Denaturation of either Manduca sexta aminopeptidase N or Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1A toxins exposes binding epitopes hidden under nondenaturing conditions

Mechanisms of Resistance to Insecticidal Proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis

Insecticidal proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are used in sprayable formulations or produced in transgenic crops as the most successful alternatives to synthetic pesticides. The most relevant threat to sustainability of Bt insecticidal proteins (toxins) is the evolution of resistance in target pests. To date, high-level resistance to Bt sprays has been limited to one species in the field and another in commercial greenhouses. In contrast, there are currently seven lepidopteran and one coleopteran species that have evolved practical resistance to transgenic plants producing insecticidal Bt proteins. In this article, we present a review of the current knowledge on mechanisms of resistance to Bt toxins, with emphasis on key resistance genes and field-evolved resistance, to support improvement of Bt technology and its sustainability.

Analysis of Cry1Ah Toxin-Binding Reliability to Midgut Membrane Proteins of the Asian Corn Borer

Evolution of insect resistance to Bt toxins challenges the use of Cry toxins to control agricultural pests. In lepidopterans, Cry toxin affinity towards multiple midgut epithelial receptors has become a matter of dispute. Cry1Ah toxin-binding proteins were identified in the larval midgut of susceptible (ACB-BtS) and resistant (ACB-AhR) strains of the Asian corn borer (ACB). A pull-down assay was performed using biotinylated Cry1Ah toxin, and the binding proteins were identified by employing liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). This study aimed to find the binding consistency of the midgut epithelial protein to the Cry1Ah toxin. The binding proteins from different fractions of SDS-PAGE showed a different pattern. We observed an isoform of prophenoloxidase PPO1b (UniProt Acc No. A0A1Q1MKI0), which was found only in the ACB-AhR fractions. Prophenoloxidase (proPO) is an extraordinary defense molecule activated in insect species during pathogen invasion and the wound healing process. Importantly, this prophenoloxidase might have direct/indirect interaction with the Cry1Ah toxin. Our data also suggest that factors like techniques, enrichment of binding proteins in the sample and the reversible and irreversible nature of the brush border membrane vesicles (BBMVs) to Cry toxins could cause the inconsistency in the protein–protein interactions. Moreover, inside the larva midgut, the influence of the Cry toxins under physiological conditions might be different from the laboratory procedures.

Transcriptome and Proteome Alternation With Resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ah Toxin in Ostrinia furnacalis

Background: Asian corn borer (ACB), Ostrinia furnacalis can develop resistance to transgenic Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize expressing Cry1Ah-toxin. However, the mechanisms that regulate the resistance of ACB to Cry1Ah-toxin are unknown.

Objective: In order to understand the molecular basis of the Cry1Ah-toxin resistance in ACB, “omics” analyses were performed to examine the difference between Cry1Ah-resistant (ACB-AhR) and susceptible (ACB-BtS) strains of ACB at both transcriptional and translational levels.

Results: A total of 7,007 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 182 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were identified between ACB-AhR and ACB-BtS and 90 genes had simultaneous transcription and translation profiles. Down-regulated genes associated with Cry1Ah resistance included aminopeptidase N, ABCC3, DIMBOA-induced cytochrome P450, alkaline phosphatase, glutathione S-transferase, cadherin-like protein, and V-ATPase. Whereas, anti-stress genes, such as heat shock protein 70 and carboxylesterase were up-regulated in ACB-AhR, displaying that a higher proportion of genes/proteins related to resistance was down-regulated compared to up-regulated. The Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) analysis mapped 578 and 29 DEGs and DEPs, to 27 and 10 pathways, respectively (P < 0.05). Furthermore, real-time quantitative (qRT-PCR) results based on relative expression levels of randomly selected genes confirmed the “omics” response.

Conclusion: Despite the previous studies, this is the first combination of a study using RNA-Seq and iTRAQ approaches on Cry1Ah-toxin binding, which led to the identification of longer length of unigenes in ACB. The DEGs and DEPs results are valuable for further clarifying Cry1Ah-mediated resistance.

Identification of midgut membrane proteins from different instars of Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) that bind to Cry1Ac toxin

Helicoverpa armigera is a polyphagous pest sensitive to Cry1Ac protein from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). The susceptibility of the different larval instars of H. armigera to Cry1Ac protoxin showed a significant 45-fold reduction in late instars compared to early instars. A possible hypothesis is that gut surface proteins that bind to Cry1Ac differ in both instars, although higher Cry toxin degradation in late instars could also explain the observed differences in susceptibility. Here we compared the Cry1Ac-binding proteins from second and fifth instars by pull-down assays and liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry analysis (LC-MS/MS). The data show differential protein interaction patterns of Cry1Ac in the two instars analyzed. Alkaline phosphatase, and other membrane proteins, such as prohibitin and an anion selective channel protein were identified only in the second instar, suggesting that these proteins may be involved in the higher toxicity of Cry1Ac in early instars of H. armigera. Eleven Cry1Ac binindg proteins were identified exclusively in late instar larvae, like different proteases such as trypsin-like protease, azurocidin-like proteinase, and carboxypeptidase. Different aminopeptidase N isofroms were identified in both instar larvae. We compared the Cry1Ac protoxin degradation using midgut juice from late and early instars, showing that the midgut juice from late instars is more efficient to degrade Cry1Ac protoxin than that of early instars, suggesting that increased proteolytic activity on the toxin could also explain the low Cry1Ac toxicity in late instars.

Domain III of Cry1Ac Is Critical to Binding and Toxicity against Soybean Looper (Chrysodeixis includens) but Not to Velvetbean Caterpillar (Anticarsia gemmatalis)

Insecticidal proteins Cry1Ac and Cry2Ac7 from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) belong to the three-domain family of Bt toxins. Commercial transgenic soybean hybrids produce Cry1Ac to control the larvae of the soybean looper (Chrysodeixis includens) and the velvet bean caterpillar (Anticarsia gemmatalis). The specificity of Cry1Ac is determined by loops extending from domain II and regions of domain III in the three-dimensional structure of the toxin. In this study, we constructed a hybrid toxin (H1.2Ac) containing domains I and II of Cry1Ac and domain III of Cry2Ac7, in an attempt to obtain a protein with enhanced toxicity compared to parental toxins. Bioassays with H1.2Ac revealed toxicity against the larvae of A. gemmatalis but not against C. includens. Saturation binding assays with radiolabeled toxins and midgut brush border membrane vesicles demonstrated no specific H1.2Ac binding to C. includens, while binding in A. gemmatalis was specific and saturable. Results from competition binding assays supported the finding that Cry1Ac specificity against A. gemmatalis is mainly dictated by domain II. Taken together, these distinct interactions with binding sites may help explain the differential susceptibility to Cry1Ac in C. includens and A. gemmatalis, and guide the design of improved toxins against soybean pests.

New insight to structure-function relationship of GalNAc mediated primary interaction between insecticidal Cry1Ac toxin and HaALP receptor of Helicoverpa armigera

Over the last few decades Cry1Ac toxin has been widely used in controlling the insect attack due to its high specificity towards target insects. The pore-forming toxin undergoes a complex mechanism in the insect midgut involving sequential interaction with specific glycosylated receptors in which terminal GalNAc molecule plays a vital role. Recent studies on Cry toxins interactions with specific receptors revealed the importance of several amino acid residues in domain III of Cry1Ac, namely Q509, N510, R511, Y513 and W545, serve as potential binding sites that surround the putative GalNAc binding pocket and mediate the toxin-receptor interaction. In the present study, alanine substitution mutations were generated in the Cry1Ac domain III region and functional significance of those key residues was monitored by insect bioassay on Helicoverpa armigera larvae. In addition, ligand blot analysis and SPR binding assay was performed to monitor the binding characteristics of Cry1Ac wild type and mutant toxins towards HaALP receptor isolated from Helicoverpa armigera. Mutagenesis data revealed that, alanine substitutions in R511, Y513 and W545 substantially impacted the relative affinity towards HaALP receptor and toxicity toward target insect. Furthermore, in silico study of GalNAc-mediated interaction also confirmed the important roles of these residues. This structural analysis will provide a detail insight for evaluating and engineering new generation Cry toxins to address the problem of change in insect behavioral patterns.

Comparative binding of Cry1Ab and Cry1F Bacillus thuringiensis toxins to brush border membrane proteins from Ostrinia nubilalis, Ostrinia furnacalis and Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) midgut tissue

The European (Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner) and Asian corn borers (Ostrinia furnacalis Guenée) are closely related and display similar sensitivity to Cry1 toxins. In this study, we compared the binding patterns of Cry1Ab and Cry1F toxins between both Ostrinia spp., as well as the expression of putative cadherin- and aminopeptidase-N (APN)-like protein receptors. Additionally, cDNA sequences of these putative toxin receptors from both Ostrinia species were compared. Ligand blots for both species indicated a similar binding pattern for Cry1Ab with the strongest immunoreactive band at 260 kDa in both species. In addition, similar expression of the putative cadherin- and APN-like protein receptors were observed at 260 and 135 kDa, respectively. A high degree of similarity (98% amino acid sequence identity) of cDNA sequences for both putative receptor sequences was observed. The Cry1F ligand blot revealed that O. furnacalis and O. nubilalis BBMV exhibited slightly different binding patterns, with strong binding to putative proteins at 150 and 140 kDa, respectively. Both proteins appeared to also bind Cry1Ab, although the signal intensity was much reduced with Cry1Ab. O. furnacalis showed an additional but weaker band at 210 kDa relative to the 150 kDa band. Diatraea saccharalis (Fabricius), which was used as an outgroup species, exhibited different binding patterns than either Ostrinia species, with both Cry1Ab and Cry1F toxins binding to a 210 kDa protein. These results support the previous experiments indicating that O. nubilalis and O. furnacalis share similar patterns of susceptibility to Cry toxins.

Characterization of a Cry1Ac toxin-binding alkaline phosphatase in the midgut from Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) larvae

Midgut membrane-bound alkaline phosphatases (mALP) tethered to the brush border membrane surface by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor have been proposed as crucial for Cry1Ac intoxication. In the present work, two full-length cDNAs-encoding alkaline phosphatases in the midgut of Helicoverpa armigera larvae were cloned and named HaALP1 (GenBank accession no. EU729322) and HaALP2 (GenBank accession no. EU729323), respectively. These two clones displayed high identity (above 94%) at the amino acid sequence, indicating that they may represent allelic variants, and were predicted to contain a GPI anchor. Protein sequence alignment revealed that HaALPs were grouped with mALP from the Heliothis virescens midgut. The HaALP1 and HaALP2 ( approximately 68kDa) proteins were heterologously expressed in Sf9 cells using a baculovirus expression system and purified to homogeneity. Ligand blot and dot blot analysis revealed that the Cry1Ac bound to both denatured and native purified HaALPs. Data from lectin blots, competition assays with soybean agglutinin (SBA) lectin and GalNAc binding inhibition assays were indicative of the presence of GalNAc on HaALPs and binding of Cry1Ac toxin to this residue. This observation was further confirmed through N-glycosidase digestion of HaALPs, which resulted in reduced Cry1Ac binding. Our data represent the first report on HaALPs and their putative role as receptors for Cry1Ac toxin in H. armigera.

Proteomic identification of Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis toxin Cry4Ba binding proteins in midgut membranes from Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti Linnaeus (Diptera, Culicidae) larvae

Novel Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti) Cry4Ba toxin-binding proteins have been identified in gut brush border membranes of the Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti mosquito larvae by combining 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2DE) and ligand blotting followed by protein identification using mass spectrometry and database searching. Three alkaline phosphatase isoforms and aminopeptidase were identified. Other Cry4Ba binding proteins identified include the putative lipid raft proteins flotillin and prohibitin, V-ATPase B subunit and actin. These identified proteins might play important roles in mediating the toxicity of Cry4Ba due to their location in the gut brush border membrane. Cadherin-type protein was not identified, although previously, we identified a midgut cadherin AgCad1 as a putative Cry4Ba receptor in Anopheles gambiae mosquito larvae [Hua, G., Zhang, R., Abdullah, M.A., Adang, M.J., 2008. Anopheles gambiae cadherin AgCad1 binds the Cry4Ba toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis and a fragment of AgCad1 synergizes toxicity. Biochemistry 47, 5101-5110]. Other identified proteins in this study that might have lesser roles include mitochondrial proteins such as ATP synthase subunits, mitochondrial processing peptidase and porin; which are likely contaminants from mitochondria and are not brush border membrane components. Trypsin-like serine protease was also identified as a protein that binds Cry4Ba. Identification of these toxin-binding proteins will lead to a better understanding of the mode of action of this toxin in mosquito.

Role of receptors in Bacillus thuringiensis crystal toxin activity

Bacillus thuringiensis produces crystalline protein inclusions with insecticidal or nematocidal properties. These crystal (Cry) proteins determine a particular strain's toxicity profile. Transgenic crops expressing one or more recombinant Cry toxins have become agriculturally important. Individual Cry toxins are usually toxic to only a few species within an order, and receptors on midgut epithelial cells have been shown to be critical determinants of Cry specificity. The best characterized of these receptors have been identified for lepidopterans, and two major receptor classes have emerged: the aminopeptidase N (APN) receptors and the cadherin-like receptors. Currently, 38 different APNs have been reported for 12 different lepidopterans. Each APN belongs to one of five groups that have unique structural features and Cry-binding properties. While 17 different APNs have been reported to bind to Cry toxins, only 2 have been shown to mediate toxin susceptibly in vivo. In contrast, several cadherin-like proteins bind to Cry toxins and confer toxin susceptibility in vitro, and disruption of the cadherin gene has been associated with toxin resistance. Nonetheless, only a small subset of the lepidopteran-specific Cry toxins has been shown to interact with cadherin-like proteins. This review analyzes the interactions between Cry toxins and their receptors, focusing on the identification and validation of receptors, the molecular basis for receptor recognition, the role of the receptor in resistant insects, and proposed models to explain the sequence of events at the cell surface by which receptor binding leads to cell death.

A proteomic approach to study Cry1Ac binding proteins and their alterations in resistant Heliothis virescens larvae

Binding of the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin to specific receptors in the midgut brush border membrane is required for toxicity. Alteration of these receptors is the most reported mechanism of resistance. We used a proteomic approach to identify Cry1Ac binding proteins from intestinal brush border membrane (BBM) prepared from Heliothis virescens larvae. Cry1Ac binding BBM proteins were detected in 2D blots and identified using peptide mass fingerprinting (PMF) or de novo sequencing. Among other proteins, the membrane bound alkaline phosphatase (HvALP), and a novel phosphatase, were identified as Cry1Ac binding proteins. Reduction of HvALP expression levels correlated directly with resistance to Cry1Ac in the YHD2-B strain of H. virescens. To study additional proteomic alterations in resistant H. virescens larvae, we used two-dimensional differential in-gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) to compare three independent resistant strains with a susceptible strain. Our results validate the use of proteomic approaches to identify toxin binding proteins and proteome alterations in resistant insects.

Knockdown of aminopeptidase-N from Helicoverpa armigera larvae and in transfected Sf21 cells by RNA interference reveals its functional interaction with Bacillus thuringiensis insecticidal protein Cry1Ac

Aminopeptidase-N (APN) and cadherin proteins located at the midgut epithelium of Helicoverpa armigera have been implicated as receptors for the Cry1A subfamily of insecticidal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis. Ligand blot analysis with heterologously expressed and purified H. armigera Bt receptor with three closely related Cry1A proteins tentatively identified HaAPN1 as an interacting ligand. However, to date there is no direct evidence of APN being a functional receptor to Cry1Ac in H. armigera. Sf21 insect cells expressing HaAPN1 displayed aberrant cell morphology upon overlaying with Cry1Ac protein. Down-regulating expression of HaAPN1 by RNA interference using double-stranded RNA correlated with a corresponding reduction in the sensitivity of HaAPN1-expressing cells to Cry1Ac protein. This clearly establishes that insect cells expressing the receptor recruit sensitivity to the insecticidal protein Cry1Ac, and their susceptibility is directly dependent on the amount of HaAPN1 protein expressed. Most importantly, silencing of HaAPN1 in H. armigera in vivo by RNA interference resulted in reduced transcript levels and a corresponding decrease in the susceptibility of larvae to Cry1Ac. BIAcore analysis of HaAPN1/Cry1Ac interaction further established HaAPN1 as a ligand for Cry1Ac. This is the first functional demonstration of insect aminopeptidase-N of H. armigera being a receptor of Cry1Ac protein of B. thuringiensis.

Bt-R1a extracellular cadherin repeat 12 mediates Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab binding and cytotoxicity

The cadherin protein Bt-R(1a) is a receptor for Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1A toxins in Manduca sexta. Cry1Ab toxin is reported to bind specific epitopes located in extracellular cadherin repeat (CR) 7 and CR11 on Bt-R(1) (Gomez, B., Miranda-Rios, J., Riudino-Pinera, E., Oltean, D. I., Gill, S. S., Bravo, A., and Soberon, M. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 30137-30143; Dorsch, J. A., Candas, M., Griko, N., Maaty, W., Midboe, E., Vadlamudi, R., and Bulla, L. (2002) Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 32, 1025-1036). We transiently expressed CR domains of Bt-R(1a) in Drosophila melanogaster Schneider 2 (S2) cells as fusion peptides between a signal peptide and a terminal region that included membrane-proximal, membrane-spanning, and cytoplasmic domains. A domain consisting of CR11 and 12 was the minimal (125)I-Cry1Ab binding region detected under denaturing conditions. Only CR12 was essential for Cry1Ab binding and cytotoxicity to S2 cells when tested under native conditions. Under these conditions expressed CR12 bound (125)I-Cry1Ab with high affinity (K(com) = 2.9 nm). Flow cytometry assays showed that expression of CR12 conferred susceptibility to Cry1Ab in S2 cells. Derivatives of Bt-R(1a) with separate deletions of CR7, 11, and 12 were expressed in S2 cells. Only deletion of CR12 caused loss of Cry1Ab binding and cytotoxicity. These results demonstrate that CR12 is the essential Cry1Ab binding component on Bt-R(1) that mediates Cry1Ab-induced cytotoxicity.

Fluorescent-based assays establish Manduca sexta Bt-R(1a) cadherin as a receptor for multiple Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1A toxins in Drosophila S2 cells

A fluorescence-based approach was developed to analyze in vivo the function of Manduca sexta cadherin (Bt-R(1)) as a Cry1 toxin receptor. We cloned a Bt-R(1a) cDNA that differs from Bt-R(1) by 37 nucleotides and two amino acids and expressed it transiently in Drosophila melanogaster Schneider 2 (S2) cells. Cells expressing Bt-R(1a) bound Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac toxins on ligand blots, and in saturation binding assays. More Cry1Ab was bound relative to Cry1Aa and Cry1Ac, though each Cry1A toxin bound with high-affinity (Kd values from 1.7 to 3.3 nM). Using fluorescent microscopy and flow cytometry assays, we show that Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac, but not Cry1Ba, killed S2 cells expressing Bt-R(1a) cadherin. These results demonstrate that M. sexta cadherin Bt-R(1a) functions as a receptor for the Cry1A toxins in vivo and validates our cytotoxicity assay for future receptor studies.

Identification of novel Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac binding proteins in Manduca sexta midgut through proteomic analysis

The crystal proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis are widely used in transgenic crops and commercially available insecticides. Manduca sexta, the tobacco hornworm, is the model insect for B. thuringiensis studies. Although brush border vesicles prepared from larval M. sexta midgut have been used in numerous mode-of-action studies of B. thuringiensis toxins, their protein components are mostly unknown. Vesicles prepared from the brush border of M. sexta midgut were analyzed using one- and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis to establish a midgut brush border proteome. Sub-proteomes were also established for B. thuringiensis Cry1Ac binding proteins and glycosylphosphatidyl inositol (GPI) anchored proteins. Peptide mass fingerprints were generated for several spots identified as Cry1Ac binding proteins and GPI-anchored proteins and these fingerprints were used for database searches. Results generally did not produce matches to M. sexta proteins, but did match proteins of other Lepidoptera. Actin and alkaline phosphatase were identified as novel proteins that bind Cry1Ac in addition to the previously reported aminopeptidase N. Aminopeptidase N was the only GPI-anchored protein identified. Actin, aminopeptidase N, and membrane alkaline phosphatase were confirmed as accurate protein identifications through western blots.