomes of living cells is key to understanding how genes influence the functions of organisms and will be critical to modify living systems for useful purposes. Here, the authors use computational design to discover Cas9 enzymes with increased activity.

Noninvasive assessment of gut function using transcriptional recording sentinel cells

Transcriptional recording by CRISPR spacer acquisition from RNA endows engineered Escherichia coli with synthetic memory, which through Record-seq reveals transcriptome-scale records. Microbial sentinels that traverse the gastrointestinal tract capture a wide range of genes and pathways that describe interactions with the host, including quantitative shifts in the molecular environment that result from alterations in the host diet, induced inflammation, and microbiome complexity. We demonstrate multiplexed recording using barcoded CRISPR arrays, enabling the reconstruction of transcriptional histories of isogenic bacterial strains in vivo. Record-seq therefore provides a scalable, noninvasive platform for interrogating intestinal and microbial physiology throughout the length of the intestine without manipulations to host physiology and can determine how single microbial genetic differences alter the way in which the microbe adapts to the host intestinal environment.

The role of NAD and NAD precursors on longevity and lifespan modulation in the budding yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Molecular causes of aging and longevity interventions have witnessed an upsurge in the last decade. The resurgent interests in the application of small molecules as potential geroprotectors and/or pharmacogenomics point to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and its precursors, nicotinamide riboside, nicotinamide mononucleotide, nicotinamide, and nicotinic acid as potentially intriguing molecules. Upon supplementation, these compounds have shown to ameliorate aging related conditions and possibly prevent death in model organisms. Besides being a molecule essential in all living cells, our understanding of the mechanism of NAD metabolism and its regulation remain incomplete owing to its omnipresent nature. Here we discuss recent advances and techniques in the study of chronological lifespan (CLS) and replicative lifespan (RLS) in the model unicellular organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We then follow with the mechanism and biology of NAD precursors and their roles in aging and longevity. Finally, we review potential biotechnological applications through engineering of microbial lifespan, and laid perspective on the promising candidature of alternative redox compounds for extending lifespan.

Peptide-Based Sensing, Logic Computing, and Information Security on the Antimonene Platform

Peptides have higher information density than DNA and equivalent molecular recognition ability and durability. However, there are currently no reports on the comprehensive use of peptides' recognition ability and structural diversity for sensing, logic computing, information coding, and protection. Herein, we, for the first time, demonstrate peptide-based sensing, logic computing, and information security on the antimonene platform. The molecular recognition capability and structural diversity (amino acid sequence) of peptides (Pb²⁺-binding peptide DHHTQQHD as a model) adsorbed on the antimonene universal fluorescence quenching platform were comprehensively utilized to sense targets (Pb²⁺) and give a response (fluorescence turn-on) and then to encode, encrypt, and hide information. Fluorescently labeled peptides used as the recognition probe and the information carrier were quenched and hidden by the large-plane two-dimensional material antimonene and specifically bound by Pb²⁺ as the stego key, resulting in fluorescence recovery. The above interaction and signal change can be considered as a peptide-based sensing and steganographic process to further implement quantitative detection of Pb²⁺, complex logic operation, information coding, encrypting, and hiding using a peptide sequence and the binary conversion of its selectivity. This research provides a basic paradigm for the construction of a molecular sensing and informatization platform and will inspire the development of biopolymer-based molecular information technology (processing, communication, control, security).

Stimuli-responsive DNA-based hydrogels for biosensing applications

The base sequences of DNA are endowed with the rich structural and functional information and are available for the precise construction of the 2D and 3D macro products. The hydrogels formed by DNA are biocompatible, stable, tunable and biologically versatile, thus, these have a wide range of promising applications in bioanalysis and biomedicine. In particular, the stimuli-responsive DNA hydrogels (smart DNA hydrogels), which exhibit a reversible and switchable hydrogel to sol transition under different triggers, have emerged as smart materials for sensing. Thus far, the combination of the stimuli-responsive DNA hydrogels and multiple sensing platforms is considered as biocompatible and is useful as the flexible recognition components. A review of the stimuli-responsive DNA hydrogels and their biosensing applications has been presented in this study. The synthesis methods to prepare the DNA hydrogels have been introduced. Subsequently, the current status of the stimuli-responsive DNA hydrogels in biosensing has been described. The analytical mechanisms are further elaborated by the combination of the stimuli-responsive DNA hydrogels with the optical, electrochemical, point-of-care testing (POCT) and other detection platforms. In addition, the prospects of the application of the stimuli-responsive DNA hydrogels in biosensing are presented.

Orthogonal CRISPR-Cas tools for genome editing, inhibition, and CRISPR recording in zebrafish embryos

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas universe continues to expand. The type II CRISPR-Cas system from Streptococcus pyogenes (SpyCas9) is the most widely used for genome editing due to its high efficiency in cells and organisms. However, concentrating on a single CRISPR-Cas system imposes limits on target selection and multiplexed genome engineering. We hypothesized that CRISPR-Cas systems originating from different bacterial species could operate simultaneously and independently due to their distinct single-guide RNAs (sgRNAs) or CRISPR-RNAs (crRNAs), and protospacer adjacent motifs (PAMs). Additionally, we hypothesized that CRISPR-Cas activity in zebrafish could be regulated through the expression of inhibitory anti-CRISPR (Acr) proteins. Here, we use a simple mutagenesis approach to demonstrate that CRISPR-Cas systems from S. pyogenes (SpyCas9), Streptococcus aureus (SauCas9), Lachnospiraceae bacterium (LbaCas12a, previously known as LbCpf1) are orthogonal systems capable of operating simultaneously in zebrafish. CRISPR systems from Acidaminococcus sp. (AspCas12a, previously known as AsCpf1) and Neisseria meningitidis (Nme2Cas9) were also active in embryos. We implemented multichannel CRISPR recording using three CRISPR systems and show that LbaCas12a may provide superior information density compared with previous methods. We also demonstrate that type II Acrs (anti-CRISPRs) are effective inhibitors of SpyCas9 in zebrafish. Our results indicate that at least five CRISPR-Cas systems and two anti-CRISPR proteins are functional in zebrafish embryos. These orthogonal CRISPR-Cas systems and Acr proteins will enable combinatorial and intersectional strategies for spatiotemporal control of genome editing and genetic recording in animals.

Futuristic CRISPR-based biosensing in the cloud and internet of things era: an overview

Biosensors-based devices are transforming medical diagnosis of diseases and monitoring of patient signals. The development of smart and automated molecular diagnostic tools equipped with biomedical big data analysis, cloud computing and medical artificial intelligence can be an ideal approach for the detection and monitoring of diseases, precise therapy, and storage of data over the cloud for supportive decisions. This review focused on the use of machine learning approaches for the development of futuristic CRISPR-biosensors based on microchips and the use of Internet of Things for wireless transmission of signals over the cloud for support decision making. The present review also discussed the discovery of CRISPR, its usage as a gene editing tool, and the CRISPR-based biosensors with high sensitivity of Attomolar (10^-18 M), Femtomolar (10^-15 M) and Picomolar (10^-12 M) in comparison to conventional biosensors with sensitivity of nanomolar 10^-9 M and micromolar 10^-3 M. Additionally, the review also outlines limitations and open research issues in the current state of CRISPR-based biosensing applications.

The CRISPR-Cas toolbox and gene editing technologies

The emergence of CRISPR-Cas systems has accelerated the development of gene editing technologies, which are widely used in the life sciences. To improve the performance of these systems, workers have engineered and developed a variety of CRISPR-Cas tools with a broader range of targets, higher efficiency and specificity, and greater precision. Moreover, CRISPR-Cas-related technologies have also been expanded beyond making cuts in DNA by introducing functional elements that permit precise gene modification, control gene expression, make epigenetic changes, and so on. In this review, we introduce and summarize the characteristics and applications of different types of CRISPR-Cas tools. We discuss certain limitations of current approaches and future prospects for optimizing CRISPR-Cas systems.

Innovation in culture systems to study muscle complexity

Endogenous skeletal muscle development, regeneration, and pathology are extremely complex processes, influenced by local and systemic factors. Unpinning how these mechanisms function is crucial for fundamental biology and to develop therapeutic interventions for genetic disorders, but also conditions like sarcopenia and volumetric muscle loss. Ex vivo skeletal muscle models range from two- and three-dimensional primary cultures of satellite stem cell-derived myoblasts grown alone or in co-culture, to single muscle myofibers, myobundles, and whole tissues. Together, these systems provide the opportunity to gain mechanistic insights of stem cell behavior, cell-cell interactions, and mature muscle function in simplified systems, without confounding variables. Here, we highlight recent advances (published in the last 5 years) using in vitro primary cells and ex vivo skeletal muscle models, and summarize the new insights, tools, datasets, and screening methods they have provided. Finally, we highlight the opportunity for exponential advance of skeletal muscle knowledge, with spatiotemporal resolution, that is offered by guiding the study of muscle biology and physiology with in silico modelling and implementing high-content cell biology systems and ex vivo physiology platforms.

Multifunctional Carbon Nanocomposites as Nanoneurons from Multimode and Multianalyte Sensing to Molecular Logic Computing, Steganography, and Cryptography

Inspired by information exchange and logic functions of life based on molecular recognition and interaction networks, ongoing efforts are directed toward development of molecular or nanosystems for multiplexed chem/biosensing and advanced information processing. However, because of their preparation shortcomings, poor functionality, and limited paradigms, it is still a big challenge to develop advanced nanomaterials-based systems and comprehensively realize neuron-like functions from multimode sensing to molecular information processing and safety. Herein, using fish scales derived carbon nanoparticles (FSCN) as a reducing agent and stabilizer, a simple one-step synthesis method of multifunctional silver-carbon nanocomposites (AgNPs-FSCN) is developed. The prepared AgNPs-FSCN own wide antibacterial and multisignal response abilities in five channels (including color, Tyndall, absorption and fluorescence intensities, and absorption wavelength) for quantitative colorimetric and fluorescence sensing of H₂ O₂ , ascorbic acid, and dopamine. Benefiting from its multicoding stimuli-responsive ability, molecular concealment, and programmability, AgNPs-FSCN can be abstracted as nanoneurons for implementing batch and parallel molecular logic computing, steganography, and cryptography. This research will promote the preparation of advanced multifunctional nanocomposites and the development of their multipurpose applications, including the multireadout-guided multianalyte intelligent sensing and sophisticated molecular computing, communication, and security.

Visualization of individual cell division history in complex tissues using iCOUNT

The division potential of individual stem cells and the molecular consequences of successive rounds of proliferation remain largely unknown. Here, we developed an inducible cell division counter (iCOUNT) that reports cell division events in human and mouse tissues in vitro and in vivo. Analyzing cell division histories of neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) in the developing and adult brain, we show that iCOUNT can provide novel insights into stem cell behavior. Further, we use single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of iCOUNT-labeled NSPCs and their progenies from the developing mouse cortex and forebrain-regionalized human organoids to identify functionally relevant molecular pathways that are commonly regulated between mouse and human cells, depending on individual cell division histories. Thus, we developed a tool to characterize the molecular consequences of repeated cell divisions of stem cells that allows an analysis of the cellular principles underlying tissue formation, homeostasis, and repair.

Editing Properties of Base Editors with SpCas9-NG in Discarded Human Tripronuclear Zygotes

DNA base editors, comprising nucleotide deaminases and catalytically impaired Cas9 nickase, have been widely used in various organisms for the efficient creation of point mutations, providing researchers with powerful tools in precise genome editing. However, they have been limited by the scope of the editing. The discovery and engineering of various CRISPR-Cas systems, especially SpCas9 variants xCas9, Cas9-NG, and Cas9-SpRY, have diversified the range of targetable DNA sequences and expanded the targeting scope of genomic base editing. To understand the editing properties comprehensively, we conducted an analysis of the editing properties of adenine base editors and cytosine base editors with xCas9, Cas9-NG, and Cas9-SpRY at endogenous sites with NGN protospacer adjacent motifs (PAM). Then, human genetic disease-associated DNA point mutations were installed at a single site or at dual sites with NGH PAM using base editors with SpCas9-NG (ABEmax-NG and Anc-BE4max-NG [BEs-NG]) in cultured human cell lines. Finally, the editing properties of BEs-NG in discarded human tripronuclear embryos were characterized. This study investigated the editing properties of DNA base editors with a relaxed PAM requirement and demonstrated the potential of BEs-NG in human genetic disease-related research and treatment.

Random access DNA memory using Boolean search in an archival file storage system

DNA is an ultrahigh-density storage medium that could meet exponentially growing worldwide demand for archival data storage if DNA synthesis costs declined sufficiently and if random access of files within exabyte-to-yottabyte-scale DNA data pools were feasible. Here, we demonstrate a path to overcome the second barrier by encapsulating data-encoding DNA file sequences within impervious silica capsules that are surface labelled with single-stranded DNA barcodes. Barcodes are chosen to represent file metadata, enabling selection of sets of files with Boolean logic directly, without use of amplification. We demonstrate random access of image files from a prototypical 2-kilobyte image database using fluorescence sorting with selection sensitivity of one in 10⁶ files, which thereby enables one in 10^6N selection capability using N optical channels. Our strategy thereby offers a scalable concept for random access of archival files in large-scale molecular datasets.

Layman N, Redwood AJ, Chan B, Bull JJ. Methods for measuring the evolutionary stability of engineered genomes to improve their longevity

Diverse applications rely on engineering microbes to carry and express foreign transgenes. This engineered baggage rarely benefits the microbe and is thus prone to rapid evolutionary loss when the microbe is propagated. For applications where a transgene must be maintained for extended periods of growth, slowing the rate of transgene evolution is critical and can be achieved by reducing either the rate of mutation or the strength of selection. Because the benefits realized by changing these quantities will not usually be equal, it is important to know which will yield the greatest improvement to the evolutionary half-life of the engineering. Here, we provide a method for jointly estimating the mutation rate of transgene loss and the strength of selection favoring these transgene-free, revertant individuals. The method requires data from serial transfer experiments in which the frequency of engineered genomes is monitored periodically. Simple mathematical models are developed that use these estimates to predict the half-life of the engineered transgene and provide quantitative predictions for how alterations to mutation and selection will influence longevity. The estimation method and predictive tools have been implemented as an interactive web application, MuSe.

Efficient retroelement-mediated DNA writing in bacteria

The ability to efficiently and dynamically change information stored in genomes would enable powerful strategies for studying cell biology and controlling cellular phenotypes. Current recombineering-mediated DNA writing platforms in bacteria are limited to specific laboratory conditions, often suffer from suboptimal editing efficiencies, and are not suitable for in situ applications. To overcome these limitations, we engineered a retroelement-mediated DNA writing system that enables efficient and precise editing of bacterial genomes without the requirement for target-specific elements or selection. We demonstrate that this DNA writing platform enables a broad range of applications, including efficient, scarless, and cis-element-independent editing of targeted microbial genomes within complex communities, the high-throughput mapping of spatial information and cellular interactions into DNA memory, and the continuous evolution of cellular traits.

Dynamic control of the distribution of carbon flux between cell growth and butyrate biosynthesis in Escherichia coli

Microbial cell factories offer an economic and environmentally friendly method for the biosynthesis of acetyl-CoA-derived chemicals. However, the static control of carbon flux can cause direct and indirect competition for acetyl-CoA between cell growth and chemical biosynthesis, limiting the efficiency of microbial cell factories. Herein, recombinase-based genetic circuits were developed to achieve the optimal distribution of acetyl-CoA between cell growth and butyrate biosynthesis. First, three dynamic devices-a turn-on switch, a turn-off switch, and a recombinase-based inverter (RBI)-were constructed based on Bxb1 recombinase. Then, the turn-on switch was used to dynamically control the butyrate biosynthetic pathway, which directly improved the consumption of acetyl-CoA. Next, the turn-off switch was applied to dynamically control cell growth, which indirectly enhanced the supply of acetyl-CoA. Finally, an RBI was adopted for the dynamic dual control of the distribution of acetyl-CoA between cell growth and butyrate biosynthesis. The final butyrate production rate was increased to 34 g/L, with a productivity of 0.405 g/L/h. The strategy described herein will pave the way for the development of high-performance microbial cell factories for the production of other desirable chemicals. KEY POINTS: • Competition for acetyl-CoA between cell growth and synthesis limits productivity. • Recombinase-based genetic circuits were developed to dynamic control of acetyl-CoA. • Optimal distribution of acetyl-CoA between cell growth and synthesis was achieved.

Robust direct digital-to-biological data storage in living cells

DNA has been the predominant information storage medium for biology and holds great promise as a next-generation high-density data medium in the digital era. Currently, the vast majority of DNA-based data storage approaches rely on in vitro DNA synthesis. As such, there are limited methods to encode digital data into the chromosomes of living cells in a single step. Here, we describe a new electrogenetic framework for direct storage of digital data in living cells. Using an engineered redox-responsive CRISPR adaptation system, we encoded binary data in 3-bit units into CRISPR arrays of bacterial cells by electrical stimulation. We demonstrate multiplex data encoding into barcoded cell populations to yield meaningful information storage and capacity up to 72 bits, which can be maintained over many generations in natural open environments. This work establishes a direct digital-to-biological data storage framework and advances our capacity for information exchange between silicon- and carbon-based entities.

Recording of elapsed time and temporal information about biological events using Cas9

DNA has not been utilized to record temporal information, although DNA has been used to record biological information and to compute mathematical problems. Here, we found that indel generation by Cas9 and guide RNA can occur at steady rates, in contrast to typical dynamic biological reactions, and the accumulated indel frequency can be a function of time. By measuring indel frequencies, we developed a method for recording and measuring absolute time periods over hours to weeks in mammalian cells. These time-recordings were conducted in several cell types, with different promoters and delivery vectors for Cas9, and in both cultured cells and cells of living mice. As applications, we recorded the duration of chemical exposure and the lengths of elapsed time since the onset of biological events (e.g., heat exposure and inflammation). We propose that our systems could serve as synthetic "DNA clocks."

Novel Modalities in DNA Data Storage

The field of storing information in DNA has expanded exponentially. Most common modalities involve encoding information from bits into synthesized nucleotides, storage in liquid or dry media, and decoding via sequencing. However, limitations to this paradigm include the cost of DNA synthesis and sequencing, along with low throughput. Further unresolved questions include the appropriate media of storage and the scalability of such approaches for commercial viability. In this review, we examine various storage modalities involving the use of DNA from a systems-level perspective. We compare novel methods that draw inspiration from molecular biology techniques that have been devised to overcome the difficulties posed by standard workflows and conceptualize potential applications that can arise from these advances.

How stem cells remember their past

Somatic stem cells are required for tissue development, homeostasis, and repair. Recent data suggested that previous biographical experiences of individual stem cells influence their behavior in the context of tissue formation and govern stem cell responses to external stimuli. Here we provide a concise review how a cell's biography, for example, previous rounds of cell divisions or the age-dependent accumulation of cellular damage, is remembered in stem cells and how previous experiences affect the segregation of cellular components, thus guiding cellular behavior in vertebrate stem cells. Further, we suggest future directions of research that may help to unravel the molecular underpinnings of how past experiences guide future cellular behavior.

CRISPR base editing and prime editing: DSB and template-free editing systems for bacteria and plants

CRISPR-Cas (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-CRISPR associated) has been extensively exploited as a genetic tool for genome editing. The RNA guided Cas nucleases generate DNA double-strand break (DSB), triggering cellular repair systems mainly Non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ, imprecise repair) or Homology-directed repair (HDR, precise repair). However, DSB typically leads to unexpected DNA changes and lethality in some organisms. The establishment of bacteria and plants into major bio-production platforms require efficient and precise editing tools. Hence, in this review, we focus on the non-DSB and template-free genome editing, i.e., base editing (BE) and prime editing (PE) in bacteria and plants. We first highlight the development of base and prime editors and summarize their studies in bacteria and plants. We then discuss current and future applications of BE/PE in synthetic biology, crop improvement, evolutionary engineering, and metabolic engineering. Lastly, we critically consider the challenges and prospects of BE/PE in PAM specificity, editing efficiency, off-targeting, sequence specification, and editing window.

Rational programming of history-dependent logic in cellular populations

Genetic programs operating in a history-dependent fashion are ubiquitous in nature and govern sophisticated processes such as development and differentiation. The ability to systematically and predictably encode such programs would advance the engineering of synthetic organisms and ecosystems with rich signal processing abilities. Here we implement robust, scalable history-dependent programs by distributing the computational labor across a cellular population. Our design is based on standardized recombinase-driven DNA scaffolds expressing different genes according to the order of occurrence of inputs. These multicellular computing systems are highly modular, do not require cell-cell communication channels, and any program can be built by differential composition of strains containing well-characterized logic scaffolds. We developed automated workflows that researchers can use to streamline program design and optimization. We anticipate that the history-dependent programs presented here will support many applications using cellular populations for material engineering, biomanufacturing and healthcare.

Long-Term Rewritable Report and Recording of Environmental Stimuli in Engineered Bacterial Populations

DNA writing (living sensing recorders) based whole-cell biosensors can capture transient signals and then convert them into readable genomic DNA changes. The primitive signals can be easily obtained by sequencing technology or analysis of protein activity (such as fluorescent protein). However, the functions of the current living sensing recorders still need to be expanded, and the difficulty of rewriting in complex biological environments has further limited their applications. In this study, we designed a long-term rewritable recording system using a CRISPR base editor-based synthetic genetic circuit, named CRISPR-istop. This system can convert stimuli into changes in the fluorescence intensity (reporter) and single-base mutations in genomic DNA (recording). Furthermore, we updated the biological circuit through the strategy of coupling the single-base mutation (record site) and the loss-of-function of the targeted protein (translation stopped by stop codon introduction), and we can remove edited bacteria from a population through selective sweeps upon applying a selective pressure. It successfully conducted the rewritable reporter and recording of the nutrient arabinose and pollutant arsenite with two rounds of continuous operation (10 passages/round, 12 h/passage). These observations indicated that the CRISPR-istop system can report and record stimuli over time; moreover, the recording can be manually erased and rewritten as needed. This method has great potential to be extended to more complicated recording systems to execute sophisticated tasks in inaccessible environments for synthetic biology and biomedical applications, such as monitoring disease-relevant physiological markers or other molecules.

Microbes as Biosensors

The ability to detect disease early and deliver precision therapy would be transformative for the treatment of human illnesses. To achieve these goals, biosensors that can pinpoint when and where diseases emerge are needed. Rapid advances in synthetic biology are enabling us to exploit the information-processing abilities of living cells to diagnose disease and then treat it in a controlled fashion. For example, living sensors could be designed to precisely sense disease biomarkers, such as by-products of inflammation, and to respond by delivering targeted therapeutics in situ. Here, we provide an overview of ongoing efforts in microbial biosensor design, highlight translational opportunities, and discuss challenges for enabling sense-and-respond precision medicines.