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Microbial cell surface engineering for high-level synthesis of bio-products. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 55:107912. [PMID: 35041862 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.107912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Microbial cell surface layers, which mainly include the cell membrane, cell wall, periplasmic space, outer membrane, capsules, S-layers, pili, and flagella, control material exchange between the cell and the extracellular environment, and have great impact on production titers and yields of various bio-products synthesized by microbes. Recent research work has made exciting achievements in metabolic engineering using microbial cell surface components as novel regulation targets without direct modifications of the metabolic pathways of the desired products. This review article will summarize the accomplishments obtained in this emerging field, and will describe various engineering strategies that have been adopted in bacteria and yeasts for the enhancement of mass transfer across the cell surface, improvement of protein expression and folding, modulation of cell size and shape, and re-direction of cellular resources, all of which contribute to the construction of more efficient microbial cell factories toward the synthesis of a variety of bio-products. The existing problems and possible future directions will also be discussed.
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Shitut S, Bergman GÖ, Kros A, Rozen DE, Claessen D. Use of Permanent Wall-Deficient Cells as a System for the Discovery of New-to-Nature Metabolites. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8121897. [PMID: 33265975 PMCID: PMC7760116 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8121897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Filamentous actinobacteria are widely used as microbial cell factories to produce valuable secondary metabolites, including the vast majority of clinically relevant antimicrobial compounds. Secondary metabolites are typically encoded by large biosynthetic gene clusters, which allow for a modular approach to generating diverse compounds through recombination. Protoplast fusion is a popular method for whole genome recombination that uses fusion of cells that are transiently wall-deficient. This process has been applied for both inter- and intraspecies recombination. An important limiting step in obtaining diverse recombinants from fused protoplasts is regeneration of the cell wall, because this forces the chromosomes from different parental lines to segregate, thereby preventing further recombination. Recently, several labs have gained insight into wall-deficient bacteria that have the ability to proliferate without their cell wall, known as L-forms. Unlike protoplasts, L-forms can stably maintain multiple chromosomes over many division cycles. Fusion of such L-forms would potentially allow cells to express genes from both parental genomes while also extending the time for recombination, both of which can contribute to an increased chemical diversity. Here, we present a perspective on how L-form fusion has the potential to become a platform for novel compound discovery and may thus help to overcome the antibiotic discovery void.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shraddha Shitut
- Origins Centre, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; (G.Ö.B.); (D.E.R.)
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands;
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (D.C.)
| | - Güniz Özer Bergman
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; (G.Ö.B.); (D.E.R.)
| | - Alexander Kros
- Leiden Institute of Chemistry, Leiden University, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Daniel E. Rozen
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; (G.Ö.B.); (D.E.R.)
| | - Dennis Claessen
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands; (G.Ö.B.); (D.E.R.)
- Correspondence: (S.S.); (D.C.)
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Proliferation of Listeria monocytogenes L-form cells by formation of internal and external vesicles. Nat Commun 2016; 7:13631. [PMID: 27876798 PMCID: PMC5123018 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
L-forms are cell wall-deficient bacteria that divide through unusual mechanisms, involving dynamic perturbations of the cellular shape and generation of vesicles, independently of the cell-division protein FtsZ. Here we describe FtsZ-independent mechanisms, involving internal and external vesicles, by which Listeria monocytogenesL-forms proliferate. Using micromanipulation of single cells and vesicles, we show that small vesicles are formed by invagination within larger intracellular vesicles, receive cytoplasmic content, and represent viable progeny. In addition, the L-forms can reproduce by pearling, that is, generation of extracellular vesicles that remain transiently linked to their mother cell via elastic membranous tubes. Using photobleaching and fluorescence recovery, we demonstrate cytoplasmic continuity and transfer through these membranous tubes. Our findings indicate that L-forms' polyploidy and extended interconnectivity through membranous tubes contribute to the generation of viable progeny independently of dedicated division machinery, and further support L-forms as models for studies of potential multiplication mechanisms of hypothetical primitive cells. L-forms are cell wall-deficient bacteria that divide through unusual mechanisms, potentially resembling those of primitive cells. Here the authors describe how Listeria monocytogenesL-forms proliferate by generation of internal and external vesicles.
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Luerce TD, Azevedo MSP, LeBlanc JG, Azevedo V, Miyoshi A, Pontes DS. Recombinant Lactococcus lactis fails to secrete bovine chymosine. Bioengineered 2014; 5:363-70. [PMID: 25482140 PMCID: PMC4601287 DOI: 10.4161/bioe.36327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine chymosin is an important milk-clotting agent used in the manufacturing of cheeses. Currently, the production of recombinant proteins by genetically modified organisms is widespread, leading to greatly reduced costs. Lactococcus (L.) lactis, the model lactic acid bacterium, was considered a good candidate for heterologous chymosin production for the following reasons: (1) it is considered to be a GRAS (generally regarded as safe) microorganism, (2) only one protease is present on its surface, (3) it can secrete proteins of different sizes, and (4) it allows for the direct production of protein in fermented food products. Thus, three genetically modified L. lactis strains were constructed to produce and target the three different forms of bovine chymosin, prochymosin B, chymosin A and chymosin B to the extracellular medium. Although all three proteins were stably produced in L. lactis, none of the forms were detected in the extracellular medium or showed clotting activity in milk. Our hypothesis is that this secretion deficiency and lack of clotting activity can be explained by the recombinant protein being attached to the cell envelope. Thus, the development of other strategies is necessary to achieve both production and targeting of chymosin in L. lactis, which could facilitate the downstream processing and recovery of this industrially important protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessália Diniz Luerce
- Department of General Biology; Institute of Biological Sciences; Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG-ICB); Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Marcela Santiago Pacheco Azevedo
- Department of General Biology; Institute of Biological Sciences; Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG-ICB); Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | | | - Vasco Azevedo
- Department of General Biology; Institute of Biological Sciences; Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG-ICB); Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Anderson Miyoshi
- Department of General Biology; Institute of Biological Sciences; Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG-ICB); Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Daniela Santos Pontes
- Centre of Biological and Applied Social Sciences; State University of Paraiba; Joao Pessoa, Brazil
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Kumar A, Grover S, Sharma J, Batish VK. Chymosin and other milk coagulants: sources and biotechnological interventions. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2010; 30:243-58. [DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2010.483459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Allan E, Hoischen C, Gumpert J. Chapter 1 Bacterial L‐Forms. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2009; 68:1-39. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(09)01201-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Mohanty AK, Mukhopadhyay UK, Grover S, Batish VK. Bovine chymosin: production by rDNA technology and application in cheese manufacture. Biotechnol Adv 2004; 17:205-17. [PMID: 14538140 DOI: 10.1016/s0734-9750(99)00010-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Bovine chymosin, an aspartyl protease extracted from abomasum of suckling calves, is synthesized in vivo as preprochymosin and secreted as prochymosin which is autocatalytically activated to chymosin. Chymosin is bilobular, with Asp 32 and Asp 215 acting as the catalytic residues. Chymosin A and chymosin B have pH optima of 4.2 and 3.8, respectively, and act to initiate milk clotting by cleaving kappa-casein between Phe 105 and Met 106. The gene encoding chymosin has been cloned and expressed in suitable bacteria and yeast hosts under the control of lac, trp, trp-beta, gly A genes, and serine hydroxymethyl-transferase promoters. Protein engineering of chymosin has also been attempted. A number of companies are now producing recombinant chymosin for commercial use in cheese manufacture.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K Mohanty
- Molecular Biology Unit, Dairy Microbiology Division, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, 132 001, India
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Babé LM, Linnevers CJ, Schmidt BF. Production of active mammalian and viral proteases in bacterial expression systems. Biotechnol Genet Eng Rev 2001; 17:213-52. [PMID: 11255667 DOI: 10.1080/02648725.2000.10647993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- L M Babé
- Axys Pharmaceuticals Inc., 180 Kimball Way, South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA.
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Freestone P, Grant S, Trinei M, Onoda T, Norris V. Protein phosphorylation in Escherichia coli L. form NC-7. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 1998; 144 ( Pt 12):3289-3295. [PMID: 9884220 DOI: 10.1099/00221287-144-12-3289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Wall-less L-forms of Escherichia coli constitute an interesting, and relatively underused, model system for numerous studies of bacterial physiology including the cell cycle, intracellular structure and protein phosphorylation. Total extracts of the L-form revealed a pattern of protein phosphorylation similar to that of an enteropathogenic strain but very different from its parental K-12 strain. In particular, the L-form extract revealed phosphorylation on tyrosine of a protein important in pathogenesis, TypA, and calcium-specific phosphorylation of a 40 kDa protein. Two new phosphoproteins were identified in the L-form as the DNA-binding protein Dps, and YfiD, a protein of 14 kDa with homology to pyruvate formate-lyase and a region containing a tRNA cluster in bacteriophage T5.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Freestone
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical Sciences Building, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 9HN, UK
| | - S Grant
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical Sciences Building, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 9HN, UK
| | - M Trinei
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Medical Sciences Building, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 9HN, UK
| | - T Onoda
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Shimane University, Matsue 690, Japan
| | - V Norris
- IFR 'Systèmes Intégrés', Laboratoire de Microbiologie, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques de Rouen, F76821 Mont Saint Aignan, France
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Gumpert J, Hoischen C. Use of cell wall-less bacteria (L-forms) for efficient expression and secretion of heterologous gene products. Curr Opin Biotechnol 1998; 9:506-9. [PMID: 9821280 DOI: 10.1016/s0958-1669(98)80037-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In spite of many efforts and achievements to optimize the prokaryotic expression systems, there are still general and specific problems in obtaining sufficient yields of the functionally active gene products. The main problems concern the formation of inclusion bodies, incorrect folding, toxicity for the producer cells and degradation by proteases. One way to overcome these problems is with expression systems alternative to those of Escherichia coli. For the first time, cell wall-less L-form bacteria were used to establish such an alternative expression system and test its practicability. The results showed that various recombinant proteins can be synthesized in considerable amounts as soluble, functionally active products with these cell wall-less strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Gumpert
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Jena, Germany.
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Bushueva AM, Shevelev AB, Gumpert J, Chestukhina GG, Serkina AV, Hoischen C, Matz MV, Kuryatova MV, Stepanov VM. Expression of the carboxypeptidase T gene from Thermoactinomyces vulgaris in stable protoplast type L-forms of Proteus mirabilis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1998; 159:145-50. [PMID: 9503606 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1998.tb12853.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The structural gene of the carboxypeptidase T (cpt) was successfully expressed in cell wall-less L-form cells of Proteus mirabilis. The DNA sequence encoding the PhoA leader peptide was fused with a truncated cpt gene encoding the mature enzyme. The modified gene in a pUC-based kanamycin resistance vector under the control of the lac promoter was transformed into L-form cells of P. mirabilis. They were able to produce the recombinant CpT both as a secretory and as a cell-bound insoluble form. The co-secretory processing of the PhoA leader peptide was quite efficient. The yield of the secreted CpT was not less than 20 mg l-1 and should be improvable.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Bushueva
- Laboratory of Protein Chemistry, Institute of Microbial Genetics (GNII Genetika), Moscow, Russia
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High efficiency of transformation of Proteus mirabilis with a pUC19 derivative vector directs the expression and secretion of the Bacillus subtilis α-amylase gene. METHODS IN MICROBIOLOGY 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0167-7012(96)00906-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Gumpert J, Cron H, Plapp R, Niersbach H, Hoischen C. Synthesis and secretion of recombinant penicillin G acylase in bacterial L-forms. J Basic Microbiol 1996; 36:89-98. [PMID: 8676280 DOI: 10.1002/jobm.3620360205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
L-form strains of Proteus mirabilis and Escherichia coli lacking the cell wall represent an alternative prokaryotic cell system for the production of recombinant proteins (KLESSEN et al. 1988, LAPLACE et al. 1988a, 1989b). We could demonstrate that they are also able to synthesize the enzyme penicillin G acylase (PAC)1). PAC was processed and secreted into the medium by recombinant L-form strains. The synthesis of PAC was growth-associated and stably regulated. Expression, secretion, and processing were not temperature-dependent and occurred at 26 degrees C, 32 degrees C and even 37 degrees C. The expression vector pHC1 carried the pac gene under the control of the lac UV promotor and a kanamycin resistance gene. It could be maintained in L-form cells, showing low structural as well as segregational instability. The secretion of the biologically active enzyme into the medium indicated that the postranslational processing of the PAC molecule, including the excision of a 54 amino acid spacer peptide between the alpha and beta subunit, is not carried out in the periplasmic space, but occurs at the cytoplasmic membrane or autocatalytically.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Gumpert
- Institut für Molekulare Biotechnologie e. V., Jena, Germany
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Garg SK, Johri BN. Rennet: Current trends and future research. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 1994. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129409541005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Teuber M. Genetic engineering techniques in food microbiology and enzymology. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 1993. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129309540968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Katenkamp U, Groth I, Laplace F, Malke H. Electrotransformation of the stable L-form ofProteus mirabilis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1992. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1992.tb05281.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Abstract
The calf preprochymosin cDNA was cloned into an extrachromosomal mammalian cell expression vector containing Epstein-Barr virus sequences using polymerase chain reaction. Transfection of HeLa cells yielded Hygromycin B resistant cell clones, expressing immunoreactive prochymosin, which was quantitatively secreted into the culture medium. Based on Western blotting we estimated that selected cell clones produced about 10-20 mg prochymosin per liter in 20 h. The biological activity of the secreted chymosin was confirmed by milk clotting assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kolmer
- Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics, Estonian Academy of Sciences, Tallinn
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Laplace F, Müller JÃ, Gumpert J, Malke H. Novel shuttle vectors for improved streptokinase expression in streptococci and bacterial L-forms. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1989. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1989.tb03602.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
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