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Huang Y, Huangfu X, Ma C, Liu Z. Sequestration and oxidation of heavy metals mediated by Mn(II) oxidizing microorganisms in the aquatic environment. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 329:138594. [PMID: 37030347 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 04/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Microorganisms can oxidize Mn(II) to biogenic Mn oxides (BioMnOx), through enzyme-mediated processes and non-enzyme-mediated processes, which are generally considered as the source and sink of heavy metals due to highly reactive to sequestrate and oxidize heavy metals. Hence, the summary of interactions between Mn(II) oxidizing microorganisms (MnOM) and heavy metals is benefit for further work on microbial-mediated self-purification of water bodies. This review comprehensively summarizes the interactions between MnOM and heavy metals. The processes of BioMnOx production by MnOM has been firstly discussed. Moreover, the interactions between BioMnOx and various heavy metals are critically discussed. On the one hand, modes for heavy metals adsorbed on BioMnOx are summarized, such as electrostatic attraction, oxidative precipitation, ion exchange, surface complexation, and autocatalytic oxidation. On the other hand, adsorption and oxidation of representative heavy metals based on BioMnOx/Mn(II) are also discussed. Thirdly, the interactions between MnOM and heavy metals are also focused on. Finally, several perspectives which will contribute to future research are proposed. This review provides insight into the sequestration and oxidation of heavy metals mediated by Mn(II) oxidizing microorganisms. It might be helpful to understand the geochemical fate of heavy metals in the aquatic environment and the process of microbial-mediated water self-purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuheng Huang
- Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China
| | - Xiaoliu Huangfu
- Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China.
| | - Chengxue Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource, and Environment, School of Municipal, and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Ziqiang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Eco-Environments in Three Gorges Reservoir Region, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, and Ecology, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China
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2
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Trivedi A, Vishwakarma A, Saawarn B, Mahanty B, Hait S. Fungal biotechnology for urban mining of metals from waste printed circuit boards: A review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 323:116133. [PMID: 36099867 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 08/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Rapid surge in electronic waste (e-waste) and its unscientific handling has an adverse impact on humans and the environment. Waste printed circuit board (WPCB), an integrated component of e-waste, has a high metallic content that includes both toxic and precious metals. Therefore, metal recovery is essential not just to avoid environmental degradation but also for economic growth. The current literature analysis focuses on one such eco-friendly approach, known as fungal biotechnology, for extracting metals from WPCBs. Among diverse bioleaching agents, fungi have shown promising metal extraction efficiency (Al: 65-96%; Co: 45-90%; Cu: 34-100%; Ni: 8-95%; Mn: 70-95%; Pb: 27-95%; Zn: 54-99%) and the ability to work in a wide pH range. However, in terms of metal recovery from WPCBs, fungal bioleaching has been less explored. This review, thus, assesses the fungal biotechnology for metal extraction from WPCBs and discusses the associated mechanism and kinetics involved. Different process parameters affecting the fungal bioleaching have also been discussed briefly. The review highlights that, while this process has enough potential, some associated drawbacks hinder its practical applicability on an industrial scale. Lastly, some suggestions for scaling up and reducing the cost of the process have been made, which need to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber Trivedi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar, 801 106, India
| | - Anusha Vishwakarma
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar, 801 106, India
| | - Bhavini Saawarn
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar, 801 106, India
| | - Byomkesh Mahanty
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar, 801 106, India
| | - Subrata Hait
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar, 801 106, India.
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Simultaneous Sequestration of Co2+ and Mn2+ by Fungal Manganese Oxide through Asbolane Formation. MINERALS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/min12030358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Biogenic manganese oxides (BMOs) have attractive environmental applications owing to their metal sequestration and oxidizing abilities. Although Co readily accumulates into Mn oxide phases in natural environments, the Co2+ sequestration process that accompanies the enzymatic Mn(II) oxidation of exogenous Mn2+ remains unknown. Therefore, we prepared newly formed BMOs in a liquid culture of Acremonium strictum KR21-2 and conducted repeated sequestration experiments in a Mn2+/Co2+ binary solution at pH 7.0. The sequestration of Co2+ by newly formed BMOs (~1 mM Mn) readily progressed in parallel with the oxidation of exogenous Mn2+, with higher efficiencies than that in single Co2+ solutions when the initial Co2+ concentrations (0.16–0.8 mM) were comparable to or lower than the exogenous Mn2+ concentration (~0.8 mM). This demonstrates a synergetic effect on Co sequestration. Powder X-ray diffraction showed a typical pattern for asbolane only when newly formed BMOs were treated in Mn2+/Co2+ binary systems, implying that the enzymatic Mn(II) oxidation by newly formed BMOs favored asbolane formation. Cobalt K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure measurements showed that both Co(II) and Co(III) participated in the formation of the asbolane phase in the binary solutions, whereas most of the primary Co2+ was sequestered as Co(III) in the single Co2+ solutions, which partly explains the synergetic effects on Co sequestration efficiency in the binary solutions. The results presented here provide new insights into the mechanism of Co interaction with Mn oxide phases through asbolane formation by enzymatic Mn(II) oxidation under circumneutral pH conditions.
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Ran X, Zhu Z, Long H, Tian Q, You L, Wu X, Liu Q, Huang S, Li S, Niu X, Wang J. Manganese Stress Adaptation Mechanisms of Bacillus safensis Strain ST7 From Mine Soil. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:758889. [PMID: 34899642 PMCID: PMC8656422 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.758889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanism of bacterial adaption to manganese-polluted environments was explored using 50 manganese-tolerant strains of bacteria isolated from soil of the largest manganese mine in China. Efficiency of manganese removal by the isolated strains was investigated using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Bacillus safensis strain ST7 was the most effective manganese-oxidizing bacteria among the tested isolates, achieving up to 82% removal at a Mn(II) concentration of 2,200 mg/L. Bacteria-mediated manganese oxide precipitates and high motility were observed, and the growth of strain ST7 was inhibited while its biofilm formation was promoted by the presence of Mn(II). In addition, strain ST7 could grow in the presence of high concentrations of Al(III), Cr(VI), and Fe(III). Genome-wide analysis of the gene expression profile of strain ST7 using the RNA-seq method revealed that 2,580 genes were differently expressed under Mn(II) exposure, and there were more downregulated genes (n = 2,021) than upregulated genes (n = 559) induced by Mn stress. KAAS analysis indicated that these differently expressed genes were mainly enriched in material metabolisms, cellular processes, organism systems, and genetic and environmental information processing pathways. A total of twenty-six genes from the transcriptome of strain ST7 were involved in lignocellulosic degradation. Furthermore, after 15 genes were knocked out by homologous recombination technology, it was observed that the transporters, multicopper oxidase, and proteins involved in sporulation and flagellogenesis contributed to the removal of Mn(II) in strain ST7. In summary, B. safensis ST7 adapted to Mn exposure by changing its metabolism, upregulating cation transporters, inhibiting sporulation and flagellogenesis, and activating an alternative stress-related sigB pathway. This bacterial strain could potentially be used to restore soil polluted by multiple heavy metals and is a candidate to support the consolidated bioprocessing community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueqin Ran
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Zhongmei Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Hong Long
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Qun Tian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Longjiang You
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Xingdiao Wu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Qin Liu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Shihui Huang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Sheng Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Xi Niu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Jiafu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resource Conservation and Germplasm Innovation in Mountainous Region (Ministry of Education), College of Animal Science/Institute of Agro-Bioengineering, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
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Ehrlich H, Bailey E, Wysokowski M, Jesionowski T. Forced Biomineralization: A Review. Biomimetics (Basel) 2021; 6:46. [PMID: 34287234 PMCID: PMC8293141 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics6030046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Biologically induced and controlled mineralization of metals promotes the development of protective structures to shield cells from thermal, chemical, and ultraviolet stresses. Metal biomineralization is widely considered to have been relevant for the survival of life in the environmental conditions of ancient terrestrial oceans. Similar behavior is seen among extremophilic biomineralizers today, which have evolved to inhabit a variety of industrial aqueous environments with elevated metal concentrations. As an example of extreme biomineralization, we introduce the category of "forced biomineralization", which we use to refer to the biologically mediated sequestration of dissolved metals and metalloids into minerals. We discuss forced mineralization as it is known to be carried out by a variety of organisms, including polyextremophiles in a range of psychrophilic, thermophilic, anaerobic, alkaliphilic, acidophilic, and halophilic conditions, as well as in environments with very high or toxic metal ion concentrations. While much additional work lies ahead to characterize the various pathways by which these biominerals form, forced biomineralization has been shown to provide insights for the progression of extreme biomimetics, allowing for promising new forays into creating the next generation of composites using organic-templating approaches under biologically extreme laboratory conditions relevant to a wide range of industrial conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermann Ehrlich
- Institute of Electronic and Sensor Materials, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, 09599 Freiberg, Germany
- Center for Advanced Technology, Adam Mickiewicz University, 61614 Poznan, Poland
- Centre for Climate Change Research, Toronto, ON M4P 1J4, Canada
- ICUBE-University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Bailey
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA;
| | - Marcin Wysokowski
- Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
| | - Teofil Jesionowski
- Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznan, Poland
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Yang F, Zheng Y, Tian X, Liu Y, Li J, Shao Z, Zhao F. Redox cycling of manganese by Bacillus horikoshii biET1 via oxygen switch. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.137963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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7
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Preferential Elimination of Ba2+ through Irreversible Biogenic Manganese Oxide Sequestration. MINERALS 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/min11010053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Biogenic manganese oxides (BMOs) formed in a culture of the Mn(II)-oxidizing fungus Acremonium strictum strain KR21-2 are known to retain enzymatic Mn(II) oxidation activity. Consequently, these are increasingly attracting attention as a substrate for eliminating toxic elements from contaminated wastewaters. In this study, we examined the Ba2+ sequestration potential of enzymatically active BMOs with and without exogenous Mn2+. The BMOs readily oxidized exogenous Mn2+ to produce another BMO phase, and subsequently sequestered Ba2+ at a pH of 7.0, with irreversible Ba2+ sequestration as the dominant pathway. Extended X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction analyses demonstrated alteration from turbostratic to tightly stacked birnessite through possible Ba2+ incorporation into the interlayer. The irreversible sequestration of Sr2+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ was insignificant, and the turbostratic birnessite structure was preserved. Results from competitive sequestration experiments revealed that the BMOs favored Ba2+ over Sr2+, Ca2+, and Mg2+. These results explain the preferential accumulation of Ba2+ in natural Mn oxide phases produced by microbes under circumneutral environmental conditions. These findings highlight the potential for applying enzymatically active BMOs for eliminating Ba2+ from contaminated wastewaters.
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8
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Alba-Molina D, Rodríguez-Padrón D, Puente-Santiago AR, Giner-Casares JJ, Martín-Romero MT, Camacho L, Martins LO, Muñoz-Batista MJ, Cano M, Luque R. Mimicking the bioelectrocatalytic function of recombinant CotA laccase through electrostatically self-assembled bioconjugates. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:1549-1554. [PMID: 30629067 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr06001k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Unprecedented 3D nanobiosystems composed of recombinant CotA laccases and citrate-stabilised gold nanoparticles have been successfully achieved by an electrostatic self-assembly strategy. The bioelectrochemical reduction of O2 driven by CotA laccase at the spore coat was mimicked. Consequently key insights into its bioelectrocatalytic function were unravelled.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Alba-Molina
- Departamento de Química Física y Termodinamica Aplicada, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Química Fina y Nanoquímica IUIQFN, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Ed. Marie Curie, E-14071 Córdoba, Spain.
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9
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Zhao X, Wang X, Liu B, Xie G, Xing D. Characterization of manganese oxidation by Brevibacillus at different ecological conditions. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 205:553-558. [PMID: 29709806 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.04.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 04/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial Mn(II) oxidation plays an important role in the biogeochemical cycling of manganese and many trace metals. This study describes Mn(II) oxidation by two isolated manganese (Mn)-oxidizing strains that were identified and assigned as Brevibacillus brevis MO1 and Brevibacillus parabrevis MO2 based on physiochemical and phylogenetic characterizations. The ecological conditions influenced Mn(II) oxidation by both strains. Mn(II) stimulated the growth of strain MO2 while slightly inhibiting strain MO1. Mn(II)-oxidizing activity of two strains was enhanced with increase of initial pH, and maximum Mn(II)-oxidizing activity occurred at pH 8 for both strains (93.5%-94.0%). Brevibacillus showed the capability of mesophilic and psychrophilic Mn(II) oxidation. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis indicated that the biogenic manganese oxides had an intermediate valence between 3 and 4. These results demonstrated that Brevibacillus, which is capable of oxidizing dissolved Mn(II), will be a suitable strain for exploring the mechanism of manganese oxidation in engineered and natural environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
| | - Xiuheng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
| | - Bingfeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
| | - Guojun Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
| | - Defeng Xing
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
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10
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Matsushita S, Komizo D, Cao LTT, Aoi Y, Kindaichi T, Ozaki N, Imachi H, Ohashi A. Production of biogenic manganese oxides coupled with methane oxidation in a bioreactor for removing metals from wastewater. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 130:224-233. [PMID: 29227871 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.11.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2017] [Revised: 11/19/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Biogenic manganese oxide (BioMnOx) can efficiently adsorb various minor metals. The production of BioMnOx in reactors to remove metals during wastewater treatment processes is a promising biotechnological method. However, it is difficult to preferentially enrich manganese-oxidizing bacteria (MnOB) to produce BioMnOx during wastewater treatment processes. A unique method of cultivating MnOB using methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) to produce soluble microbial products is proposed here. MnOB were successfully enriched in a methane-fed reactor containing MOB. BioMnOx production during the wastewater treatment process was confirmed. Long-term continual operation of the reactor allowed simultaneous removal of Mn(II), Co(II), and Ni(II). The Co(II)/Mn(II) and Ni(II)/Mn(II) removal ratios were 53% and 19%, respectively. The degree to which Mn(II) was removed indicated that the enriched MnOB used utilization-associated products and/or biomass-associated products. Microbial community analysis revealed that methanol-oxidizing bacteria belonging to the Hyphomicrobiaceae family played important roles in the oxidation of Mn(II) by using utilization-associated products. Methane-oxidizing bacteria were found to be inhibited by MnO2, but the maximum Mn(II) removal rate was 0.49 kg m-3 d-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Matsushita
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan; Western Region Industrial Research Center, Hiroshima Prefectural Technology Research Institute, 2-10-1, Aga-minami, Kure, Hiroshima 737-0004, Japan
| | - Daisuke Komizo
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Linh Thi Thuy Cao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Yoshiteru Aoi
- Institute for Sustainable Science and Development, Hiroshima University, 2-313, VBL403, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Tomonori Kindaichi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Noriatsu Ozaki
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Imachi
- Research and Development Center for Submarine Resources, JAMSTEC, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan; Department of Subsurface Geobiological Analysis and Research, JAMSTEC, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Akiyoshi Ohashi
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8527, Japan.
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11
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Berg JS, Michellod D, Pjevac P, Martinez-Perez C, Buckner CRT, Hach PF, Schubert CJ, Milucka J, Kuypers MMM. Intensive cryptic microbial iron cycling in the low iron water column of the meromictic Lake Cadagno. Environ Microbiol 2016; 18:5288-5302. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jasmine S. Berg
- Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology; Bremen 28359 Germany
| | - Dolma Michellod
- Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology; Bremen 28359 Germany
| | - Petra Pjevac
- Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology; Bremen 28359 Germany
- Division of Microbial Ecology, Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science; University of Vienna; Vienna Austria
| | | | | | - Philipp F. Hach
- Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology; Bremen 28359 Germany
| | - Carsten J. Schubert
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology; Kastanienbaum Switzerland
| | - Jana Milucka
- Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology; Bremen 28359 Germany
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12
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Hoyland VW, Knocke WR, Falkinham JO, Pruden A, Singh G. Effect of drinking water treatment process parameters on biological removal of manganese from surface water. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 66:31-39. [PMID: 25181615 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2014] [Revised: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Soluble manganese (Mn) presents a significant treatment challenge to many water utilities, causing aesthetic and operational concerns. While application of free chlorine to oxidize Mn prior to filtration can be effective, this is not feasible for surface water treatment plants using ozonation followed by biofiltration because it inhibits biological removal of organics. Manganese-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) readily oxidize Mn in groundwater treatment applications, which normally involve pH > 7.0. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential for biological Mn removal at the lower pH conditions (6.2-6.3) often employed in enhanced coagulation to optimize organics removal. Four laboratory-scale biofilters were operated over a pH range of 6.3-7.3. The biofilters were able to oxidize Mn at a pH as low as pH 6.3 with greater than 98% Mn removal. Removal of simulated organic ozonation by-products was also greater than 90% in all columns. Stress studies indicated that well-acclimated MOB can withstand variations in Mn concentration (e.g., 0.1-0.2 mg/L), hydraulic loading rate (e.g., 2-4 gpm/ft(2); 1.36 × 10(-3)-2.72 × 10(-3) m/s), and temperature (e.g., 7-22 °C) typically found at surface water treatment plants at least for relatively short (1-2 days) periods of time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria W Hoyland
- VT Via Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - William R Knocke
- VT Via Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Joseph O Falkinham
- VT Biological Sciences Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Amy Pruden
- VT Via Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Gargi Singh
- VT Via Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
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Abu Hasan H, Sheikh Abdullah SR, Kamarudin SK, Tan Kofli N, Anuar N. Simultaneous and Mn2+ removal from drinking water using a biological aerated filter system: Effects of different aeration rates. Sep Purif Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2013.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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14
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Optimizing Bacillus subtilis spore isolation and quantifying spore harvest purity. J Microbiol Methods 2011; 87:325-9. [PMID: 21989299 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2011.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2011] [Revised: 09/15/2011] [Accepted: 09/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Investigating the biochemistry, resilience and environmental interactions of bacterial endospores often requires a pure endospore biomass free of vegetative cells. Numerous endospore isolation methods, however, neglect to quantify the purity of the final endospore biomass. To ensure low vegetative cell contamination we developed a quality control technique that enables rapid quantification of endospore harvest purity. This method quantifies spore purity using bright-field and fluorescence microscopy imaging in conjunction with automated cell counting software. We applied this method to Bacillus subtilis endospore harvests isolated using a two-phase separation method that utilizes mild chemicals. The average spore purity of twenty-two harvests was 88±11% (error is 1σ) with a median value of 93%. A spearman coefficient of 0.97 correlating automated and manual bacterial counts confirms the accuracy of software generated data.
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15
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Mn(II) oxidation in Pseudomonas putida GB-1 is influenced by flagella synthesis and surface substrate. Arch Microbiol 2011; 193:605-14. [DOI: 10.1007/s00203-011-0702-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2011] [Accepted: 03/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Manganese Oxidation by Bacteria: Biogeochemical Aspects. MOLECULAR BIOMINERALIZATION 2011; 52:49-76. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-21230-7_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Wang X, Wiens M, Divekar M, Grebenjuk VA, Schröder HC, Batel R, Müller WEG. Isolation and characterization of a Mn(II)-oxidizing Bacillus strain from the demosponge Suberites domuncula. Mar Drugs 2010; 9:1-28. [PMID: 21339943 PMCID: PMC3039467 DOI: 10.3390/md9010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2010] [Revised: 12/17/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study we demonstrate that the demosponge Suberites domuncula harbors a Mn(II)-oxidizing bacterium, a Bacillus strain, termed BAC-SubDo-03. Our studies showed that Mn(II) stimulates bacterial growth and induces sporulation. Moreover, we show that these bacteria immobilize manganese on their cell surface. Comparison of the 16S rDNA sequence allowed the grouping of BAC-SubDo-03 to the Mn-precipitating bacteria. Analysis of the spore cell wall revealed that it contains an Mn(II)-oxidizing enzyme. Co-incubation studies of BAC-SubDo-03 with 100 μM MnCl2 and >1 μM of CuCl2 showed an increase in their Mn(II)-oxidizing capacity. In order to prove that a multicopper oxidase-like enzyme(s) (MCO) exists in the cell wall of the S. domuncula-associated BAC-SubDo-03 Bacillus strain, the gene encoding this enzyme was cloned (mnxG-SubDo-03). Sequence alignment of the deduced MCO protein (MnxG-SubDo-03) revealed that the sponge bacterium clusters together with known Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria. The expression of the mnxG-SubDo-03 gene is under strong control of extracellular Mn(II). Based on these findings, we assume that BAC-SubDo-03 might serve as a Mn reserve in the sponge providing the animal with the capacity to detoxify Mn in the environment. Applying the in vitro primmorph cell culture system we could demonstrate that sponge cells, that were co-incubated with BAC-SubDo-03 in the presence of Mn(II), show an increased proliferation potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Wang
- National Research Center for Geoanalysis, 26 Baiwanzhuang Dajie, CHN-100037 Beijing, China
- Institute for Physiological Chemistry, Dept. for Applied Molecular Biology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Medical Center, Duesbergweg 6, D-55099 Mainz, Germany; E-Mails: (M.W.); (M.D.); (V.A.G.); (H.C.S.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (X.W.); (W.E.G.M.); Tel.: +49-6131-39-25910; Fax: +49-6131-39-25243
| | - Matthias Wiens
- Institute for Physiological Chemistry, Dept. for Applied Molecular Biology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Medical Center, Duesbergweg 6, D-55099 Mainz, Germany; E-Mails: (M.W.); (M.D.); (V.A.G.); (H.C.S.)
| | - Mugdha Divekar
- Institute for Physiological Chemistry, Dept. for Applied Molecular Biology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Medical Center, Duesbergweg 6, D-55099 Mainz, Germany; E-Mails: (M.W.); (M.D.); (V.A.G.); (H.C.S.)
| | - Vladislav A. Grebenjuk
- Institute for Physiological Chemistry, Dept. for Applied Molecular Biology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Medical Center, Duesbergweg 6, D-55099 Mainz, Germany; E-Mails: (M.W.); (M.D.); (V.A.G.); (H.C.S.)
| | - Heinz C. Schröder
- Institute for Physiological Chemistry, Dept. for Applied Molecular Biology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Medical Center, Duesbergweg 6, D-55099 Mainz, Germany; E-Mails: (M.W.); (M.D.); (V.A.G.); (H.C.S.)
| | - Renato Batel
- Center for Marine Research, “Ruder Boskovic” Institute, HR-52210 Rovinj, Croatia; E-Mail: (R.B.)
| | - Werner E. G. Müller
- Institute for Physiological Chemistry, Dept. for Applied Molecular Biology, Johannes Gutenberg-University Medical Center, Duesbergweg 6, D-55099 Mainz, Germany; E-Mails: (M.W.); (M.D.); (V.A.G.); (H.C.S.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (X.W.); (W.E.G.M.); Tel.: +49-6131-39-25910; Fax: +49-6131-39-25243
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Lee Y, Tebo BM. Cobalt(II) Oxidation by the Marine Manganese(II)-Oxidizing Bacillus sp. Strain SG-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010; 60:2949-57. [PMID: 16349360 PMCID: PMC201748 DOI: 10.1128/aem.60.8.2949-2957.1994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The geochemical cycling of cobalt (Co) has often been considered to be controlled by the scavenging and oxidation of Co(II) on the surface of manganese [Mn(III,IV)] oxides or manganates. Because Mn(II) oxidation in the environment is often catalyzed by bacteria, we have investigated the ability of Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria to bind and oxidize Co(II) in the absence of Mn(II) to determine whether some Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria also oxidize Co(II) independently of Mn oxidation. We used the marine Bacillus sp. strain SG-1, which produces mature spores that oxidize Mn(II), apparently due to a protein in their spore coats (R.A. Rosson and K. H. Nealson, J. Bacteriol. 151:1027-1034, 1982; J. P. M. de Vrind et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 52:1096-1100, 1986). A method to measure Co(II) oxidation using radioactive Co as a tracer and treatments with nonradioactive (cold) Co(II) and ascorbate to discriminate bound Co from oxidized Co was developed. SG-1 spores were found to oxidize Co(II) over a wide range of pH, temperature, and Co(II) concentration. Leucoberbelin blue, a reagent that reacts with Mn(III,IV) oxides forming a blue color, was found to also react with Co(III) oxides and was used to verify the presence of oxidized Co in the absence of added Mn(II). Co(II) oxidation occurred optimally around pH 8 and between 55 and 65 degrees C. SG-1 spores oxidized Co(II) at all Co(II) concentrations tested from the trace levels found in seawater to 100 mM. Co(II) oxidation was found to follow Michaelis-Menten kinetics. An Eadie-Hofstee plot of the data suggests that SG-1 spores have two oxidation systems, a high-affinity-low-rate system (K(m), 3.3 x 10 M; V(max), 1.7 x 10 M . spore . h) and a low-affinity-high-rate system (K(m), 5.2 x 10 M; V(max), 8.9 x 10 M . spore . h). SG-1 spores did not oxidize Co(II) in the absence of oxygen, also indicating that oxidation was not due to abiological Co(II) oxidation on the surface of preformed Mn(III,IV) oxides. These results suggest that some microorganisms may directly oxidize Co(II) and such biological activities may exert some control on the behavior of Co in nature. SG-1 spores may also have useful applications in metal removal, recovery, and immobilization processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Lee
- Marine Biology Research Division and Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0202
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Mann S, Sparks NH, Scott GH, de Vrind-de Jong EW. Oxidation of Manganese and Formation of Mn(3)O(4) (Hausmannite) by Spore Coats of a Marine Bacillus sp. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010; 54:2140-3. [PMID: 16347723 PMCID: PMC202818 DOI: 10.1128/aem.54.8.2140-2143.1988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Isolated spore coats of a marine Bacillus species were incubated in 25 mM MnCl(2) at pH 7.5. Manganese precipitates, formed on the coat surfaces, were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy, electron diffraction, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Initially, an amorphous manganese oxide was observed on the coats which recrystallized to hausmannite after prolonged incubation in the MnCl(2) solution. The spore coats catalyze the oxidation of Mn(II) and have no structural influence on the final mineral phase precipitated.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Mann
- School of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom, and Department of Biochemistry, Leiden University, Wassenaarseweg 64, 2333 AL Leiden, The Netherlands
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Miyata N, Tani Y, Iwahori K, Soma M. Enzymatic formation of manganese oxides by an Acremonium-like hyphomycete fungus, strain KR21-2. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2009; 47:101-9. [PMID: 19712351 DOI: 10.1016/s0168-6496(03)00251-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A Mn-depositing fungus, Acremonium-like hyphomycete strain KR21-2, was isolated from a Mn deposit occurring on the wall of a storage bottle containing Mn(III, IV) oxide-coated streambed pebbles and stream water. 18S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that strain KR21-2 was phylogenetically related to members of the order Hypocreales within the class Ascomycetes. The spent culture medium at the stationary phase of fungal growth contained a 54-kDa protein capable of depositing Mn oxides. The enzymatic activity was inhibited by azide and o-phenanthroline. The Mn(II)-oxidizing protein possessed a laccase activity, as indicated by direct oxidation of p-phenylenediamine and 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid). These results are consistent with the role assumed for laccase-like multicopper oxidase, which is proposed to be involved in the Mn(II)-oxidizing factors from some bacteria. Unlike laccases of basidiomycete fungi, however, the protein of strain KR21-2 did not produce soluble Mn(III) species in the presence of either of the Mn chelators pyrophosphate and malonate. This is the first report on the possible involvement of laccase and/or multicopper oxidase in Mn oxide deposition by ascomycetes (including their anamorphs) ubiquitous in natural environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoyuki Miyata
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Yada, Japan.
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21
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Hennebel T, De Gusseme B, Boon N, Verstraete W. Biogenic metals in advanced water treatment. Trends Biotechnol 2009; 27:90-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2008] [Revised: 10/31/2008] [Accepted: 11/03/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Melnik K, Sun J, Fleischman A, Roy S, Zborowski M, Chalmers JJ. Quantification of magnetic susceptibility in several strains of Bacillus spores: implications for separation and detection. Biotechnol Bioeng 2007; 98:186-92. [PMID: 17335063 DOI: 10.1002/bit.21400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Three strains of Bacillus: Bacillus atrophaeus (formally Bacillus globigii), Bacillus thuringiensis, and Bacillus cereus were tested for their intrinsic magnetic susceptibility. All three strains when sporulated demonstrated significant magnetic susceptibility using an instrument referred to as Cell Tracking Velocimetry. Energy dispersive spectroscopy also confirmed the presence of paramagnetic elements, Fe and Mn, in the spore form of the bacteria. It was demonstrated that this magnetic susceptibility is sufficient to separate and deposit these spores on glass slides in a magnetic deposition system. These results indicate the potential to separate spores with intrinsic magnetic susceptibility directly out of water or air samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristie Melnik
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 140 West 19th Ave, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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Tebo BM, Johnson HA, McCarthy JK, Templeton AS. Geomicrobiology of manganese(II) oxidation. Trends Microbiol 2005; 13:421-8. [PMID: 16054815 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2005.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2005] [Revised: 05/27/2005] [Accepted: 07/21/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Mn(II)-oxidizing microbes have an integral role in the biogeochemical cycling of manganese, iron, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and several nutrients and trace metals. There is great interest in mechanistically understanding these cycles and defining the importance of Mn(II)-oxidizing bacteria in modern and ancient geochemical environments. Linking Mn(II) oxidation to cellular function, although still enigmatic, continues to drive efforts to characterize manganese biomineralization. Recently, complexed-Mn(III) has been shown to be a transient intermediate in Mn(II) oxidation to Mn(IV), suggesting that the reaction might involve a unique multicopper oxidase system capable of a two-electron oxidation of the substrate. In biogenic and abiotic synthesis experiments, the application of synchrotron-based X-ray scattering and spectroscopic techniques has significantly increased our understanding of the oxidation state and relatively amorphous structure (i.e. delta-MnO(2)-like) of biogenic oxides, providing a new blueprint for the structural signature of biogenic Mn oxides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley M Tebo
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California-San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0202, USA.
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Webb SM, Dick GJ, Bargar JR, Tebo BM. Evidence for the presence of Mn(III) intermediates in the bacterial oxidation of Mn(II). Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:5558-63. [PMID: 15800042 PMCID: PMC556228 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0409119102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial oxidation of Mn(II) to Mn(IV) is believed to drive the oxidative segment of the global biogeochemical Mn cycle and regulates the concentration of dissolved Mn(II) in the oceanic water column, where it is a critical nutrient for planktonic primary productivity. Mn(II) oxidizing activity is expressed by numerous phylogenetically diverse bacteria and fungi, suggesting that it plays a fundamental and ubiquitous role in the environment. This important redox system is believed to be driven by an enzyme or enzyme complex involving a multicopper oxidase, although the biochemical mechanism has never been conclusively demonstrated. Here, we show that Mn(II) oxidation by spores of the marine Bacillus sp. strain SG-1 is a result of two sequential one-step electron transfer processes, both requiring the putative multicopper oxidase, MnxG, in which Mn(III) is a transient intermediate. A kinetic model of the oxidation pathway is presented, which shows that the Mn(II) to Mn(III) step is the rate-limiting step. Thus, oxidation of Mn(II) appears to involve a unique multicopper oxidase system capable of the overall two-electron oxidation of its substrate. This enzyme system may serve as a source for environmental Mn(III), a strong oxidant and competitor for siderophore-bound Fe(III) in nutrient-limited environments. That metabolically dormant spores catalyze an important biogeochemical process intimately linked to the C, N, Fe, and S cycles requires us to rethink the role of spores in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M Webb
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
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Tani Y, Ohashi M, Miyata N, Seyama H, Iwahori K, Soma M. Sorption of Co(II), Ni(II), and Zn(II) on biogenic manganese oxides produced by a Mn-oxidizing fungus, strain KR21-2. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2004; 39:2641-2660. [PMID: 15509014 DOI: 10.1081/ese-200027021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The characteristics of Co(II), Ni(II), and Zn(II) sorption on freshly produced biogenic Mn oxides by a Mn-oxidizing fungus, strain KR21-2, were investigated. The biogenic Mn oxides showed about 10-fold higher efficiencies for sorbing the metal ions than a synthetic Mn oxide (gamma-MnO2) on the basis of unit weight and unit surface area. The order of sorption efficiency on the biogenic Mn oxides was Co(II) > Zn(II) > Ni(II), while that on the synthetic Mn oxide was Zn(II) > Co(II) > Ni(II). These sorption selectivities were confirmed by both sorption isotherms and competitive sorption experiments. Two-step extraction, using 10mM CuSO4 solution for exchangeable sorbed ions and 10-20mM hydroxylamine hydrochloride for ions bound to reducible Mn oxide phase, showed higher irreversibility of Co(II) and Ni(II) sorption on the biogenic Mn oxides while Zn(II) sorption was mostly reversible (Cu(II)-exchangeable). Sorptions of Co(II), Ni(II), and Zn(II) on the synthetic Mn oxide were, however, found to be mostly reversible. Higher irreversibility of Co(II) and Ni(II) sorption on the biogenic Mn oxides may partly explain higher accumulation of these metal ions in Mn oxide phases in natural environments. The results obtained in this study raise the possibility to applying the biogenic Mn oxide formation to treatment of water contaminated with toxic metal ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukinori Tani
- Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan.
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De Vrind J, De Groot A, Brouwers GJ, Tommassen J, De Vrind-De Jong E. Identification of a novel Gsp-related pathway required for secretion of the manganese-oxidizing factor of Pseudomonas putida strain GB-1. Mol Microbiol 2003; 47:993-1006. [PMID: 12581354 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03339.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The manganese-oxidizing factor of Pseudomonas putida strain GB-1 is associated with the outer membrane. One of the systems of protein transport across the outer membrane is the general secretory pathway (Gsp). The gsp genes are called xcp in Pseudomonas species. In a previous study, it was shown that mutation of the prepilin peptidase XcpA and of a homologue of the pseudopilin XcpT inhibited transport of the factor. In the present study, we describe the genomic region flanking the xcpT homologue (designated xcmT1). We show that xcmT1 is part of a two-gene operon that includes an xcpS homologue (designated xcmS). No other xcp-like genes are present in the regions flanking the xcmT1/xcmS cluster. We also characterized the site of transposon insertion of another transport mutant of P. putida GB-1. This insertion appeared to be located in a gene (designated xcmX) possibly encoding another pseudopilin-related protein. This xcmX is clustered with two other xcpT-related genes (designated xcmT2 and xcmT3) on one side and homologues of three csg genes (designated csmE, csmF and csmG) on the other side. The csg genes are involved in production of aggregative fibres in Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium. A search for XcmX homologues revealed that the recently published genome of Ralstonia solanacearum and the unannotated genome of P. putida KT2440 contain comparable gene clusters with xcmX and xcp homologues that are different from the well-described 'regular'xcp/gsp clusters. They do contain xcpR and xcpQ homologues but, for example, homologues of xcpP, Y and Z are lacking. The results suggest a novel Xcp-related system for the transport of manganese-oxidizing enzymes to the cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes De Vrind
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Kamaludeen SPB, Megharaj M, Juhasz AL, Sethunathan N, Naidu R. Chromium-microorganism interactions in soils: remediation implications. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2003; 178:93-164. [PMID: 12868782 DOI: 10.1007/0-387-21728-2_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Discharge of Cr waste from many industrial applications such as leather tanning, textile production, electroplating, metallurgy, and petroleum refinery has led to large-scale contamination of land and water. Generally, Cr exists in two stable states: Cr(III) and Cr(VI). Cr(III) is not very soluble and is immobilized by precipitation as hydroxides. Cr(VI) is toxic, soluble, and easily transported to water resources. Cr(VI) undergoes rapid reduction to Cr(III), in the presence of organic sources or other reducing compounds as electron donors, to become precipitated as hydroxides. Cr(VI)-reducing microorganisms are ubiquitous in soil and water. A wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeasts; and algae, with exceptional ability to reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III) anaerobically and/or aerobically, have been isolated from Cr-contaminated and noncontaminated soils and water. Bioremediation approaches using the Cr(VI)-reducing ability of introduced (in bioreactors) or indigenous (augmented by supplements with organic amendments) microorganisms has been more successful for remediation of Cr-contaminated water than soils. Apart from enzymatic reduction, nonenzymatic reduction of Cr(VI) can also be common and widespread in the environment. For instance, biotic-abiotic coupling reactions involving the microbially formed products, H2S (the end product of sulfate reduction), Fe(II) [formed by Fe(III) reduction], and sulfite (formed during oxidation of elemental sulfur), can mediate the dissimilatory reduction of Cr(VI). Despite the dominant occurrence of enzymatic and nonenzymatic reduction of Cr(VI), natural attenuation of Cr(VI) is not taking place at a long-term contaminated site in South Australia, even 225 years after the last disposal of tannery waste. Evidence suggests that excess moisture conditions leading to saturation or flooded conditions promote the complete removal of Cr(VI) in soil samples from this contaminated site; but Cr(VI) reappears, probably because of oxidation of the Cr(III) by Mn oxides, with a subsequent shift to drying conditions in the soil. In such environments with low natural attenuation capacity resulting from reversible oxidation of Cr(III), bioeremediation of Cr(VI) can be a challenging task.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara P B Kamaludeen
- The University of Adelaide, Department of Soil and Water, Waite Campus, Glen Osmond, SA 5064, Australia
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Francis CA, Tebo BM. Enzymatic manganese(II) oxidation by metabolically dormant spores of diverse Bacillus species. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002; 68:874-80. [PMID: 11823231 PMCID: PMC126666 DOI: 10.1128/aem.68.2.874-880.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2001] [Accepted: 11/05/2001] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial spores are renowned for their longevity, ubiquity, and resistance to environmental insults, but virtually nothing is known regarding whether these metabolically dormant structures impact their surrounding chemical environments. In the present study, a number of spore-forming bacteria that produce dormant spores which enzymatically oxidize soluble Mn(II) to insoluble Mn(IV) oxides were isolated from coastal marine sediments. The highly charged and reactive surfaces of biogenic metal oxides dramatically influence the oxidation and sorption of both trace metals and organics in the environment. Prior to this study, the only known Mn(II)-oxidizing sporeformer was the marine Bacillus sp. strain SG-1, an extensively studied bacterium in which Mn(II) oxidation is believed to be catalyzed by a multicopper oxidase, MnxG. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S rRNA and mnxG sequences obtained from 15 different Mn(II)-oxidizing sporeformers (including SG-1) revealed extensive diversity within the genus Bacillus, with organisms falling into several distinct clusters and lineages. In addition, active Mn(II)-oxidizing proteins of various sizes, as observed in sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide electrophoresis gels, were recovered from the outer layers of purified dormant spores of the isolates. These are the first active Mn(II)-oxidizing enzymes identified in spores or gram-positive bacteria. Although extremely resistant to denaturation, the activities of these enzymes were inhibited by azide and o-phenanthroline, consistent with the involvement of multicopper oxidases. Overall, these studies suggest that the commonly held view that bacterial spores are merely inactive structures in the environment should be revised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris A Francis
- Marine Biology Research Division and Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093-0202, USA
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Brouwers GJ, de Vrind JP, Corstjens PL, Cornelis P, Baysse C, de Vrind-de Jong EW. cumA, a gene encoding a multicopper oxidase, is involved in Mn2+ oxidation in Pseudomonas putida GB-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 1999; 65:1762-8. [PMID: 10103278 PMCID: PMC91248 DOI: 10.1128/aem.65.4.1762-1768.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas putida GB-1-002 catalyzes the oxidation of Mn2+. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the transposon insertion site of a nonoxidizing mutant revealed a gene (designated cumA) encoding a protein homologous to multicopper oxidases. Addition of Cu2+ increased the Mn2+-oxidizing activity of the P. putida wild type by a factor of approximately 5. The growth rates of the wild type and the mutant were not affected by added Cu2+. A second open reading frame (designated cumB) is located downstream from cumA. Both cumA and cumB probably are part of a single operon. The translation product of cumB was homologous (level of identity, 45%) to that of orf74 of Bradyrhizobium japonicum. A mutation in orf74 resulted in an extended lag phase and lower cell densities. Similar growth-related observations were made for the cumA mutant, suggesting that the cumA mutation may have a polar effect on cumB. This was confirmed by site-specific gene replacement in cumB. The cumB mutation did not affect the Mn2+-oxidizing ability of the organism but resulted in decreased growth. In summary, our data indicate that the multicopper oxidase CumA is involved in the oxidation of Mn2+ and that CumB is required for optimal growth of P. putida GB-1-002.
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Brouwers
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, 2300 R.A. Leiden, The Netherlands.
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de Vrind JP, Brouwers GJ, Corstjens PL, den Dulk J, de Vrind-de Jong EW. The cytochrome c maturation operon is involved in manganese oxidation in Pseudomonas putida GB-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998; 64:3556-62. [PMID: 9758767 PMCID: PMC106464 DOI: 10.1128/aem.64.10.3556-3562.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A Pseudomonas putida strain, strain GB-1, oxidizes Mn2+ to Mn oxide in the early stationary growth phase. It also secretes a siderophore (identified as pyoverdine) when it is subjected to iron limitation. After transposon (Tn5) mutagenesis several classes of mutants with differences in Mn2+ oxidation and/or secretion of the Mn2+-oxidizing activity were identified. Preliminary analysis of the Tn5 insertion site in one of the nonoxidizing mutants suggested that a multicopper oxidase-related enzyme is involved in Mn2+ oxidation. The insertion site in another mutant was preliminarily identified as a gene involved in the general protein secretion pathway. Two mutants defective in Mn2+-oxidizing activity also secreted porphyrins into the medium and appeared to be derepressed for pyoverdine production. These strains were chosen for detailed analysis. Both mutants were shown to contain Tn5 insertions in the ccmF gene, which is part of the cytochrome c maturation operon. They were cytochrome oxidase negative and did not contain c-type cytochromes. Complementation with part of the ccm operon isolated from the wild type restored the phenotype of the parent strain. These results indicate that a functional ccm operon is required for Mn2+ oxidation in P. putida GB-1. A possible relationship between porphyrin secretion resulting from the ccm mutation and stimulation of pyoverdine production is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P de Vrind
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden University, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands.
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31
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He LM, Tebo BM. Surface Charge Properties of and Cu(II) Adsorption by Spores of the Marine
Bacillus
sp. Strain SG-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 1998; 64:1123-9. [PMID: 16349517 PMCID: PMC106377 DOI: 10.1128/aem.64.3.1123-1129.1998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Spores of marine
Bacillus
sp. strain SG-1 are capable of oxidizing Mn(II) and Co(II), which results in the precipitation of Mn(III, IV) and Co(III) oxides and hydroxides on the spore surface. The spores also bind other heavy metals; however, little is known about the mechanism and capacity of this metal binding. In this study the characteristics of the spore surface and Cu(II) adsorption to this surface were investigated. The specific surface area of wet SG-1 spores was 74.7 m
2
per g of dry weight as measured by the methylene blue adsorption method. This surface area is 11-fold greater than the surface area of dried spores, as determined with an N
2
adsorption surface area analyzer or as calculated from the spore dimensions, suggesting that the spore surface is porous. The surface exchange capacity as measured by the proton exchange method was found to be 30.6 μmol m
−2
, which is equal to a surface site density of 18.3 sites nm
−2
. The SG-1 spore surface charge characteristics were obtained from acid-base titration data. The surface charge density varied with pH, and the zero point of charge was pH 4.5. The titration curves suggest that the spore surface is dominated by negatively charged sites that are largely carboxylate groups but also phosphate groups. Copper adsorption by SG-1 spores was rapid and complete within minutes. The spores exhibited a high affinity for Cu(II). The amounts of copper adsorbed increased from negligible at pH 3 to maximum levels at pH >6. Their great surface area, site density, and affinity give SG-1 spores a high capability for binding metals on their surfaces, as demonstrated by our experiments with Cu(II).
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Affiliation(s)
- L M He
- Marine Biology Research Division and Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0202
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32
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Okazaki M, Sugita T, Shimizu M, Ohode Y, Iwamoto K, de Vrind-de Jong EW, de Vrind JP, Corstjens PL. Partial purification and characterization of manganese-oxidizing factors of Pseudomonas fluorescens GB-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 1997; 63:4793-9. [PMID: 9406397 PMCID: PMC168802 DOI: 10.1128/aem.63.12.4793-4799.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The Mn(2+)-oxidizing bacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens GB-1 deposits Mn oxide around the cell. During growth of a culture, the Mn(2+)-oxidizing activity of the cells first appeared in the early stationary growth phase. It depended on the O2 concentration in the culture during the late logarithmic growth phase. Maximal activity was observed at an oxygen concentration of 26% saturation. The activity could be recovered in cell extracts and was proportional to the protein concentration in the cell extracts. The specific activity was increased 125-fold by ammonium sulfate precipitation followed by reversed-phase and gel filtration column chromatographies. The activity of the partly purified Mn(2+)-oxidizing preparation had a pH optimum of circa 7 and a temperature optimum of 35 degrees C and was lost by heating. The Mn(2+)-oxidizing activity was sensitive to NaN3 and HgCl2. It was inhibited by KCN, EDTA, Tris, and o-phenanthroline. Although most data indicated the involvement of protein in Mn2+ oxidation, the activity was slightly stimulated by sodium dodecyl sulfate at a low concentration and by treatment with pronase and V8 protease. By polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, two Mn(2+)-oxidizing factors with estimated molecular weights of 180,000 and 250,000 were detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Okazaki
- Department of Biology, Tokyo Gakugei University, Japan.
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33
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34
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Stuetz RM, Greene AC, Madgwick JC. Microalgal-facilitated bacterial oxidation of manganese. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 1996. [DOI: 10.1007/bf01570033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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35
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Wakatsuki T. Metal oxidoreduction by microbial cells. JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY 1995; 14:169-77. [PMID: 7766210 DOI: 10.1007/bf01569900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
For many organisms, some heavy metals in external media are essential at low concentrations but are toxic at high concentrations. Strongly toxic heavy metals are toxic even at low concentrations. Recently, it was proven that changes of valencies of Fe, Cu and Mn were necessary for these metals to be utilized by organisms, especially microorganism. The valencies of Hg and Cr are changed by reducing systems of cells in the process of detoxifying them. Thus, the processes of oxidoreduction of these metals are important for biological systems of metal-autoregulation and metal-mediated regulation. Metal ion-specific reducing enzyme systems function in the cell surface layer of microorganisms. These enzymes require NADH or NADPH as an electron donor and FMN or FAD as an electron carrier component. Electron transport may be operated by transplamsa-membrane redox systems. Metal ion reductases are also found in the cytoplasm. The affinities of metal ions to ligand residues change with the valence of the metal elements and mutual interactions of various metal ions are important for regulation of oxidoreduction states. Microorganisms can utilize essential metal elements and detoxify excess metals by respective reducing enzyme systems and by regulating movement of heavy metal ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Wakatsuki
- Department of Biochemistry, Kyoto Pharmaceutical University, Japan
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36
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Gounot AM. Microbial oxidation and reduction of manganese: consequences in groundwater and applications. FEMS Microbiol Rev 1994; 14:339-49. [PMID: 7917421 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.1994.tb00108.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
In the natural environment, manganese is found as reduced soluble or adsorbed Mn(II) and insoluble Mn(III) and Mn(IV) oxides. Mn oxidation has been reported in various microorganisms. Several possible pathways, indirect or direct, have been proposed. A wider variety of Mn-reducing microorganisms, from highly aerobic to strictly anaerobic, has been described. The mechanisms of Mn reduction can be either an indirect process resulting from interactions with organic or inorganic compounds, or a direct enzymatic (electron-transfer) reaction. The role of microorganisms in Mn cycle is now well demonstrated by various methods in superficial natural environments, and research has been initiated on subsurface sediments. Observations in vivo (Rhône valley) and under in vitro suggested that bacterial activities are the main processes that promote manganese evolution and migration in shallow aquifers. After the building of hydroelectric dams, the stream of the Rhône was modified, giving rise to mud deposition on the bank. In the mud, bacteria are stimulated by the high organic content and consume oxygen. The redox potential drops. The manganese oxides previously formed under aerobic conditions are reduced and soluble manganese (Mn(II)) migrates into the aquifer. If the subsurface sediments are coarse-grained, the aquifer is well aerated, allowing the re-oxidation of Mn(II) by the oligotrophic attached bacteria in aquifer sediments. If the aquifer is confined, aeration is not sufficient for Mn-reoxidation. Mn(II) remains in a reduced state and migrates to the wells. Furthermore, the presence of organic matter in subsurface sediments results in the reduction of previously formed Mn oxides. Pseudo-amorphous manganese oxides, which were probably recently formed by bacteria, are more readily reduced than old crystalline manganese oxides. Although the concentrations of soluble manganese found in groundwaters are not toxic, it still is a problem since its oxidation results in darkening of water and plugging of pipes in drinking or industrial water systems. Soluble manganese can be removed from water by biological processes involving manganese-oxidizing bacteria, either in situ, or in sand filters after pumping. Various procedures are mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Gounot
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon I (URA CNRS 1450), Villeurbanne, France
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37
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van Waasbergen LG, Hoch JA, Tebo BM. Genetic analysis of the marine manganese-oxidizing Bacillus sp. strain SG-1: protoplast transformation, Tn917 mutagenesis, and identification of chromosomal loci involved in manganese oxidation. J Bacteriol 1993; 175:7594-603. [PMID: 8244928 PMCID: PMC206915 DOI: 10.1128/jb.175.23.7594-7603.1993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mature spores of the marine Bacillus sp. strain SG-1 bind and oxidize manganese(II), thereby becoming encrusted with a manganese(IV) oxide. Both the function and mechanism of this oxidation are unknown, although evidence suggests that spore coat proteins are involved. To further study this phenomenon, methods of genetic analysis were developed for SG-1. By a modified protoplast transformation procedure, SG-1 was transformed (approximately 100 transformants per micrograms of DNA) with several different plasmids of gram-positive origin. Transposon Tn917, delivered on the temperature-sensitive plasmid pLTV1, was used to generate mutants of SG-1. Conditions were established that allowed 98% plasmid loss and insertions to be recovered at a frequency of 10(-3). Each mutant was found to be the result of a single insertion event. Restriction analysis of 27 mutants that do not oxidize manganese but still sporulate localized 17 of the insertions within two regions of the chromosome (termed Mnx regions), and a physical map of these regions was generated. Analysis of 18 transposon integrants in which manganese oxidation was unaffected revealed random transposon integration, with none of their insertions mapping within the Mnx regions. The Mnx regions were cloned from wild-type SG-1, and the largest region, carried on the lactococcal plasmid pGK13, was used to complement in trans one of the nonoxidizing mutants. These results demonstrate that the Mnx regions encode factors that are required for the oxidation of manganese, and this represents the first report identifying genes involved in bacterial manganese oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- L G van Waasbergen
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla 92093
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38
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de Vrind-de Jong EW, Corstjens PL, Kempers ES, Westbroek P, de Vrind JP. Oxidation of Manganese and Iron by
Leptothrix discophora
: Use of
N,N,N′,N′
-Tetramethyl-
p
-Phenylenediamine as an Indicator of Metal Oxidation. Appl Environ Microbiol 1990; 56:3458-62. [PMID: 16348351 PMCID: PMC184983 DOI: 10.1128/aem.56.11.3458-3462.1990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A new method for the quantification and characterization of manganese-oxidizing activity by spent culture medium of
Leptothrix discophora
SS-1 was developed. It is based on the formation of the dye Wurster blue from
N,N,N′,N′
-Tetramethyl-
p
-phenylenediamine by oxidized manganese generated in the spent medium. The kinetic parameters thus obtained agreed well with data obtained with other methods. It was also possible to demonstrate iron oxidation by spent culture medium. The kinetics of the process and inhibition by enzyme poisons suggest that iron oxidation is enzymatically catalyzed. Probably two different factors are involved in manganese and iron oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E W de Vrind-de Jong
- Department of Biochemistry, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 5, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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39
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Nealson KH, Tebo BM, Rosson RA. Occurrence and Mechanisms of Microbial Oxidation of Manganese. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(08)70209-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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40
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Abstract
Cells of Leptothrix discophora SS1 released Mn2+-oxidizing factors into the medium during growth in batch culture. Manganese was optimally oxidized when the medium was buffered with HEPES (N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N'-2-ethanesulfonic acid) at pH 7.5. Manganese-oxidizing activity in the culture medium in which this strain had been grown previously was sensitive to heat, phosphate, Tris, NaN3, HgCl2 NaCl, sodium dodecyl sulfate, and pronase; 0.5 mol of O2 was consumed per mol of MnO2 formed. During Mn2+ oxidation, protons were liberated. With sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, two protein-containing bands were detected in the spent culture medium. One band had an apparent molecular weight of 110,000 and was predominant in Mn2+-oxidizing activity. The second product (Mr 85,000) was only detected in some cases and probably represents a proteolytic breakdown moiety of the 110,000-Mr protein. The Mn2+-oxidizing factors were associated with the MnO2 aggregates that had been formed in spent culture medium. After solubilization of this MnO2 with ascorbate, Mn2+-oxidizing activity could be recovered.
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