Genetic transformation system for the aflatoxin-producing fungus Aspergillus flavus

Detection and Genotyping of Fov4 (Race 4, VCG0114), the Fusarium Wilt Pathogen of Cotton

Fusarium wilt, caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum (Fov), is an important disease of cotton. More than 14 different genotypes as determined by VCG and sequence analyses are known to occur in the United States. Fov4 (race 4, VCG0114), originally found in India, was first detected in the United States in 2001 in California and recently in 2017 and 2019 in Texas and New Mexico, respectively. Four sub-genotypes of Fov4 have been identified, with Fov4 N, T, and MiT genotypes occurring in California, and Fov4 T and MT genotypes occurring in Texas. Unlike other genotypes of Fov in the United States, Fov4 does not require the presence of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita) to cause severe wilt in cotton and is a major concern to US cotton growers. Fov4 can be spread through a variety of mechanisms including through infected seed. Once a field is infested, the fungus becomes endemic since there are no economically viable means to eradicate the pathogen from infested fields. Therefore, a rapid and accurate detection method is essential for early identification of infested fields and seed lots to prevent further spread of Fov4. This chapter describes multiplex and singleplex PCR diagnostics for detection of Fov4, and for detection and genotyping N, T, MiT, and MT genotypes of Fov4 from wilted cotton plants.

Genetic Diversity and Pathogenicity of Verticillium dahliae Isolates and Their Co-occurrence with Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum Causing Cotton Wilt in Xinjiang, China

Cotton production in Xinjiang, the largest cotton-producing area in China, has an increasingly serious disease threat from Verticillium dahliae. Eighty-five V. dahliae isolates were obtained from wilted cotton plants collected from eight counties in Xinjiang. The isolates were assessed for genotypic diversity by DNA sequence analysis and PCR molecular genotyping with specific markers for race 1, race 2, defoliating (D) pathotype, nondefoliating (ND) pathotype, and mating type idiomorph Mat1-2. Isolates belonged to lineages 1A or 2B, with three subgenotypes found in each lineage. All isolates tested positive for race 2 and Mat1-2 markers. All isolates in lineage 2B tested positive for the ND pathotype marker but only isolates in the major subgenotype in lineage 1A tested positive for the D pathotype marker. Pathogenicity assays on Gossypium hirsutum 'Acala 44' demonstrated no significant difference among subgenotypes within each lineage. Isolates in lineage 1A caused greater shoot weight reductions, percent leaf drop, and percent diseased leaves than isolates in lineage 2B. One isolate in each lineage for 1A and 2B was avirulent. Isolates in lineage 1A caused greater than 50% leaf drop and a 17-g shoot weight reduction compared with a 9% leaf drop and a 6-g shoot weight reduction by isolates in lineage 2B. Overall, 42% of the V. dahliae isolates from Xinjiang were D pathotype but the percentage varied widely among locations. Two plants had both pathotypes. Nineteen isolates of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum VCG0114 (race 4) also were recovered from wilted plants in Xinjiang. Two plants had both Verticillium wilt and Fusarium wilt pathogens. Both pathogens should be considered when using or developing wilt resistant or tolerant materials for Xinjiang.

Thymol Induces Conidial Apoptosis in Aspergillus flavus via Stimulating K+ Eruption

Aspergillus flavus is a notorious foodborne fungus, posing a significant risk to humans in the form of hepatocellular carcinoma or aspergillosis. Thymol, as a food preservative, could efficiently kill conidia of A. flavus. However, the underlying mechanisms by which thymol kills A. flavus are not completely understood. With specific fluorescent dyes, we detected several apoptotic hallmarks, including chromatin condensation, phosphatidylserine externalization, DNA damage, mitochondrial depolarization, and caspase 9 activation in conidia exposed to 200 μg/mL of thymol, indicating that thymol induced a caspase-dependent conidial apoptosis in A. flavus. Chemical-protein interactome (CPI) and autodock analyses showed that KCNAB, homologue to the β-subunit of the voltage-gated potassium channel (Kv) and aldo-keto reductase, was the potential target of thymol. Following studies demonstrated that thymol could activate the aldo-keto reductase activity of KCNAB in vitro and stimulate a transient K⁺ efflux in conidia, as determined using a Port-a-Patch. Blocking K⁺ eruption by 4-aminopyridine (a universal inhibitor of Kv) could significantly alleviate thymol-mediated conidial apoptosis, indicating that activation of Kv was responsible for the apoptosis. Taken together, our results revealed a K⁺ efflux-mediated apoptotic pathway in A. flavus, which greatly contributed to the development of an alternative strategy to control this pathogen.

Transformation of Penicillium rubens 212 and Expression of GFP and DsRED Coding Genes for Visualization of Plant-Biocontrol Agent Interaction

Strain 212 of Penicillium rubens (PO212) is an effective fungal biological control agent against a broad spectrum of diseases of horticultural plants. A pyrimidine auxotrophic isolate of PO212, PO212_18.2, carrying an inactive pyrG gene, has been used as host for transformation by positive selection of vectors containing the gene complementing the pyrG1 mutation. Both integrative and autonomously replicating plasmids transformed PO212_18.2 with high efficiency. Novel PO212-derived strains expressed green (sGFP) and red (Ds-Red Express) fluorescent reporter proteins, driven by the A. nidulans gpdA promoter. Fluorescence microscopy revealed constitutive expression of the sGFP and Ds-Red Express proteins, homogenously distributed across fungal cells. Transformation with either type of plasmid, did not affect the growth and morphological culture characteristics, and the biocontrol efficacy of either transformed strains compared to the wild-type, PO212. Fluorescent transformants pointed the capacity of PO212 to colonize tomato roots without invading plant root tissues. This work demonstrates susceptibility of the biocontrol agent PO212 to be transformed, showing that the use of GFP and DsRed as markers for PO212 is a useful, fast, reliable and effective approach for studying plant-fungus interactions and tomato root colonization.

Genetic Diversity, Virulence, and Meloidogyne incognita Interactions of Fusarium oxysporum Isolates Causing Cotton Wilt in Georgia

Locally severe outbreaks of Fusarium wilt of cotton (Gossypium spp.) in South Georgia raised concerns about the genotypes of the causal pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum. Vegetative complementation tests and DNA sequence analysis were used to determine genetic diversity among 492 F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum isolates obtained from 107 wilted plants collected from seven fields in five counties. Eight vegetative complementation groups (VCG) were found, with VCG 01117B and VCG 01121 occurring in 66% of the infected plants. The newly recognized VCG 01121 was the major VCG in Berrien County, the center of the outbreaks. All eight VCG resulted in significant increases in the percentages of wilted leaves (27 to 53%) and significant reductions in leaf weight (40 to 67%) and shoot weight (33 to 60%) after being stem punctured into Gossypium hirsutum 'Rowden'. They caused little or no significant reductions in shoot weight and height or increases in foliar symptoms and vascular browning in a soil-infestation assay. Soil infestation with Meloidogyne incognita race 3 (root-knot nematode) alone also failed to cause significant disease. When coinoculated with M. incognita race 3, all VCG caused moderate to severe wilt. Therefore, the VCG identified in this study belong to the vascular-competent pathotype, and should pose similar threats to cotton cultivars in the presence of the root-knot nematode. Use of nematode-resistant cultivars, therefore, is probably the best approach to control the disease in Georgia.

Specific PCR Detection of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum California Race 4 Based on a Unique Tfo1 Insertion Event in the PHO Gene

A highly virulent race 4 (Cal race 4) of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum was identified in California cotton fields in 2001, and has since been found in increasing numbers of fields. Cal race 4 isolates contain a unique Tfo1 transposon insertion in the PHO gene that was not found in other F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum genotypes. Based on this insertion, a multiplex polymerase chain reaction method was developed to detect the Cal race 4 pathogen. A panel of F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum isolates representing different vegetative compatibility groups (VCG) and DNA sequence types was assembled to test the specificity of the detection method. In all, 16 of 17 Cal race 4 isolates produced a 583-bp amplicon; the other isolate produced a 396-bp amplicon reflecting the absence of the Tfo1 insertion. This isolate was a moderately virulent pathogen among Cal race 4 isolates. In total, 80 other F. oxysporum isolates associated with cotton and 11 other formae speciales of F. oxysporum produced only the 396-bp amplicon. The method also distinguished Cal race 4 isolates from India race 4 isolates and China race 7 isolates, which did not possess the unique Tfo1 insertion but otherwise had identical DNA sequences, and all belong to VCG0114. The method is capable of detecting the pathogen directly from infected stem tissues even before external symptom appears and, thus, provides an effective tool for timely identification of infested fields and seed lots, and should help reduce dissemination of Cal race 4 in the U.S. Cotton Belt.

Seed-Derived Ethylene Facilitates Colonization but Not Aflatoxin Production by Aspergillus flavus in Maize

Ethylene (ET) emitted by plant tissues has been broadly reported to play important roles in plant development, response to environmental stresses and defense against certain pathogens. Recent evidence obtained from using in vitro fungal cultures exposed to ET suggested that exogenous ET may regulate the production of aflatoxin by Aspergilli. However, the function of endogenous, seed-derived ET has not been explored. In this study, we found that the maize lipoxygenase lox3 mutant, previously reported to be susceptible to Aspergillus spp., emitted greater levels of ET upon A. flavus infection, suggesting the potential involvement of endogenous ET in the susceptibility of maize to A. flavus. Supporting this idea, both colonization and conidiation of A. flavus were reduced in wild-type (WT) kernels treated with AgNO₃, an ET synthesis inhibitor. There was no ET emission from non-viable kernels colonized by A. flavus, suggesting that living seed but not the fungus itself was the primary source of ET released upon infection with A. flavus. The kernels of acs2 and acs6, two ET biosynthetic mutants carrying Mutator transposons in the ACC synthase genes, ACS2 and ACS6, respectively, displayed enhanced seed colonization and conidiation, but not the levels of aflatoxin, upon infection with A. flavus. Surprisingly, both acs2 and acs6 mutant kernels emitted greater levels of ET in response to infection by A. flavus as compared with WT seed. The increased ET in single mutants was found to be due to overexpression of functional ACS genes in response to A. flavus infection. Collectively, these findings suggested that ET emitted by infected seed facilitates colonization by A. flavus but not aflatoxin production.

Orotate phosphoribosyl transferase MoPyr5 is involved in uridine 5'-phosphate synthesis and pathogenesis of Magnaporthe oryzae

Orotate phosphoribosyl transferase (OPRTase) plays an important role in de novo and salvage pathways of nucleotide synthesis and is widely used as a screening marker in genetic transformation. However, the function of OPRTase in plant pathogens remains unclear. In this study, we characterized an ortholog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ura5, the OPRTase MoPyr5, from the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. Targeted gene disruption revealed that MoPyr5 is required for mycelial growth, appressorial turgor pressure and penetration into plant tissues, invasive hyphal growth, and pathogenicity. Interestingly, the ∆Mopyr5 mutant is also involved in mycelial surface hydrophobicity. Exogenous uridine 5'-phosphate (UMP) restored vegetative growth and rescued the defect in pathogenicity on detached barley and rice leaf sheath. Collectively, our results show that MoPyr5 is an OPRTase for UMP biosynthesis in M. oryzae and indicate that UTP biosynthesis is closely linked with vegetative growth, cell wall integrity, and pathogenicity of fungus. Our results also suggest that UMP biosynthesis would be a good target for the development of novel fungicides against M. oryzae.

The development of genetic and molecular markers to register and commercialize Penicillium rubens (formerly Penicillium oxalicum) strain 212 as a biocontrol agent

Penicillium oxalicum strain 212 (PO212) is an effective biocontrol agent (BCA) against a large number of economically important fungal plant pathogens. For successful registration as a BCA in Europe, PO212 must be accurately identified. In this report, we describe the use of classical genetic and molecular markers to characterize and identify PO212 in order to understand its ecological role in the environment or host. We successfully generated pyrimidine (pyr-) auxotrophic mutants. In addition we also designed specific oligonucleotides for the pyrF gene at their untranslated regions for rapid and reliable identification and classification of strains of P. oxalicum and P. rubens, formerly P. chrysogenum. Using these DNA-based technologies, we found that PO212 is a strain of P. rubens, and is not a strain of P. oxalicum. This work presents PO212 as the unique P. rubens strain to be described as a BCA and the information contained here serves for its registration and commercialization in Europe.

Gene expression profile and response to maize kernels by Aspergillus flavus

Aspergillus flavus causes an ear rot of maize, often resulting in the production of aflatoxin, a potent liver toxin and carcinogen that impacts the health of humans and animals. Many aspects of kernel infection and aflatoxin biosynthesis have been studied but the precise effects of the kernel environment on A. flavus are poorly understood. The goal of this research was to study the fungal response to the kernel environment during colonization. Gene transcription in A. flavus was analyzed by microarrays after growth on kernels of the four developmental stages: blister (R2), milk (R3), dough (R4), and dent (R5). Five days after inoculation, total RNA was isolated from kernels and hybridized to Affymetrix Gene Chip arrays containing probes representing 12,834 A. flavus genes. Statistical comparisons of the expression profile data revealed significant differences that included unique sets of upregulated genes in each kernel stage and six patterns of expression over the four stages. Among the genes expressed in colonized dent kernels were a phytase gene and six putative genes involved in zinc acquisition. Disruption of the phytase gene phy1 resulted in reduced growth on medium containing phytate as the sole source of phosphate. Furthermore, growth of the mutant (Δphy1) was 20% of the wild-type strain when wound inoculated into maize ears. In contrast, no difference was detected in the amount of aflatoxin produced relative to fungal growth, indicating that phy1 does not affect aflatoxin production. The study revealed the genome-wide effects of immature maize kernels on A. flavus and suggest that phytase has a role in pathogenesis.

Overexpression of aflR Leads to Upregulation of Pathway Gene Transcription and Increased Aflatoxin Production in Aspergillus flavus

The aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway regulatory gene, aflR, encodes a putative 47-kDa protein containing a zinc cluster DNA binding motif. It is required for the transcription of all of the characterized aflatoxin pathway genes in both Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of aflR overexpression on temporal gene expression, aflatoxin production, and nitrate inhibition of aflatoxin biosynthesis in A. flavus. An inducible expression construct was made by fusing the coding region of aflR to the promoter region of the A. flavus adh1 gene. This construct was transformed into A. flavus 656-2 (FGSC A1010), a strain mutated at the aflR locus. Strain 656-2 containing the adh1(p)::aflR construct had induced transcription of two early aflatoxin pathway genes, nor-1 and pksA, and produced wild-type concentrations of aflatoxin in a temporal pattern similar to that of wild-type strains of A. flavus. Strains 656-2 and 86-10 (FGSC A1009) an aflatoxigenic strain, were transformed with a construct containing the constitutive promoter gpdA driving aflR. Transformants of these strains constitutively expressed aflR, fas-1A, pksA, nor-1, and omtA but did not constitutively produce aflatoxin. Strain 86-10 containing the gpdA(p)::aflR construct produced 50 times more aflatoxin than 86-10, but the temporal pattern of aflatoxin production was the same as for 86-10, and aflatoxin production was also induced by sucrose. The addition of 10 g of nitrate per liter to sucrose low salts medium inhibited aflatoxin production by both strain 86-10 and a transformant of 86-10 containing the gpdA(p)::aflR construct, indicating that nitrate inhibition of aflatoxin biosynthesis does not occur solely at the level of aflR transcription. These studies show that constitutive overexpression of the pathway transcriptional regulatory gene aflR leads to higher transcript accumulation of pathway genes and increased aflatoxin production but that the initiation of aflatoxin biosynthesis is not solely regulated by the transcriptional activities of the biosynthetic pathway.

Function and regulation of aflJ in the accumulation of aflatoxin early pathway intermediate in Aspergillus flavus

aflJ resides within the aflatoxin biosynthetic gene cluster adjacent to the pathway regulatory gene aflR and is involved in aflatoxin production, but its function is unknown. Over-expression of aflJ in the aflatoxin-producing strain 86-10 resulted in increased aflatoxin. In an effort to study the function and regulation of aflJ, strain 649-1 lacking the entire biosynthetic cluster was transformed with either reporter constructs, expression constructs, or cosmid clones and analysed for gene expression or metabolite accumulation. Over-expression of aflJ did not result in elevated transcription of ver-1, omtA or aflR. To determine if over-expression of aflJ leads to an increase in early pathway intermediates, strain 649-1 was transformed with cosmid 5E6 and either gpdA::aflJ alone, gpdA::aflR alone, or aflJ and aflR together. Cosmid 5E6 contains the genes pksA, nor-1, fas-1, and fas-2, which are required for the biosynthesis of the early pathway intermediate averantin. 649-1 transformants containing 5E6 alone produced no detectable averantin. In contrast, 5E6 transformants with gpdA::aflR produced averantin, but only half as much as those transformants containing both aflR and aflJ. Northern blot analysis showed that 5E6 transformants containing both aflR and aflJ had five times more pksA transcripts and four times more nor-1 transcripts than 5E6 transformants containing gpdA::aflR alone. Further, aflJ transcription was regulated by aflR. Over-expression of aflR resulted in elevated aflJ transcription. aflJ appears to modulate the regulation of early genes in aflatoxin biosynthesis.

Improved protocols for functional analysis in the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus flavus

Background

An available whole genome sequence for Aspergillus flavus provides the opportunity to characterize factors involved in pathogenicity and to elucidate the regulatory networks involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis. Functional analysis of genes within the genome is greatly facilitated by the ability to disrupt or mis-express target genes and then evaluate their result on the phenotype of the fungus. Large-scale functional analysis requires an efficient genetic transformation system and the ability to readily select transformants with altered expression, and usually requires generation of double (or multi) gene deletion strains or the use of prototrophic strains. However, dominant selectable markers, an efficient transformation system and an efficient screening system for transformants in A. flavus are absent.

Results

The efficiency of the genetic transformation system for A. flavus based on uracil auxotrophy was improved. In addition, A. flavus was shown to be sensitive to the antibiotic, phleomycin. Transformation of A. flavus with the ble gene for resistance to phleomycin resulted in stable transformants when selected on 100 μg/ml phleomycin. We also compared the phleomycin system with one based on complementation for uracil auxotrophy which was confirmed by uracil and 5-fluoroorotic acid selection and via transformation with the pyr4 gene from Neurospora crassa and pyrG gene from A. nidulans in A. flavus NRRL 3357. A transformation protocol using pyr4 as a selectable marker resulted in site specific disruption of a target gene. A rapid and convenient colony PCR method for screening genetically altered transformants was also developed in this study.

Conclusion

We employed phleomycin resistance as a new positive selectable marker for genetic transformation of A. flavus. The experiments outlined herein constitute the first report of the use of the antibiotic phleomycin for transformation of A. flavus. Further, we demonstrated that this transformation protocol could be used for directed gene disruption in A. flavus. The significance of this is twofold. First, it allows strains to be transformed without having to generate an auxotrophic mutation, which is time consuming and may result in undesirable mutations. Second, this protocol allows for double gene knockouts when used in conjunction with existing strains with auxotrophic mutations.

To further facilitate functional analysis in this strain we developed a colony PCR-based method that is a rapid and convenient method for screening genetically altered transformants. This work will be of interest to those working on molecular biology of aflatoxin metabolism in A. flavus, especially for functional analysis using gene deletion and gene expression.

Silencing of the aflatoxin gene cluster in a diploid strain of Aspergillus flavus is suppressed by ectopic aflR expression

Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by a 70-kb cluster of genes in Aspergillus flavus. The cluster genes are coordinately regulated and reside as a single copy within the genome. Diploids between a wild-type strain and a mutant (649) lacking the aflatoxin gene cluster fail to produce aflatoxin or transcripts of the aflatoxin pathway genes. This dominant phenotype is rescued in diploids between a wild-type strain and a transformant of the mutant containing an ectopic copy of aflR, the transcriptional regulator of the aflatoxin biosynthetic gene cluster. Further characterization of the mutant showed that it is missing 317 kb of chromosome III, including the known genes for aflatoxin biosynthesis. In addition, 939 kb of chromosome II is present as a duplication on chromosome III in the region previously containing the aflatoxin gene cluster. The lack of aflatoxin production in the diploid was not due to a unique or a mis-expressed repressor of aflR. Instead a form of reversible silencing based on the position of aflR is likely preventing the aflatoxin genes from being expressed in 649 x wild-type diploids. Gene expression analysis revealed the silencing effect is specific to the aflatoxin gene cluster.

Mannitol metabolism in the phytopathogenic fungus Alternaria alternata

Mannitol metabolism in fungi is thought to occur through a mannitol cycle first described in 1978. In this cycle, mannitol 1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.17) was proposed to reduce fructose 6-phosphate into mannitol 1-phosphate, followed by dephosphorylation by a mannitol 1-phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.22) resulting in inorganic phosphate and mannitol. Mannitol would be converted back to fructose by the enzyme mannitol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.138). Although mannitol 1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase was proposed as the major biosynthetic enzyme and mannitol dehydrogenase as a degradative enzyme, both enzymes catalyze their respective reverse reactions. To date the cycle has not been confirmed through genetic analysis. We conducted enzyme assays that confirmed the presence of these enzymes in a tobacco isolate of Alternaria alternata. Using a degenerate primer strategy, we isolated the genes encoding the enzymes and used targeted gene disruption to create mutants deficient in mannitol 1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase, mannitol dehydrogenase, or both. PCR analysis confirmed gene disruption in the mutants, and enzyme assays demonstrated a lack of enzymatic activity for each enzyme. GC-MS experiments showed that a mutant deficient in both enzymes did not produce mannitol. Mutants deficient in mannitol 1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase or mannitol dehydrogenase alone produced 11.5 and 65.7 %, respectively, of wild type levels. All mutants grew on mannitol as a sole carbon source, however, the double mutant and mutant deficient in mannitol 1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase grew poorly. Our data demonstrate that mannitol 1-phosphate 5-dehydrogenase and mannitol dehydrogenase are essential enzymes in mannitol metabolism in A. alternata, but do not support mannitol metabolism operating as a cycle.

Aflatoxin conducive and non-conducive growth conditions reveal new gene associations with aflatoxin production

Research on aflatoxin (AF) production has traditionally focused on defining the AF biosynthetic pathway with the goal of identifying potential targets for intervention. To understand the effect of nitrogen source, carbon source, temperature, and pH on the regulation of AF biosynthesis, a targeted cDNA microarray consisting of genes associated with AF production over time was employed. Expression profiles for genes involved in AF biosynthesis grouped into five clades. A putative regulon was identified consisting of 20 genes that were induced in the conducive nitrogen and pH treatments and the non-conducive carbon and temperature treatments, as well as four other putative regulons corresponding to each of the four variables studied. Seventeen genes exhibited consistent induction/repression profiles across all the experiments. One of these genes was consistently downregulated with AF production. Overexpression of this gene resulted in repression of AF biosynthesis. The cellular function of this gene is currently unresolved.

Indole-diterpene gene cluster from Aspergillus flavus

Aflatrem is a potent tremorgenic mycotoxin produced by the soil fungus Aspergillus flavus and is a member of a large structurally diverse group of secondary metabolites known as indole-diterpenes. By using degenerate primers for conserved domains of fungal geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthases, we cloned two genes, atmG and ggsA (an apparent pseudogene), from A. flavus. Adjacent to atmG are two other genes, atmC and atmM. These three genes have 64 to 70% amino acid sequence similarity and conserved synteny with a cluster of orthologous genes, paxG, paxC, and paxM, from Penicillium paxilli which are required for indole-diterpene biosynthesis. atmG, atmC, and atmM are coordinately expressed, with transcript levels dramatically increasing at the onset of aflatrem biosynthesis. A genomic copy of atmM can complement a paxM deletion mutant of P. paxilli, demonstrating that atmM is a functional homolog of paxM. Thus, atmG, atmC, and atmM are necessary, but not sufficient, for aflatrem biosynthesis by A. flavus. This provides the first genetic evidence for the biosynthetic pathway of aflatrem in A. flavus.

Cercosporin-deficient mutants by plasmid tagging in the asexual fungus Cercospora nicotianae

We have successfully adapted plasmid insertion and restriction enzyme-mediated integration (REMI) to produce cercosporin toxin-deficient mutants in the asexual phytopathogenic fungus Cercospora nicotianae. The use of pre-linearized plasmid or restriction enzymes in the transformation procedure significantly decreased the transformation frequency, but promoted a complicated and undefined mode of plasmid integration that leads to mutations in the C. nicotianae genome. Vector DNA generally integrated in multiple copies, and no increase in single-copy insertion was observed when enzymes were added to the transformation mixture. Out of 1873 transformants tested, 39 putative cercosporin toxin biosynthesis ( ctb) mutants were recovered that showed altered levels of cercosporin production. Seven ctb mutants were recovered using pre-linearized plasmids without the addition of enzymes, and these were considered to be non-REMI mutants. The correlation between a specific insertion and a mutant phenotype was confirmed using rescued plasmids as gene disruption vectors in the wild-type strain. Six out of fifteen rescued plasmids tested yielded cercosporin-deficient transformants when re-introduced into the wild-type strain, suggesting a link between the insertion site and the cercosporin-deficient phenotype. Sequence analysis of a fragment flanking the insert site recovered from one insertion mutant showed it to be disrupted in sequences with high homology to the acyl transferase domain of polyketide synthases from other fungi. Disruption of this polyketide synthase gene ( CTB1) using a rescued plasmid resulted in mutants that were defective in cercosporin production. Thus, we provide the first molecular evidence that cercosporin is synthesized via a polyketide pathway as previously hypothesized.

Construction and preliminary evaluation of an Aspergillus flavus reporter gene construct as a potential tool for screening aflatoxin resistance

Effective preharvest strategies to eliminate aflatoxin accumulation in crops are not presently available. The molecular biology of aflatoxin biosynthesis has been extensively studied, and genetic and molecular tools such as reporter gene systems for the measurement of fungal growth have been developed. A reporter construct containing the Aspergillus flavus beta-tubulin gene promoter fused to Escherichia coli beta-glucuronidase (GUS) has been shown to be a reliable tool for the indirect measurement of fungal growth in maize kernels. Since cost-saving alternative methods for the direct measurement of aflatoxin levels are needed to facilitate more widespread field and laboratory screening of maize lines, a new reporter gene construct involving the promoter region of the omtA gene of the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway was constructed and tested. Expression of GUS activity by this construct (omtA::GUS) was correlated with aflatoxin accumulation in culture. In the fungal transformant GAP26-1, which harbors this construct, aflatoxin production and GUS expression on sucrose-containing medium showed the same temporal pattern of toxin induction. Furthermore, GUS expression by GAP26-1 was shown to be associated with aflatoxin accumulation in maize kernels inoculated with this strain. Our results suggest that this and other reporter gene pathway promoter constructs may provide superior alternatives to direct aflatoxin quantification with respect to time, labor, and materials for the screening of maize lines for resistance to aflatoxin accumulation.

Molecular cloning of verrucosidin-producing Penicillium polonicum genes by differential screening to obtain a DNA probe

A differential molecular screening procedure was developed to obtain DNA clones enriched for verrucosidin-related genes that could be used as DNA probes to detect verrucosidin-producing Penicillium polonicum. Permissive and nonpermissive conditions for verrucosidin production were selected to obtain differentiated poly (A)+ RNA for the cloning strategy. P. polonicum yielded the highest amount of verrucosidin when cultured in malt extract broth at 25 degrees C without shaking. These conditions were selected as verrucosidin permissive conditions. When shaking was applied to the verrucosidin permissive conditions, verrucosidin was not detected. Approximately 5000 transformants were obtained for the library of DNA fragments from verrucosidin-producing P. polonicum and hybridized with cDNA probes obtained from poly (A)+ RNA of permissive and nonpermissive conditions. A total of 120 clones hybridized only with the permissive cDNA probes. From these, eight representative DNA inserts selected on the basis of size and labelled with fluorescein-dUTP were assayed as DNA probes in the second differential screening by Northern hybridization. Probe SVr1 gave a strong hybridization signal selectively with poly (A)+ RNAs from high verrucosidin production. When this probe was assayed by dot blot hybridization with DNA of different moulds species, hybridization was detected only with DNA from the verrucosidin-producing strain. The strategy used in this work has proved to be useful to detect unknown genes related to mycotoxins. In addition, the DNA probe obtained should be considered for the detection of verrucosidin-producing moulds.

Identification of Aspergillus nidulans genes essential for the accumulation of sterigmatocystin

The fungus Aspergillus nidulans (Emericella nidulans) was used as a genetic model for the identification of genes required for efficient accumulation of sterigmatocystin (ST). The required gene for sterigmatocystin expression was stc, which is an intermediate penultimate product in the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway. Genetic analysis included studies of the sexual and parasexual cycles. The allelic segregation rates and recombination frequencies between linked and nonlinked genetic markers were determined by the crossing of the strains UT448 (stc) to UT196 (stc(+)) and UT448 (stc) to UT184 (stc). Low ST accumulation (4.0 ppm) in the UT196 strain and in 7.4% of the meiotic segregants allowed us to map the stc locus at chromosome I, 3.4% distant from riboA1. The diploid UT448 (stc)//UT184 (stc), prepared from nonproducing strains, was analyzed based on the parasexual cycle, and 28% of the haploid segregants accumulated the ST toxin. The results suggest that UT448 carries the stc mutant (or an inactivated) allele and that UT184, although carrying the stc(+) allele, is reactivated only by the R2(+) factor, which is located at chromosome VIII of UT448. In such a configuration, the diploid accumulates large amounts of sterigmatocystin (40 ppm). Another regulator factor (R1), located at the meth-w (II) chromosomic interval, was identified in the UT448 strain. At DNA level in chromosome I, the R1 product acts and blocks the stcZ(+) gene transcription. In a different genotypic configuration, the R1 product interacts with the R2 product (of chromosome VIII), allowing the stcZ(+) gene expression. Furthermore, the diploid UT448 (stc)//UT196 (stc(+)) accumulated the ST toxin at high level (40 ppm), indicating similar interaction between mentioned factors and the stc gene. Obtained data suggest that R1 (II) regulates the stcZ(+) transcription, by interacting with chromosome I (at the DNA level) and that R2 (VIII) controls R1 activity at the cytoplasm level. Based on these results, we propose a regulation model for the sterigmatocystin production.

Isolation of PDX2, a second novel gene in the pyridoxine biosynthesis pathway of eukaryotes, archaebacteria, and a subset of eubacteria

In this paper we describe the isolation of a second gene in the newly identified pyridoxine biosynthesis pathway of archaebacteria, some eubacteria, fungi, and plants. Although pyridoxine biosynthesis has been thoroughly examined in Escherichia coli, recent characterization of the Cercospora nicotianae biosynthesis gene PDX1 led to the discovery that most organisms contain a pyridoxine synthesis gene not found in E. coli. PDX2 was isolated by a degenerate primer strategy based on conserved sequences of a gene specific to PDX1-containing organisms. The role of PDX2 in pyridoxine biosynthesis was confirmed by complementation of two C. nicotianae pyridoxine auxotrophs not mutant in PDX1. Also, targeted gene replacement of PDX2 in C. nicotianae results in pyridoxine auxotrophy. Comparable to PDX1, PDX2 homologues are not found in any of the organisms with homologues to the E. coli pyridoxine genes, but are found in the same archaebacteria, eubacteria, fungi, and plants that contain PDX1 homologues. PDX2 proteins are less well conserved than their PDX1 counterparts but contain several protein motifs that are conserved throughout all PDX2 proteins.

Cloning and characterization of avfA and omtB genes involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis in three Aspergillus species

The biosynthesis of aflatoxins (B(1), G(1), B(2), and G(2)) is a multi-enzyme process controlled genetically by over 20 genes. In this study, we report the identification and characterization of the avfA gene, which was found to be involved in the conversion of averufin (AVF) to versiconal hemiacetal acetate (VHA), in Aspergillus parasiticus and A. flavus; a copy of avfA gene was also cloned from a non-aflatoxin producing strain A. sojae. Complementation of an averufin-accumulating, non-aflatoxigenic mutant strain of A. parasiticus, SRRC 165, with the avfA gene cloned from A. flavus, restored the ability of the mutant to convert AVF to VHA and to produce aflatoxins B(1), G(1), B(2), and G(2). Sequence analysis revealed that a single amino acid replacement from aspartic acid to asparagine disabled the function of the enzyme in the mutant strain SRRC 165. The A. parasiticus avfA was identified to be a homolog of previously sequenced, but functionally unassigned transcript, stcO, in A. nidulans based on sequence homology at both nucleotide (57%) and amino acid (55%) levels. In addition to avfA, another aflatoxin pathway gene, omtB, encoding for an O-methyltransferase involved in the conversion of demethylsterigmatocystin (DMST) to sterigmatocystin (ST) and dihydrodemethylsterigmatocystin (DHDMST) to dihydrosterigmatocystin (DHST), was cloned from A. parasiticus, A. flavus, and A. sojae. The omtB gene was found to be highly homologous to stcP from A. nidulans, which has been reported earlier to be involved in a similar enzymatic step for the sterigmatocystin formation in that species. RT-PCR data demonstrated that both the avfA and avfA1 as well as omtB genes in A. parasiticus were expressed only in the aflatoxin-conducive medium. An analysis of the degrees of homology for the two reported genes between the Aspergillus species A. parasiticus, A. flavus, A. nidulans and A. sojae was conducted.

Substrate specificity of a maize ribosome-inactivating protein differs across diverse taxa

The superfamily of ribosome-inactivating proteins (RIPs) consists of toxins that catalytically inactivate ribosomes at a universally conserved region of the large ribosomal RNA. RIPs carry out a single N-glycosidation event that alters the binding site of the translational elongational factor eEF1A and causes a cessation of protein synthesis that leads to subsequent cell death. Maize RIP1 is a kernel-specific RIP with the unusual property of being produced as a zymogen, proRIP1. ProRIP1 accumulates during seed development and becomes active during germination when cellular proteases remove acidic residues from a central domain and both termini. These deletions also result in RIP activation in vitro. However, the effectiveness of RIP1 activity against target ribosomes remains species-dependent. To determine the potential efficiency of maize RIP1 as a plant defense protein, we used quantitative RNA gel blots to detect products of RIP activity against intact ribosomal substrates from various species. We determined the enzyme specificity of recombinant maize proRIP1 (rproRIP1), papain-activated rproRIP1 and MOD1 (an active deletion mutant of rproRIP1) against ribosomal substrates with differing levels of RIP sensitivity. The rproRIP1 had no detectable enzymatic activity against ribosomes from any of the species assayed. The papain-activated rproRIP1 was more active than MOD1 against ribosomes from either rabbit or the corn pathogen, Aspergillus flavus, but the difference was much more marked when rabbit ribosomes were used as a substrate. The papain-activated rproRIP1 was much more active against rabbit ribosomes than homologous Zea mays ribosomes and had no detectable effect on Escherichia coli ribosomes.

Amy1, the alpha-Amylase Gene of Aspergillus flavus: Involvement in Aflatoxin Biosynthesis in Maize Kernels

ABSTRACT Aspergillus flavus is the causal agent of an ear and kernel rot in maize. In this study, we characterized an alpha-amylase-deficient mutant and assessed its ability to infect and produce aflatoxin in wounded maize kernels. The alpha-amylase gene Amy1 was isolated from A. flavus, and its DNA sequence was determined to be nearly identical to Amy3 of A. oryzae. When Amy1 was disrupted in an aflatoxigenic strain of A. flavus, the mutant failed to produce extracellular alpha-amylase and grew 45% the rate of the wild-type strain on starch medium. The mutant produced aflatoxin in medium containing glucose but not in a medium containing starch. The alpha-amylase-deficient mutant produced aflatoxin in maize kernels with wounded embryos and occasionally produced aflatoxin only in embryos of kernels with wounded endosperm. The mutant strain failed to produce aflatoxin when inoculated onto degermed kernels. In contrast, the wild-type strain produced aflatoxin in both the endosperm and embryo. These results suggest that alpha-amylase facilitates aflatoxin production and growth of A. flavus from a wound in the endosperm to the embryo. A 14-kDa trypsin inhibitor associated with resistance to A. flavus and aflatoxin in maize also inhibited the alpha-amylase from A. flavus, indicating that it is a bifunctional inhibitor. The inhibitor may have a role in resistance, limiting the growth of the fungus in the endosperm tissue by inhibiting the degradation of starch.

A highly conserved sequence is a novel gene involved in de novo vitamin B6 biosynthesis

The Cercospora nicotianae SOR1 (singlet oxygen resistance) gene was identified previously as a gene involved in resistance of this fungus to singlet-oxygen-generating phototoxins. Although homologues to SOR1 occur in organisms in four kingdoms and encode one of the most highly conserved proteins yet identified, the precise function of this protein has, until now, remained unknown. We show that SOR1 is essential in pyridoxine (vitamin B6) synthesis in C. nicotianae and Aspergillus flavus, although it shows no homology to previously identified pyridoxine synthesis genes identified in Escherichia coli. Sequence database analysis demonstrated that organisms encode either SOR1 or E. coli pyridoxine biosynthesis genes, but not both, suggesting that there are two divergent pathways for de novo pyridoxine biosynthesis in nature. Pathway divergence appears to have occurred during the evolution of the eubacteria. We also present data showing that pyridoxine quenches singlet oxygen at a rate comparable to that of vitamins C and E, two of the most highly efficient biological antioxidants, suggesting a previously unknown role for pyridoxine in active oxygen resistance.

Green fluorescent protein as a reporter to monitor gene expression and food colonization by Aspergillus flavus

Transformants of Aspergillus flavus containing the Aequorea victoria gfp gene fused to a viral promoter or the promoter region and 483 bp of the coding region of A. flavus aflR expressed green fluorescence detectable without a microscope or filters. Expression of green fluorescent protein fluorescence was correlated with resistance to aflatoxin accumulation in five corn genotypes inoculated with these transformants.

Characterization of aflJ, a gene required for conversion of pathway intermediates to aflatoxin

The genes encoding the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway enzymes have been localized as a cluster to a 75-kb DNA fragment. The enzymatic functions of the products of most of the genes in the cluster are known, but there are a few genes that have not yet been characterized. We report here the characterization of one of these genes, a gene designated aflJ. This gene resides in the cluster adjacent to the pathway regulatory gene, aflR, and the two genes are divergently transcribed. Disruption of aflJ in Aspergillus flavus results in a failure to produce aflatoxins and a failure to convert exogenously added pathway intermediates norsolorinic acid, sterigmatocystin, and O-methylsterigmatocystin to aflatoxin. The disrupted strain does, however, accumulate pksA, nor-1, ver-1, and omtA transcripts under conditions conducive to aflatoxin biosynthesis. Therefore, disruption of aflJ does not affect transcription of these genes, and aflJ does not appear to have a regulatory function similar to that of aflR. Sequence analysis of aflJ and its putative peptide, AflJ, did not reveal any enzymatic domains or significant similarities to proteins of known function. The putative peptide does contain three regions predicted to be membrane-spanning domains and a microbodies C-terminal targeting signal.

Alteration of different domains in AFLR affects aflatoxin pathway metabolism in Aspergillus parasiticus transformants

AFLR, a zinc binuclear cluster DNA-binding protein, is required for activation of genes comprising the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway in Aspergillus spp. Transformation of Aspergillus parasiticus with plasmids containing the intact aflR gene gave clones that produced fivefold more aflatoxin pathway metabolites than did the untransformed strain. When a 13-bp region in the aflR promoter (position -102 to -115 with respect to the ATG) was deleted, including a portion of a palindromic site previously shown to bind recombinant AFLR, metabolite production was 40% that of transformants with intact aflR. This result provides further evidence that this site may be involved in the autoregulation of aflR. Overexpression of pathway genes could also result from increased quantities of AFLR titrating out a putative repressor protein. In AFLR, a 20-amino-acid acidic region near its carboxy-terminus resembles the region in yeast GAL4 required for GAL80 repressor binding. When 3 of the acidic amino acids in this region were deleted, levels of metabolites were even higher than those produced by transformants with intact aflR, as would be expected if repressor binding was suppressed in transformants containing this altered protein. Transformation with plasmids mutated at the AFLR zinc cluster (Cys to Trp at amino acid position 49) or at a putative nuclear localization signal region (RRARK deleted) gave clones with one-fifth the metabolite production of the untransformed fungus in spite of the transformants making the same or more aflR mRNA. Since these transformants retained a copy of intact aflR, the latter results can be explained best by assuming that AFLR activates genes involved in aflatoxin production as a dimeric protein and that heterodimers containing both mutant and intact AFLR strands are inactive.

SOR1, a gene required for photosensitizer and singlet oxygen resistance in Cercospora fungi, is highly conserved in divergent organisms

Filamentous Cercospora fungi are resistant to photosensitizing compounds that generate singlet oxygen. C. nicotianae photosensitizer-sensitive mutants were restored to full resistance by transformation with SOR1 (Singlet Oxygen Resistance 1), a gene recovered from a wild-type genomic library. SOR1 null mutants generated via targeted gene replacement confirmed the requirement for SOR1 in photosensitizer resistance. SOR1 RNA is present throughout the growth cycle. Although resistance to singlet oxygen is rare in biological systems, SOR1, a gene with demonstrated activity against singlet-oxygen-generating photosensitizers, is highly conserved in organisms from widely diverse taxa. The characterization of SOR1 provides an additional phenotype to this large group of evolutionarily conserved genes.

ord1, an oxidoreductase gene responsible for conversion of O-methylsterigmatocystin to aflatoxin in Aspergillus flavus

Among the enzymatic steps in the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway, the conversion of O-methylsterigmatocystin to aflatoxin has been proposed to be catalyzed by an oxidoreductase. Transformants of Aspergillus flavus 649WAF2 containing a 3.3-kb genomic DNA fragment and the aflatoxin biosynthesis regulatory gene aflR converted exogenously supplied O-methylsterigmatocystin to aflatoxin B1. A gene, ord1, corresponding to a transcript of about 2 kb was identified within the 3.3-kb DNA fragment. The promoter region presented a putative AFLR binding site and a TATA sequence. The nucleotide sequence of the gene revealed an open reading frame encoding a protein of 528 amino acids with a deduced molecular mass of 60.2 kDa. The gene contained six introns and seven exons. Heterologous expression of the ord1 open reading frame under the transcriptional control of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae galactose-inducible gal1 promoter results in the ability to convert O-methylsterigmatocystin to aflatoxin B1. The data indicate that ord1 is sufficient to accomplish the last step of the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway. A search of various databases for similarity indicated that ord1 encodes a cytochrome P-450-type monooxygenase, and the gene has been assigned to a new P-450 gene family named CYP64.

Identification of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes by genetic complementation in an Aspergillus flavus mutant lacking the aflatoxin gene cluster

Aspergillus flavus mutant strain 649, which has a genomic DNA deletion of at least 120 kb covering the aflatoxin biosynthesis cluster, was transformed with a series of overlapping cosmids that contained DNA harboring the cluster of genes. The mutant phenotype of strain 649 was rescued by transformation with a combination of cosmid clones 5E6, 8B9, and 13B9, indicating that the cluster of genes involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis resides in the 90 kb of A. flavus genomic DNA carried by these clones. Transformants 5E6 and 20B11 and transformants 5E6 and 8B9 accumulated intermediate metabolites of the aflatoxin pathway, which were identified as averufanin and/or averufin, respectively. These data suggest that avf1, which is involved in the conversion of averufin to versiconal hemiacetal acetate, was present in the cosmid 13B9. Deletion analysis of 13B9 located the gene on a 7-kb DNA fragment of the cosmid. Transformants containing cosmid 8B9 converted exogenously supplied O-methylsterigmatocystin to aflatoxin, indicating that the oxidoreductase gene (ord1), which mediates the conversion of O-methylsterigmatocystin to aflatoxin, is carried by this cosmid. The analysis of transformants containing deletions of 8B9 led to the localization of ord1 on a 3.3-kb A. flavus genomic DNA fragment of the cosmid.

Disruption of the serine proteinase gene (sep) in Aspergillus flavus leads to a compensatory increase in the expression of a metalloproteinase gene (mep20)

The serine proteinase gene (sep) in Aspergillus flavus was disrupted by homologous recombination with a hygromycin resistance gene as the marker. The gene-disrupted mutant GR-2 contained a single-copy insertion of the marker gene and did not express the sep gene. Serine proteinase activity, 36-kDa protein labeled by 3H-diisopropylfluorophosphate, and immunologically detectable proteinase were not detected in the culture fluid of GR-2. Despite the absence of the serine proteinase, the total elastinolytic activity levels in the mutant and the wild-type A.flavus were comparable. Immunoblots revealed that the mutant secreted greater amounts of an elastinolytic metalloproteinase gene (mep20) product than did the wild type. Furthermore, mep20 mRNA levels, measured by RNase protection assay, in the mutant were higher than those in the wild type. Inhibition of the serine proteinase by Streptomyces subtilisin inhibitor (SSI) in the culture medium of wild-type A.flavus also resulted in an elevation of mep20 gene products. Although no serine proteinase activity could be detected, the level of elastinolytic activity of the SSI-treated culture was comparable to that of the control. Immunoblots revealed that the addition of SSI caused an elevation in the levels of metalloproteinase and its mRNA. These results suggest that the expression of the genes encoding serine and metalloproteinases are controlled by a common regulatory system and the fungus has a mechanism to sense the status of extracellular proteolytic activities.

Molecular characterization of the afl-1 locus in Aspergillus flavus

An unusual mutation at the afl-1 locus, affecting aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus 649, was investigated. The inability of strain 649 to produce aflatoxin was found to be the result of a large (greater than 60 kb) deletion that included a cluster of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes. Diploids formed by parasexual crosses between strain 649 and the aflatoxigenic strain 86 did not produce aflatoxin, indicating the dominant nature of the afl-1 mutation in strain 649. In metabolite feeding experiments, the diploids did not convert three intermediates in the aflatoxin pathway to aflatoxin. Northern (RNA blot) analysis of the diploids grown in medium conducive for aflatoxin production indicated that the aflatoxin pathway genes nor1, ver1, and omt1 were not expressed; however, there was low-level expression of the regulatory gene aflR. Pulsed-field electrophoresis gels indicated a larger (6 Mb) chromosome in strain 649 than the apparently homologous (4.9 Mb) chromosome in strain 86. The larger chromosome in strain 649 suggests that a rearrangement occurred in addition to the deletion. From these data, we proposed that a trans-sensing mechanism in diploids is responsible for the dominant phenotype associated with the afl-1 locus in strain 649. Such a mechanism is known in Drosophila melanogaster but has not been described for fungi.

A beta-glucuronidase reporter gene construct for monitoring aflatoxin biosynthesis in Aspergillus flavus

Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Current research is directed at the elimination of these compounds in important food sources. The objective of this research was to develop a method to study the induction and regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis by examining the expression of one aflatoxin pathway gene, ver1. The promoter region of ver1 was fused to the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) gene (uidA) from Escherichia coli to form the reporter construct, GAP13. A. flavus 656-2 was transformed with this construct. Aflatoxin production, GUS activity, and transcript accumulation were determined in transformants after shifting the cultures from a nonconducive medium to a medium conducive to aflatoxin biosynthesis. Transformants harboring GAP13 displayed GUS expression only when aflatoxin was detected in culture. Further, the transcription of the uidA gene driven by the ver1 promoter followed the same profile as for the ver1 genes. The results show that the GAP13 construct may be useful as a genetic tool to study the induction of aflatoxin in situ and to identify substances that affect the expression of genes involved in aflatoxin biosynthesis. The utility of this construct to detect inducers of aflatoxin biosynthesis in maize kernels was tested in a bioassay. A heat-stable inducer of aflatoxin with a molecular size of less than 10 kDa was detected in extracts from maize kernels colonized by A. flavus.

Comparative mapping of aflatoxin pathway gene clusters in Aspergillus parasiticus and Aspergillus flavus

Aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Aflatoxins are synthesized by condensation of acetate units; their synthesis is estimated to involve at least 16 different enzymes. In this study we have shown that at least nine genes involved in the aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway are located within a 60-kb DNA fragment. Four of these genes, nor-1, aflR, ver-1, and omtA (previously named omt-1), have been cloned in A. flavus and A. parasiticus. In addition, five other genes, pksA, uvm8, aad, ord-1, and ord-2 have been recently cloned in A. parasiticus. The pksA, aad, and uvm8 genes exhibit sequence homologies to polyketide synthase, aryl-alcohol dehydrogenase, and fatty acid synthase genes, respectively. The cDNA sequences of ord-1 and ord-2 genes, which may be involved in later steps of aflatoxin biosynthesis, have been determined; the ord-1 gene product exhibits homology to cytochrome P-450-type enzymes. By characterizing the overlapping regions of the DNA inserts in different cosmid and lambda DNA clones, we have determined the order of these aflatoxin pathway genes within this 60-kb DNA region to be pksA, nor-1, uvm8, aflR, aad, ver-1, ord-1, ord-2, and omtA in A. parasiticus and nor-1, aflR, ver-1, ord-1, ord-2, and omtA in A. flavus. The order is related to the order in enzymatic steps required for aflatoxin biosynthesis. The physical distances (in kilobase pairs) and the directions of transcription of these genes have been determined for both aflatoxigenic species.

Transformation of Aspergillus parasiticus using autonomously replicating plasmids from Aspergillus nidulans

A genetic transformation system for the aflatoxin-producing fungus Aspergillus parasiticus using two autonomously replicating plasmids from A. nidulans (ARp1 and pDHG25) is reported. Transformation frequencies using the plasmid pDHG25 were from 5 x 10(2) to 2.5 x 10(4) transformants per 10(6) viable protoplasts and microgram DNA. The stability of the plasmids in the transformants was also studied. This transformation system offers a new opportunity to clone genes related to aflatoxin production using appropriate aflatoxin-defective mutants.

Molecular characterization of aflR, a regulatory locus for aflatoxin biosynthesis

Aflatoxins belong to a family of decaketides that are produced as secondary metabolites by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. The aflatoxin biosynthetic pathway involves several enzymatic steps that appear to be regulated by the afl2 gene in A. flavus and the apa2 gene in A. parasiticus. Several lines of evidence indicate that these two genes are homologous. The DNA sequences of the two genes are highly similar, they both are involved in the regulation of aflatoxin biosynthesis, and apa2 can complement the afl2 mutation in A. flavus. Because of these similarities, we propose that these two genes are homologs, and because of the ability of these genes to regulate aflatoxin biosynthesis, we suggest that they be designated aflR. We report here the further characterization of aflR from A. flavus and show that aflR codes for a 2,078-bp transcript with an open reading frame of 1,311 nucleotides that codes for 437 amino acids and a putative protein of 46,679 daltons. Analysis of the predicted amino acid sequence indicated that the polypeptide contains a zinc cluster motif between amino acid positions 29 and 56. This region contains the consensus sequence Cys-Xaa2-Cys-Xaa6-Cys-Xaa6-Cys-Xaa2-Cys-Xaa6+ ++-Cys. This motif has been found in several fungal transcriptional regulatory proteins. DNA hybridization of the aflR gene with genomic digests of seven polyketide-producing fungi revealed similar sequences in three other species related to A. flavus: A. parasiticus, A. oryzae, and A. sojae. Finally, we present evidence for an antisense transcript (aflRas) derived from the opposite strand of aflR, suggesting that the aflR locus involves some form of antisense regulation.

The alcohol dehydrogenase gene adh1 is induced in Aspergillus flavus grown on medium conducive to aflatoxin biosynthesis

An Aspergillus flavus cDNA library was screened by differential hybridization to isolate clones corresponding to genes that are actively transcribed under culture conditions conducive to aflatoxin biosynthesis. One clone with a 1.28-kb insert was isolated, and its nucleotide sequence was determined. The nucleotide sequence of this clone had 75% DNA identity to those of the alcohol dehydrogenase genes from Aspergillus nidulans, and the putative polypeptide translated from the cDNA sequence had 82% similarity with the amino acid sequences of the A. nidulans proteins. Thus, this gene has been designated adh1. Southern hybridization analysis of genomic DNA from A. flavus indicated that there was one copy of the adh1 gene. Northern (RNA) hybridization analysis indicated that the adh1 transcript accumulated in culture medium conducive to aflatoxin production and the timing of accumulation of adh1 transcripts was similar to that for aflatoxin. Fusion of the promoter region of adh1 to a beta-glucuronidase reporter gene indicated that accumulation of the adh1 transcript was the result of transcriptional activation. These molecular data support previous physiological evidence that showed the importance of carbohydrate metabolism during aflatoxin biosynthesis.