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van der Made JJA, Landis EA, Deans GT, Lai RA, Chandran K. Synergistic lignin degradation between Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Fenton chemistry is mediated through iron cycling and ligninolytic enzyme induction. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 905:166767. [PMID: 37660814 PMCID: PMC10646785 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Removal of recalcitrant lignin from wastewater remains a critical bottleneck in multiple aspects relating to microbial carbon cycling ranging from incomplete treatment of biosolids during wastewater treatment to limited conversion of biomass feedstock to biofuels. Based on previous studies showing that the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium and Fenton chemistry synergistically degrade lignin, we sought to determine optimum levels of Fenton addition and the mechanisms underlying this synergy. We tested the extent of degradation of lignin under different ratios of Fenton reagents and found that relatively low levels of H2O2 and Fe(II) enhanced fungal lignin degradation, achieving 80.4 ± 1.61 % lignin degradation at 1.5 mM H2O2 and 0.3 mM Fe(II). Using a combination of whole-transcriptome sequencing and iron speciation assays, we determined that at these concentrations, Fenton chemistry induced the upregulation of 80 differentially expressed genes in P. ch including several oxidative enzymes. This study underlines the importance of non-canonical, auxiliary lignin-degrading pathways in the synergy between white rot fungi and Fenton chemistry in lignin degradation. We also found that, relative to the abiotic control, P. ch. increases the availability of Fe(II) for the production of hydroxyl radicals in the Fenton reaction by recycling Fe(III) (p < 0.001), decreasing the Fe(II) inputs necessary for lignin degradation via the Fenton reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth A Landis
- Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Griffin T Deans
- Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ruby A Lai
- Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Kartik Chandran
- Department of Earth and Environmental Engineering, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
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2
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Huang X, Liu X, Xue Y, Pan B, Xiao L, Wang S, Lever MA, Hinrichs KU, Inagaki F, Liu C. Methane Production by Facultative Anaerobic Wood-Rot Fungi via a New Halomethane-Dependent Pathway. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0170022. [PMID: 36102652 PMCID: PMC9604129 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01700-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The greenhouse gas methane (CH4) is of pivotal importance for Earth's climate system and as a human energy source. A significant fraction of this CH4 is produced by anaerobic Archaea. Here, we describe the first CH4 production by facultative anaerobic wood-rot fungi during growth on hydroxylated/carboxylated aromatic compounds, including lignin and lignite. The amount of CH4 produced by fungi is positively correlated with the amount of CH3Cl produced during the rapid growth period of the fungus. Biochemical, genetic, and stable isotopic tracer analyses reveal the existence of a novel halomethane-dependent fungal CH4 production pathway during the degradation of phenol and benzoic acid monomers and polymers and utilization of cyclic sugars. Even though this halomethane-dependent pathway may only play a side role in anaerobic fungal activity, it could represent a globally significant, previously overlooked source of biogenic CH4 in natural ecosystems. IMPORTANCE Here, we demonstrate that wood-rot fungi produce methane anaerobically without the involvement of methanogenic archaea via a new, halomethane-dependent pathway. These findings of an anaerobic fungal methane formation pathway open another avenue in methane research and will further assist with current efforts in the identification of the processes involved and their ecological implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yarong Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Bingcai Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lei Xiao
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, China University of Mining & Technology, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shuijuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mark A. Lever
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Kai-Uwe Hinrichs
- MARUM Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
| | - Fumio Inagaki
- Mantle Drilling Promotion Office, Institute for Marine-Earth Exploration and Engineering (MarE3), Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokohama, Japan
- Department of Earth Sciences, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Changhong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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Wickramasinghe PCK, Munafo JP. Biosynthesis of Benzylic Derivatives in the Fermentation Broth of the Edible Mushroom, Ischnoderma resinosum. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:2485-2492. [PMID: 32049524 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.9b07218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Employing isotope incubation studies, the biosynthetic pathway leading to a series of benzylic derivatives was elucidated in the fermentation broth of the edible mushroom Ischnoderma resinosum (P. Karst). Twenty-six hydroxy- and methoxy- benzylic derivatives were screened by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) of which 13 were detected in the culture media. Results from the isotope incubation studies showed the transformation of both benzyl alcohol and benzoic acid into benzaldehyde. Benzaldehyde was then converted into 4-methoxybenzaldehyde via hydroxylation and subsequent methylation of the 4-C position. The resulting 4-methoxybenzaldehyde was then hydroxylated in the 3-C position followed by methylation into 3,4-dimethoxybenzaldehyde. Based on these findings, a novel metabolic scheme for the biosynthesis of benzylic derivatives in I. resinosum was proposed. The knowledge of the biosynthetic pathway was utilized to produce 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde (vanillin) from 4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzoic acid (vanillic acid). This is the first report to elucidate the biosynthetic pathway of benzyl derivatives and production of vanillin from I. resinosum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Purni C K Wickramasinghe
- Department of Food Science , The University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | - John P Munafo
- Department of Food Science , The University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
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4
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Kotik M, Vanacek P, Kunka A, Prokop Z, Damborsky J. Metagenome-derived haloalkane dehalogenases with novel catalytic properties. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 101:6385-6397. [PMID: 28674849 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8393-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2017] [Revised: 06/11/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Haloalkane dehalogenases (HLDs) are environmentally relevant enzymes cleaving a carbon-halogen bond in a wide range of halogenated pollutants. PCR with degenerate primers and genome-walking was used for the retrieval of four HLD-encoding genes from groundwater-derived environmental DNA. Using specific primers and the environmental DNA as a template, we succeeded in generating additional amplicons, resulting altogether in three clusters of sequences with each cluster comprising 8-13 closely related putative HLD-encoding genes. A phylogenetic analysis of the translated genes revealed that three HLDs are members of the HLD-I subfamily, whereas one gene encodes an enzyme from the subfamily HLD-II. Two metagenome-derived HLDs, eHLD-B and eHLD-C, each from a different subfamily, were heterologously produced in active form, purified and characterized in terms of their thermostability, pH and temperature optimum, quaternary structure, substrate specificity towards 30 halogenated compounds, and enantioselectivity. eHLD-B and eHLD-C showed striking differences in their activities, substrate preferences, and tolerance to temperature. Profound differences were also determined in the enantiopreference and enantioselectivity of these enzymes towards selected substrates. Comparing our data with those of known HLDs revealed that eHLD-C exhibits a unique combination of high thermostability, high activity, and an unusually broad pH optimum, which covers the entire range of pH 5.5-8.9. Moreover, a so far unreported high thermostability for HLDs was determined for this enzyme at pH values lower than 6.0. Thus, eHLD-C represents an attractive and novel biocatalyst for biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Kotik
- Laboratory of Biotransformation, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Vanacek
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Antonin Kunka
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic, Brno, Czech Republic.
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Weigold P, El-Hadidi M, Ruecker A, Huson DH, Scholten T, Jochmann M, Kappler A, Behrens S. A metagenomic-based survey of microbial (de)halogenation potential in a German forest soil. Sci Rep 2016; 6:28958. [PMID: 27353292 PMCID: PMC4926216 DOI: 10.1038/srep28958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In soils halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine) are cycled through the transformation of inorganic halides into organohalogen compounds and vice versa. There is evidence that these reactions are microbially driven but the key enzymes and groups of microorganisms involved are largely unknown. Our aim was to uncover the diversity, abundance and distribution of genes encoding for halogenating and dehalogenating enzymes in a German forest soil by shotgun metagenomic sequencing. Metagenomic libraries of three soil horizons revealed the presence of genera known to be involved in halogenation and dehalogenation processes such as Bradyrhizobium or Pseudomonas. We detected a so far unknown diversity of genes encoding for (de)halogenating enzymes in the soil metagenome including specific and unspecific halogenases as well as metabolic and cometabolic dehalogenases. Genes for non-heme, no-metal chloroperoxidases and haloalkane dehalogenases were the most abundant halogenase and dehalogenase genes, respectively. The high diversity and abundance of (de)halogenating enzymes suggests a strong microbial contribution to natural halogen cycling. This was also confirmed in microcosm experiments in which we quantified the biotic formation of chloroform and bromoform. Knowledge on microorganisms and genes that catalyze (de)halogenation reactions is critical because they are highly relevant to industrial biotechnologies and bioremediation applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Weigold
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of
Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Mohamed El-Hadidi
- Algorithms in Bioinformatics, Center for Bioinformatics,
University of Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Alexander Ruecker
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of
Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Daniel H. Huson
- Algorithms in Bioinformatics, Center for Bioinformatics,
University of Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Scholten
- Soil Science and Geomorphology, Geography, University of
Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Maik Jochmann
- Instrumental Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry,
University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
| | - Andreas Kappler
- Geomicrobiology, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of
Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Behrens
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Geo- Engineering,
University of Minnesota, MN, USA
- BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota,
MN, USA
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6
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Discovery and characterization of new O-methyltransferase from the genome of the lignin-degrading fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium for enhanced lignin degradation. Enzyme Microb Technol 2015; 82:66-73. [PMID: 26672450 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2015.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 08/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Using bioinformatic homology search tools, this study utilized sequence phylogeny, gene organization and conserved motifs to identify members of the family of O-methyltransferases from lignin-degrading fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium. The heterologous expression and characterization of O-methyltransferases from P. chrysosporium were studied. The expressed protein utilized S-(5'-adenosyl)-L-methionine p-toluenesulfonate salt (SAM) and methylated various free-hydroxyl phenolic compounds at both meta and para site. In the same motif, O-methyltransferases were also identified in other white-rot fungi including Bjerkandera adusta, Ceriporiopsis (Gelatoporia) subvermispora B, and Trametes versicolor. As free-hydroxyl phenolic compounds have been known as inhibitors for lignin peroxidase, the presence of O-methyltransferases in white-rot fungi suggested their biological functions in accelerating lignin degradation in white-rot basidiomycetes by converting those inhibitory groups into non-toxic methylated phenolic ones.
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Wang J, Yamada Y, Notake A, Todoroki Y, Tokumoto T, Dong J, Thomas P, Hirai H, Kawagishi H. Metabolism of bisphenol A by hyper lignin-degrading fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624 under non-ligninolytic condition. CHEMOSPHERE 2014; 109:128-133. [PMID: 24582362 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Recently, we reported the conversion of bisphenol A (BPA) to 4-(2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propan-2-yl)benzene-1,2-diol (hydroxy-BPA) by hyper lignin-degrading fungus Phanerochaete sordida YK-624 under non-ligninolytic condition. In the present study, the metabolism of hydroxy-BPA by P. sordida YK-624 was demonstrated under non-ligninolytic condition. Under these conditions, approximately 66% of hydroxy-BPA was degraded after 7 d of incubation. High-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectra and nuclear magnetic resonance analyses of the metabolites isolated from the culture broth indicated that hydroxy-BPA was metabolized to 4-(2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propan-2-yl)-2-methoxyphenol (methoxy-BPA) and to 4-(2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)propan-2-yl)phenol (dimethoxy-BPA) by sequential methylation events. These metabolites showed reduced estrogenic activity compared to BPA. These results suggested that the hydroxy BPA is methylated to two low toxic-methylation metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianqiao Wang
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Yuto Yamada
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Akira Notake
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Yasushi Todoroki
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Toshinobu Tokumoto
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Jing Dong
- Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, 750 Channel View Drive, Port Aransas, TX 78373, USA
| | - Peter Thomas
- Marine Science Institute, University of Texas at Austin, 750 Channel View Drive, Port Aransas, TX 78373, USA
| | - Hirofumi Hirai
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan.
| | - Hirokazu Kawagishi
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Graduate School of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
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8
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Ning D, Wang H, Zhuang Y. Induction of functional cytochrome P450 and its involvement in degradation of benzoic acid by Phanerochaete chrysosporium. Biodegradation 2009; 21:297-308. [DOI: 10.1007/s10532-009-9301-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2008] [Accepted: 09/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Silk PJ, Macaulay JB. Stereoselective biosynthesis of chloroarylpropane diols by the basidiomyceteBjerkandera adusta: exploring the roles of amino acids, pyruvate, glycerol and phenyl acetyl carbinol. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2003; 228:11-9. [PMID: 14612230 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1097(03)00725-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Bjerkandera adusta produces many chlorometabolites including chlorinated anisyl metabolites (CAMs) and 1-arylpropane-1,2-diols (1, 2, 3, 4) as idiophasic metabolic products of L-phenylalanine. These diols are stereoselectively biosynthesized from a C7-unit (benzylic, from L-phenylalanine) and a C2-unit, of unknown origin, as predominantly erythro (1R,2S) enantiomers. Of the labeled amino acids tested as possible C2-units, at the 4-10 mM level, none were found to efficiently label the 2,3-propane carbons of the diols. However, glycine (2-13C), L-serine (2,3,3-d3) and L-methionine (methyl-d3) entered the biomethylation pathway. Neither pyruvate (2,3-13C2), acetate (1,2-13C2), acetaldehyde (d4) nor ethanol (ethyl-d5) labeled the 2,3-propane carbons of the diols at the 4-10 mM level. Pyruvate (2,3-13C2) and L-serine (2,3,3-d3) (which also entered the biomethylation pathway) did, however, effectively label the 2,3-propane carbons of the alpha-ketols and diols at the 40 mM level as evidenced by mass spectrometry. Glycerol (1,1,2,3,3-d5) also appeared to label one of the 2,3-propane carbons (ca. 5% as 2H2 in the C3 side chain) as suggested by mass spectrometric data and also entered the biomethylation pathway, likely via amino acid synthesis. Glycerol (through pyruvate), therefore, likely supplies C2 and C3 of the propane side chain with arylpropane diol biosynthesis. Incubation of B. adusta with synthetic [2-2H1, 2-18O]-glycerol showed that neither 2H nor 18O were incorporated in the alpha-ketols or diols. The oxygen atom on the C2 of the ketols/diols, therefore, does not appear to come from the oxygen atom on the C2 of glycerol. Glycerol, however, can readily form L-serine (which can then form pyruvate via PLP/serine dehydratase and involve transamination washing out the 18O label and providing the oxygen from water), and can then go on to label the C2-unit. Labeled alpha-ketol, phenyl acetyl carbinol (5) (PAC; ring-d(5), 2,3-13C2 propane) cultured with B. adusta leads to stereospecific reduction to the (1R,2S)-diol (6) (ring-d5 and 2,3-13C2); in all other metabolites produced, the 2,3-13C2) label is washed out. Incubation of the fungus with 4-fluorobenzaldehyde (13) produces a pooling of predominantly erythro (1R,2S) 1-(4'-fluorophenyl)-1,2-propane diol (18 as diacetate) (through the corresponding alpha-ketols 16, 17). Blocking the para-position with fluorine thus appears to prevent ring oxygenation and also chlorination, forcing the conclusion that para-ring oxygenation precedes meta-chlorination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter James Silk
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Atlantic Forestry Centre, P.O. Box 4000, 1350 Regent Street, Fredericton, NB, Canada E3B 5P7.
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Silk PJ, Macaulay JB. Stereoselective biosynthesis of chloroarylpropane diols by the basidiomycete Bjerkandera adusta. CHEMOSPHERE 2003; 52:503-512. [PMID: 12738275 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(03)00203-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Previously we have shown that 1-arylpropane-1,2-diols are catabolic products of L-phenylalanine during idiophasic metabolism of B. adusta that are stereoselectively biosynthesized from a C(7)-unit (ring+benzylic carbon) and a C(2)-unit as predominantly erythro 1R, 2S enantiomers.In order to probe the mechanism of 1-arylpropane-1,2-diol formation, the products of the incubation of isotopically labelled aromatic aldehydes as substrates with Bjerkandera adusta (DAOM 215869) have been characterized. The aromatic aldehydes were benzaldehyde (ring D(5)) and 4-methoxy- and 4-hydroxybenzaldehydes (ring 13C(6)). These aldehydes were all stereoselectively incorporated into the corresponding 1-arylpropane-1,2-diols, including the chloro analogues, as well as into the corresponding alpha-ketols (phenyl acetyl carbinols (PAC's) and 2-hydroxy propiophenones (2-HPP's)) the presumed precursors of the diols. Benzoic acid (ring D(5)) was likewise incorporated into the diols, chlorodiols and alpha-ketols. These results lead us to conclude that the aromatic aldehydes benzaldehyde, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde and 4-methoxybenzaldehyde are likely C(7)-unit precursors in the carboligation reaction(s) that leads to 1-arylpropane-1,2-diol biosynthesis. The metabolic role of the diols remains to be elucidated but they may be important intermediates in CAM (chlorinated anisyl metabolite) aldehyde-alcohol cycling and also act as substrates for the chlorination/hydroxylation enzymes yet to be identified in white rot fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Silk
- Department of Chemical and Biotechnical Services, Research and Productivity Council, 921 College Hill Road, Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada E3B 6Z9.
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Ballschmiter K. Pattern and sources of naturally produced organohalogens in the marine environment: biogenic formation of organohalogens. CHEMOSPHERE 2003; 52:313-24. [PMID: 12738255 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(03)00211-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The pattern of organohalogens found in the marine environment is complex and includes compounds, only assignable to natural (chloromethane) or anthropogenic (hexachlorobenzene, PCBs) sources as well as compounds of a mixed origin (trichloromethane, halogenated methyl phenyl ether).The chemistry of the formation of natural organohalogens is summarized. The focus is put on volatile compounds carrying the halogens Cl, Br, and I, respectively. Though marine natural organohalogens are quite numerous as defined components, they are mostly not produced as major compounds. The most relevant in terms of global annual production is chloromethane (methyl chloride). The global atmospheric mixing ratio requires an annual production of 3.5-5 million tons per year. The chemistry of the group of haloperoxidases is discussed. Incubation experiments reveal that a wide spectrum of unknown compounds is formed in side reactions by haloperoxidases in pathways not yet understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlheinz Ballschmiter
- Department of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry, University of Ulm, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, D-89081 Ulm, Germany.
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ten Have R, Teunissen PJ. Oxidative mechanisms involved in lignin degradation by white-rot fungi. Chem Rev 2001; 101:3397-413. [PMID: 11749405 DOI: 10.1021/cr000115l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 391] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R ten Have
- Division of Industrial Microbiology, Department of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Wageningen University and Research Centre, P.O. Box 8129, 6700 EV Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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Silk PJ, Aubry C, Lonergan GC, Macaulay JB. Chlorometabolite production by the ecologically important white rot fungus Bjerkandera adusta. CHEMOSPHERE 2001; 44:1603-1616. [PMID: 11545526 DOI: 10.1016/s0045-6535(00)00537-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Two strains of the basidiomycete, Bjerkandera adusta (DAOM 215869 and BOS55) produce in static liquid culture, phenyl, veratryl, anisyl and chloroanisyl metabolites (CAM's) (alcohols, acids and aldehydes) as well as a series of compounds not previously known to be produced by Bjerkandera species: 1-phenyl, 1-anisyl, 1-(3-chloro-4-methoxy) and 1-(3,5-dichloro-4-methoxy) propan-1,2-diols, predominantly as erythro diastereomers with IR, 2S absolute configurations. 1-Anisyl-propan-1,2-diol and 1-(3,5-dichloro-4-methoxy)-propan-1,2-diol are new metabolites for which the names Bjerkanderol A and B, respectively, are proposed. Experiments with static liquid cultures supplied with 13C6- and 13C9-L-phenylalanine showed that all identified aromatic compounds (with the exception of phenol) can be derived from L-phenylalanine. For the aryl propane diols, the 13C label appeared only in the phenyl ring and the benzylic carbon, suggesting a stereoselective re-synthesis from a C7 and a C2-unit, likely aromatic aldehyde and decarboxylated pyruvate, respectively. Other compounds newly discovered to be derived from phenylalanine by this white rot fungus include phenylacetaldehyde and phenylpyruvic, phenylacetic, phenyllactic, mandelic and phenyl glyoxylic (benzoyl formic) acids. For both strains, cultures supplied with Na37Cl showed incorporation of 37Cl in all identified chlorometabolites. Veratryl alcohol and the CAM alcohols, which occur in both strains and can be derived from L-phenylalanine (all 13C-labelled), have reported important physiological functions in this white rot fungus. Possible mechanisms for their formation through the newly discovered compounds are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Silk
- Chemical and Biotechnical Services Department, Research and Productivity Council, Fredericton, NB, Canada.
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Chloromethane production by wood-rotting fungi and an estimate of the global flux to the atmosphere. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1998. [DOI: 10.1017/s0953756298006157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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de Jong E, Field JA. Sulfur tuft and turkey tail: biosynthesis and biodegradation of organohalogens by Basidiomycetes. Annu Rev Microbiol 1997; 51:375-414. [PMID: 9343355 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.micro.51.1.375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated aliphatic and aromatic compounds are generally considered to be undesirable xenobiotic pollutants. However, the higher fungi, Basidiomycetes, have a widespread capacity for organohalogen biosynthesis. Adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) and/or low-molecular-weight halogenated compounds are produced by Basidiomycetes of 68 genera from 20 different families. Most of the 81 halogenated metabolites identified from Basidiomycetes to date are chlorinated, although brominated and iodated metabolites have also been described. Two broad categories of Basidiomycete organohalogen metabolites are the halogenated aromatic compounds and the haloaliphatic compounds. Some of these organohalogen metabolites have demonstrable physiological roles as antibiotics and as metabolites involved in lignin degradation. Basidiomycetes produce large amounts of low-molecular-weight organohalogens or adsorbable organic halogens (AOX) when grown on lignocellulosic substrates. In our view, Basidiomycetes, as decomposers of forest litter, are a major source of natural organohalogens in terrestrial environments. Basidiomycetes are also potent degraders of a wide range of chlorinated pollutants, such as bleachery effluent from kraft mills and pentachlorophenol, polychlorinated dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls. The extracellular, lignin-degrading enzymes of the Basidiomycetes are involved in the oxidative degradation of chlorophenols and dioxin and can cause reductive dechlorination of halomethanes. There is no clear-cut separation between "polluters" and "clean-uppers" within the Basidiomycetes. Several genera, e.g. Bjerkandera, Hericium, Phlebia, and Trametes, produce significant amounts of chlorinated compounds but are also highly effective in metabolizing or biotransforming chlorinated pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- E de Jong
- Department of Wood Science, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
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Jeffers MR, McRoberts WC, Harper DB. Identification of a phenolic 3-O-methyltransferase in the lignin-degrading fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 1997; 143 ( Pt 6):1975-1981. [PMID: 9202473 DOI: 10.1099/00221287-143-6-1975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
A methyltransferase enzyme catalysing the 3-O-methylation of isovanillic acid (3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzoic acid) by S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) was identified in Phanerochaete chrysosporium and purified. Gel filtration indicated an M(r) of 71,000 and SDS-PAGE showed that the enzyme was composed of two subunits of M(r) approximately 36,000. Substrate utilization studies demonstrated that the enzyme was highly specific, displaying an exclusive preference for the methylation of the 3-hydroxyl group of several substituted benzoic acids. 3-Hydroxybenzoic acids with a methoxyl or hydroxyl substituent in the 2 or 4 position were the best substrates with isovanillic and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acids showing the highest rates of methylation. The 3-O-methyltransferase enzyme was induced later in the growth cycle than the 4-O-methyltransferase previously isolated from this fungus, which is believed to have a role in the 4-O-methylation of lignin degradation products. However the function of this meta-specific enzyme, the first phenolic 3-O-methyltransferase isolated from a fungus, remains unclear. The combined activities of the 3- and 4-O-methyltransferase enzymes satisfactorily account for the pattern of SAM-dependent methylating activity shown by whole mycelia to phenolic substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurice R Jeffers
- Microbial Biochemistry Section, Department of Food Science, The Queen's University of Belfast, Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, UK
| | - W Colin McRoberts
- Food Science Division, Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland, Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, UK
| | - David B Harper
- Microbial Biochemistry Section, Department of Food Science, The Queen's University of Belfast, Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, UK
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Mester T, Swarts HJ, Romero i Sole S, de Bont JA, Field JA. Stimulation of aryl metabolite production in the basidiomycete Bjerkandera sp. strain BOS55 with biosynthetic precursors and lignin degradation products. Appl Environ Microbiol 1997; 63:1987-94. [PMID: 9143129 PMCID: PMC168489 DOI: 10.1128/aem.63.5.1987-1994.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Aryl metabolites are known to have an important role in the ligninolytic system of white rot fungi. The addition of known precursors and aromatic acids representing lignin degradation products stimulated the production of aryl metabolites (veratryl alcohol, veratraldehyde, p-anisaldehyde, and 3-chloro-p-anisaldehyde) in the white rot fungus Bjerkandera sp. strain BOS55. The presence of manganese (Mn) is known to inhibit the biosynthesis of veratryl alcohol (T. Mester, E. de Jong, and J.A. Field, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:1881-1887, 1995). A new finding of this study was that the production of the other aryl metabolites, p-anisaldehyde and 3-chloro-p-anisaldehyde, was also inhibited by Mn. We attempted to bypass the Mn-inhibited step in the biosynthesis of aryl metabolites by the addition of known and suspected precursors. Most of these compounds were not able to bypass the inhibiting effect of Mn. Only the fully methylated precursors (veratrate, p-anisate, and 3-chloro-p-anisate) provided similar concentrations of aryl metabolites in the presence and absence of Mn, indicating that Mn does not influence the reduction of the benzylic acid group. The addition of deuterated benzoate and 4-hydroxybenzoate resulted in the formation of deuterated aryl metabolites, indicating that these aromatic acids entered into the biosynthetic pathway and were common intermediates to all aryl metabolites. Only deuterated chlorinated anisyl metabolites were produced when the cultures were supplemented with deuterated 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzoate. This observation combined with the fact that 3-chloro-4-hydroxybenzoate is a natural product of Bjerkandera spp. (H. J. Swarts, F. J. M. Verhagen, J. A. Field, and J. B. P. A. Wijnberg, Phytochemistry 42:1699-1701, 1996) suggest that it is a possible intermediate in chlorinated anisyl metabolite biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Mester
- Department of Food Science, Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands.
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