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Yang S, Guo Z, Sun J, Wei J, Ma Q, Gao X. Recent advances in microbial synthesis of free heme. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 108:68. [PMID: 38194135 PMCID: PMC10776470 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-023-12968-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Heme is an iron-containing porphyrin compound widely used in the fields of healthcare, food, and medicine. Compared to animal blood extraction, it is more advantageous to develop a microbial cell factory to produce heme. However, heme biosynthesis in microorganisms is tightly regulated, and its accumulation is highly cytotoxic. The current review describes the biosynthetic pathway of free heme, its fermentation production using different engineered bacteria constructed by metabolic engineering, and strategies for further improving heme synthesis. Heme synthetic pathway in Bacillus subtilis was modified utilizing genome-editing technology, resulting in significantly improved heme synthesis and secretion abilities. This technique avoided the use of multiple antibiotics and enhanced the genetic stability of strain. Hence, engineered B. subtilis could be an attractive cell factory for heme production. Further studies should be performed to enhance the expression of heme synthetic module and optimize the expression of heme exporter and fermentation processes, such as iron supply. KEY POINTS: • Strengthening the heme biosynthetic pathway can significantly increase heme production. • Heme exporter overexpression helps to promote heme secretion, thereby further promoting excessive heme synthesis. • Engineered B. subtilis is an attractive alternative for heme production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaomei Yang
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China.
| | - Zihao Guo
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Jiuyu Sun
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Jingxuan Wei
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Qinyuan Ma
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Xiuzhen Gao
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China.
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Yang Q, Sun X, Wang H, Chen T, Wang Z. Multi-modular metabolic engineering of heme synthesis in Corynebacterium glutamicum. Synth Syst Biotechnol 2024; 9:285-293. [PMID: 38496319 PMCID: PMC10940142 DOI: 10.1016/j.synbio.2024.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Heme, an iron-containing porphyrin derivative, holds great promise in fields like medicine, food production and chemicals. Here, we developed an engineered Corynebacterium glutamicum strain for efficient heme production by combining modular engineering and RBS engineering. The whole heme biosynthetic pathway was methodically divided into 5-ALA synthetic module, uroporphyrinogen III (UPG III) synthetic module and heme synthetic module for further construction and optimization. Three heme synthetic modules were compared and the siroheme-dependent (SHD) pathway was identified to be optimal in C. glutamicum for the first time. To further improve heme production, the expression of genes in UPG III synthetic module and heme synthetic module was coordinated optimized through RBS engineering, respectively. Subsequently, heme oxygenase was knocked out to reduce heme degradation. The engineered strain HS12 showed a maximum iron-containing porphyrin derivatives titer of 1592 mg/L with the extracellular secretion rate of 45.5% in fed-batch fermentation. Our study constructed a C. glutamicum chassis strain for efficient heme accumulation, which was beneficial for the advancement of efficient heme and other porphyrins production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuyu Yang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Xi Sun
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Tao Chen
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Zhiwen Wang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- School of Life Science, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, 750021, China
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Ko YJ, Lee ME, Cho BH, Kim M, Hyeon JE, Han JH, Han SO. Bioproduction of porphyrins, phycobilins, and their proteins using microbial cell factories: engineering, metabolic regulations, challenges, and perspectives. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2024; 44:373-387. [PMID: 36775664 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2023.2168512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/14/2023]
Abstract
Porphyrins, phycobilins, and their proteins have abundant π-electrons and strongly absorb visible light, some of which bind a metal ion in the center. Because of the structural and optical properties, they not only play critical roles as an essential component in natural systems but also have attracted much attention as a high value specialty chemical in various fields, including renewable energy, cosmetics, medicines, and foods. However, their commercial application seems to be still limited because the market price of porphyrins and phycobilins is generally expensive to apply them easily. Furthermore, their petroleum-based chemical synthesis is energy-intensive and emits a pollutant. Recently, to replace petroleum-based production, many studies on the bioproduction of metalloporphyrins, including Zn-porphyrin, Co-porphyrin, and heme, porphyrin derivatives including chlorophyll, biliverdin, and phycobilins, and their proteins including hemoproteins, phycobiliproteins, and phytochromes from renewable carbon sources using microbial cell factories have been reported. This review outlines recent advances in the bioproduction of porphyrins, phycobilins, and their proteins using microbial cell factories developed by various microbial biotechnology techniques, provides well-organized information on metabolic regulations of the porphyrin metabolism, and then critically discusses challenges and future perspectives. Through these, it is expected to be able to achieve possible solutions and insights and to develop an outstanding platform to be applied to the industry in future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Jin Ko
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Institute of Life Science and Natural Resources, Korea University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Myeong-Eun Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Byeong-Hyeon Cho
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Minhye Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong Eun Hyeon
- Department of Next Generation Applied Sciences, The Graduate School of Sungshin University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Knowledge-Based Services Engineering, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joo Hee Han
- Department of Next Generation Applied Sciences, The Graduate School of Sungshin University, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, College of Knowledge-Based Services Engineering, Sungshin Women's University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sung Ok Han
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Cao K, Wang X, Sun F, Zhang H, Cui Y, Cao Y, Yao Q, Zhu X, Yao T, Wang M, Meng C, Gao Z. Promoting Heme and Phycocyanin Biosynthesis in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 by Overexpression of Porphyrin Pathway Genes with Genetic Engineering. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:403. [PMID: 37504934 PMCID: PMC10382063 DOI: 10.3390/md21070403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to their unique biochemical and spectroscopic properties, both heme and phycocyanobilin are widely applied in the medical and food industries. Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 contains both heme and phycocyanin, and is capable of synthesizing phycocyanin using heme as a precursor. The aim of this study was to uncover viable metabolic targets in the porphyrin pathway from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 to promote the accumulation of heme and phycocyanin in the recombinant strains of microalgae. A total of 10 genes related to heme synthesis pathway derived from Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 and 12 genes related to endogenous heme synthesis were individually overexpressed in strain PCC 6803. The growth rate and pigment content (heme, phycocyanin, chlorophyll a and carotenoids) of 22 recombinant algal strains were characterized. Quantitative real-time PCR technology was used to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying the changes in physiological indicators in the recombinant algal strains. Among the 22 mutant strains, the mutant overexpressing the haemoglobin gene (glbN) of strain PCC 6803 had the highest heme content, which was 2.5 times higher than the wild type; the mutant overexpressing the gene of strain PCC 7942 (hemF) had the highest phycocyanin content, which was 4.57 times higher than the wild type. Overall, the results suggest that genes in the porphyrin pathway could significantly affect the heme and phycocyanin content in strain PCC 6803. Our study provides novel crucial targets for promoting the accumulation of heme and phycocyanin in cyanobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Cao
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Xiaodong Wang
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
| | - Fengjie Sun
- Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science and Technology, Georgia Gwinnett College, Lawrenceville, GA 30043, USA
| | - Hao Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Yulin Cui
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Yujiao Cao
- School of Foreign Languages, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255090, China
| | - Qingshou Yao
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Xiangyu Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Ting Yao
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Yantai Hongyuan Bio-Fertilizer Co., Ltd., Yantai 264000, China
| | - Chunxiao Meng
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Zhengquan Gao
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255049, China
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
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Yang S, Wang A, Li J, Shao Y, Sun F, Li S, Cao K, Liu H, Xiong P, Gao Z. Improved biosynthesis of heme in Bacillus subtilis through metabolic engineering assisted fed-batch fermentation. Microb Cell Fact 2023; 22:102. [PMID: 37198628 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-023-02077-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heme is an iron/porphyrin complex compound, widely used in the health care, food, and pharmaceutical industries. It is more advantageous and attractive to develop microbial cell factories to produce heme by fermentation, with lower production costs and environmentally more friendly procedures than those of the traditional extraction based on animal blood. In this study, Bacillus subtilis, a typical industrial model microorganism of food safety grade, was used for the first time as the host to synthesize heme. RESULTS The heme biosynthetic pathway was engineered as four modules, the endogenous C5 pathway, the heterologous C4 pathway, the uroporphyrinogen (urogen) III synthesis pathway, and the downstream synthesis pathway. Knockout of hemX encoding the negative effector of the concentration of HemA, overexpression of hemA encoding glutamyl-tRNA reductase, and knockout of rocG encoding the major glutamate dehydrogenase in the C5 pathway, resulted in an increase of 427% in heme production. Introduction of the heterologous C4 pathway showed a negligible effect on heme biosynthesis. Overexpression of hemCDB, which encoded hydroxymethylbilane synthase, urogen III synthase, and porphobilinogen synthase participating in the urogen III synthesis pathway, increased heme production by 39%. Knockouts of uroporphyrinogen methyltransferase gene nasF and both heme monooxygenase genes hmoA and hmoB in the downstream synthesis pathway increased heme production by 52%. The engineered B. subtilis produced 248.26 ± 6.97 mg/L of total heme with 221.83 ± 4.71 mg/L of extracellular heme during the fed-batch fermentation in 10 L fermenter. CONCLUSIONS Strengthening endogenous C5 pathway, urogen III synthesis pathway and downstream synthesis pathway promoted the biosynthesis of heme in B. subtilis. The engineered B. subtilis strain has great potential as a microbial cell factory for efficient industrial heme production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaomei Yang
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Anlong Wang
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Jiachang Li
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Yunhang Shao
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Fengjie Sun
- School of Science and Technology, Georgia Gwinnett College, Lawrenceville, GA, 30043, USA
| | - Shucheng Li
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Kai Cao
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Hongliang Liu
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China
| | - Peng Xiong
- School of Life Sciences and Medicine, Shandong University of Technology, 266 Xincun West Road, Zibo, 255000, China.
| | - Zhengquan Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, 346 Guanhai Road, Yantai, 256603, China.
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Yang Q, Zhao J, Zheng Y, Chen T, Wang Z. Microbial Synthesis of Heme b: Biosynthetic Pathways, Current Strategies, Detection, and Future Prospects. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28083633. [PMID: 37110868 PMCID: PMC10144233 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28083633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Heme b, which is characterized by a ferrous ion and a porphyrin macrocycle, acts as a prosthetic group for many enzymes and contributes to various physiological processes. Consequently, it has wide applications in medicine, food, chemical production, and other burgeoning fields. Due to the shortcomings of chemical syntheses and bio-extraction techniques, alternative biotechnological methods have drawn increasing attention. In this review, we provide the first systematic summary of the progress in the microbial synthesis of heme b. Three different pathways are described in detail, and the metabolic engineering strategies for the biosynthesis of heme b via the protoporphyrin-dependent and coproporphyrin-dependent pathways are highlighted. The UV spectrophotometric detection of heme b is gradually being replaced by newly developed detection methods, such as HPLC and biosensors, and for the first time, this review summarizes the methods used in recent years. Finally, we discuss the future prospects, with an emphasis on the potential strategies for improving the biosynthesis of heme b and understanding the regulatory mechanisms for building efficient microbial cell factories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuyu Yang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Juntao Zhao
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Yangyang Zheng
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Tao Chen
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Zhiwen Wang
- Frontier Science Center for Synthetic Biology and Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
- SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
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Zhang J, Li Q, Wang Q, Zhao J, Zhu Y, Su T, Qi Q, Wang Q. Heme biosensor-guided in vivo pathway optimization and directed evolution for efficient biosynthesis of heme. Biotechnol Biofuels Bioprod 2023; 16:33. [PMID: 36859288 PMCID: PMC9979517 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-023-02285-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heme has attracted much attention because of its wide applications in medicine and food. The products of genes hemBCDEFY convert 5-aminolevulinic acid to protoporphyrin IX (PPIX; the immediate precursor of heme); protoporphyrin ferrochelatase (FECH) inserts Fe2+ into PPIX to generate heme. Biosynthesis of heme is limited by the need for optimized expression levels of multiple genes, complex regulatory mechanisms, and low enzymatic activity; these problems need to be overcome in metabolic engineering to improve heme synthesis. RESULTS We report a heme biosensor-guided screening strategy using the heme-responsive protein HrtR to regulate tcR expression in Escherichia coli, providing a quantifiable link between the intracellular heme concentration and cell survival in selective conditions (i.e., the presence of tetracycline). This system was used for rapid enrichment screening of heme-producing strains from a library with random ribosome binding site (RBS) variants and from a FECH mutant library. Through up to four rounds of iterative evolution, strains with optimal RBS intensities for the combination of hemBCDEFY were screened; we obtained a PPIX titer of 160.8 mg/L, the highest yield yet reported in shaken-flask fermentation. A high-activity FECH variant was obtained from the saturation mutagenesis library. Fed-batch fermentation of strain SH20C, harboring the optimized hemBCDEFY and the FECH mutant, produced 127.6 mg/L of heme. CONCLUSION We sequentially improved the multigene biosynthesis pathway of PPIX and performed in vivo directed evolution of FECH, based on a heme biosensor, which demonstrated the effectiveness of the heme biosensor-based pathway optimization strategy and broadens our understanding of the mechanism of heme synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Qingbin Li
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Qi Wang
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Jingyu Zhao
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Yuan Zhu
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Tianyuan Su
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China
| | - Qingsheng Qi
- grid.27255.370000 0004 1761 1174National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237 People’s Republic of China ,grid.9227.e0000000119573309CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101 People’s Republic of China
| | - Qian Wang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, People's Republic of China. .,CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, People's Republic of China.
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Krüger A, Frunzke J. A pseudokinase version of the histidine kinase ChrS promotes high heme tolerance of Corynebacterium glutamicum. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:997448. [PMID: 36160252 PMCID: PMC9491836 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.997448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme is an essential cofactor for almost all living cells by acting as prosthetic group for various proteins or serving as alternative iron source. However, elevated levels are highly toxic for cells. Several corynebacterial species employ two paralogous, heme-responsive two-component systems (TCS), ChrSA and HrrSA, to cope with heme stress and to maintain intracellular heme homeostasis. Significant cross-talk at the level of phosphorylation between these systems was previously demonstrated. In this study, we have performed a laboratory evolution experiment to adapt Corynebacterium glutamicum to increasing heme levels. Isolated strains showed a highly increased tolerance to heme growing at concentrations of up to 100 μM. The strain featuring the highest heme tolerance harbored a frameshift mutation in the catalytical and ATPase-domain (CA-domain) of the chrS gene, converting it into a catalytically-inactive pseudokinase (ChrS_CA-fs). Reintroduction of the respective mutation in the parental C. glutamicum strain confirmed high heme tolerance and showed a drastic upregulation of hrtBA encoding a heme export system, conserved in Firmicutes and Actinobacteria. The strain encoding the ChrS pseudokinase variant showed significantly higher heme tolerance than a strain lacking chrS. Mutational analysis revealed that induction of hrtBA in the evolved strain is solely mediated via the cross-phosphorylation of the response regulator (RR) ChrA by the kinase HrrS and BACTH assays revealed the formation of heterodimers between HrrS and ChrS. Overall, our results emphasize an important role of the ChrS pseudokinase in high heme tolerance of the evolved C. glutamicum and demonstrate the promiscuity in heme-dependent signaling of the paralogous two-component systems facilitating fast adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
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Ishchuk OP, Domenzain I, Sánchez BJ, Muñiz-Paredes F, Martínez JL, Nielsen J, Petranovic D. Genome-scale modeling drives 70-fold improvement of intracellular heme production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:e2108245119. [PMID: 35858410 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2108245119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme availability in the cell enables the proper folding and function of enzymes, which carry heme as a cofactor. Using genome-scale modeling, we identified metabolic fluxes and genes that limit heme production. Our study experimentally validates ecYeast8 model predictions. Moreover, we developed an approach to predict gene combinations, which provides an in silico design of a viable strain able to overproduce the metabolite of interest. Using our approach, we constructed a yeast strain that produces 70-fold-higher levels of intracellular heme. With its high-capacity metabolic subnetwork, our engineered strain is a suitable platform for the production of additional heme enzymes. The heme ligand-binding biosensor (Heme-LBB) detects the cotranslational incorporation of heme into the heme-protein hemoglobin. Heme is an oxygen carrier and a cofactor of both industrial enzymes and food additives. The intracellular level of free heme is low, which limits the synthesis of heme proteins. Therefore, increasing heme synthesis allows an increased production of heme proteins. Using the genome-scale metabolic model (GEM) Yeast8 for the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we identified fluxes potentially important to heme synthesis. With this model, in silico simulations highlighted 84 gene targets for balancing biomass and increasing heme production. Of those identified, 76 genes were individually deleted or overexpressed in experiments. Empirically, 40 genes individually increased heme production (up to threefold). Heme was increased by modifying target genes, which not only included the genes involved in heme biosynthesis, but also those involved in glycolysis, pyruvate, Fe-S clusters, glycine, and succinyl-coenzyme A (CoA) metabolism. Next, we developed an algorithmic method for predicting an optimal combination of these genes by using the enzyme-constrained extension of the Yeast8 model, ecYeast8. The computationally identified combination for enhanced heme production was evaluated using the heme ligand-binding biosensor (Heme-LBB). The positive targets were combined using CRISPR-Cas9 in the yeast strain (IMX581-HEM15-HEM14-HEM3-Δshm1-HEM2-Δhmx1-FET4-Δgcv2-HEM1-Δgcv1-HEM13), which produces 70-fold-higher levels of intracellular heme.
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Chen Y, Li J, Zhang S, Hu J, Chen X, Lin T, Dang D, Fan J. Controlling expression and inhibiting function of the toxin reporter for simple detection of the promoters’ activities in Escherichia coli. Enzyme Microb Technol 2022; 158:110051. [DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2022.110051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Lyu X, Lyu Y, Yu H, Chen W, Ye L, Yang R. Biotechnological advances for improving natural pigment production: a state-of-the-art review. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2022; 9:8. [PMID: 38647847 PMCID: PMC10992905 DOI: 10.1186/s40643-022-00497-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In current years, natural pigments are facing a fast-growing global market due to the increase of people's awareness of health and the discovery of novel pharmacological effects of various natural pigments, e.g., carotenoids, flavonoids, and curcuminoids. However, the traditional production approaches are source-dependent and generally subject to the low contents of target pigment compounds. In order to scale-up industrial production, many efforts have been devoted to increasing pigment production from natural producers, via development of both in vitro plant cell/tissue culture systems, as well as optimization of microbial cultivation approaches. Moreover, synthetic biology has opened the door for heterologous biosynthesis of pigments via design and re-construction of novel biological modules as well as biological systems in bio-platforms. In this review, the innovative methods and strategies for optimization and engineering of both native and heterologous producers of natural pigments are comprehensively summarized. Current progress in the production of several representative high-value natural pigments is also presented; and the remaining challenges and future perspectives are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Lyu
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Lyu
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongwei Yu
- Institute of Bioengineering, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China
| | - WeiNing Chen
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637459, Singapore
| | - Lidan Ye
- Institute of Bioengineering, College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ruijin Yang
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, People's Republic of China.
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12
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Zhang J, Cui Z, Zhu Y, Zhu Z, Qi Q, Wang Q. Recent advances in microbial production of high-value compounds in the tetrapyrrole biosynthesis pathway. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 55:107904. [PMID: 34999139 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Tetrapyrroles are essential metabolic components produced by almost all organisms, and they participate in various fundamental biological processes. Tetrapyrroles are used as pharmaceuticals, food additives, and nutraceuticals, as well as in agricultural applications. However, their production is limited by their low extraction yields from natural resources and by the complex reaction steps involved in their chemical synthesis. Through advances in metabolic engineering and synthetic biology strategies, microbial cell factories were developed as an alternative method for tetrapyrrole production. Herein, we review recent developments in metabolic engineering and synthetic biology strategies that promote the microbial production of high-value compounds in the tetrapyrrole biosynthesis pathway (e.g., 5-aminolevulinic acid, heme, bilins, chlorophyll, and vitamin B12). Furthermore, outstanding challenges to the microbial production of tetrapyrrole compounds, as well as their possible solutions, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, PR China
| | - Zhiyong Cui
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, PR China
| | - Yuan Zhu
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, PR China
| | - Ziwei Zhu
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, PR China
| | - Qingsheng Qi
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, PR China; CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, PR China.
| | - Qian Wang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, PR China; CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, PR China.
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13
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Seo SO, Jin YS. Next-Generation Genetic and Fermentation Technologies for Safe and Sustainable Production of Food Ingredients: Colors and Flavorings. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2022; 13:463-488. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-052720-012228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
A growing human population is a significant issue in food security owing to the limited land and resources available for agricultural food production. To solve these problems, sustainable food manufacturing processes and the development of alternative foods and ingredients are needed. Metabolic engineering and synthetic biology can help solve the food security issue and satisfy the demand for alternative food production. Bioproduction of food ingredients by microbial fermentation is a promising method to replace current manufacturing processes, such as extraction from natural materials and chemical synthesis, with more ecofriendly and sustainable operations. This review highlights successful examples of bioproduction for food additives by engineered microorganisms, with an emphasis on colorants and flavors that are extensively used in the food industry. Recent strain engineering developments and fermentation strategies for producing selected food colorants and flavors are introduced with discussions on the current status and future perspectives. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, Volume 13 is March 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Oh Seo
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Su Jin
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition and Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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14
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Yi YC, Shih IT, Yu TH, Lee YJ, Ng IS. Challenges and opportunities of bioprocessing 5-aminolevulinic acid using genetic and metabolic engineering: a critical review. BIORESOUR BIOPROCESS 2021; 8:100. [PMID: 38650260 PMCID: PMC10991938 DOI: 10.1186/s40643-021-00455-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
5-Aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA), a non-proteinogenic five-carbon amino acid, has received intensive attentions in medicine due to its approval by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for cancer diagnosis and treatment as photodynamic therapy. As chemical synthesis of 5-ALA performed low yield, complicated processes, and high cost, biosynthesis of 5-ALA via C4 (also called Shemin pathway) and C5 pathway related to heme biosynthesis in microorganism equipped more advantages. In C4 pathway, 5-ALA is derived from condensation of succinyl-CoA and glycine by 5-aminolevulic acid synthase (ALAS) with pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) as co-factor in one-step biotransformation. The C5 pathway involves three enzymes comprising glutamyl-tRNA synthetase (GltX), glutamyl-tRNA reductase (HemA), and glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase (HemL) from α-ketoglutarate in TCA cycle to 5-ALA and heme. In this review, we describe the recent results of 5-ALA production from different genes and microorganisms via genetic and metabolic engineering approaches. The regulation of different chassis is fine-tuned by applying synthetic biology and boosts 5-ALA production eventually. The purification process, challenges, and opportunities of 5-ALA for industrial applications are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Chen Yi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - I-Tai Shih
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Hsuan Yu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Ju Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - I-Son Ng
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan.
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15
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Sutthiwong N, Sukdee P, Lekhavat S, Dufossé L. Identification of Red Pigments Produced by Cheese-Ripening Bacterial Strains of Glutamicibacter arilaitensis Using HPLC. Dairy 2021; 2:396-410. [DOI: 10.3390/dairy2030031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutamicibacter arilaitensis is one of the predominant bacterial species involved in the coloration of cheese rinds, especially smear-ripened cheeses. Besides well-known yellow-pigmented carotenoids, this species exhibits an ability to produce red pigments, as the occurrence of pink/red formation was previously found when co-cultured with a fungal strain. In this work, the red pigments synthesized by G. arilaitensis strains grown on cheese-based (curd) solid medium deacidified using Debaryomyces hansenii were identified. The analyses using HPLC equipped with both fluorescence and diode array detectors were performed to characterize the pigments extracted from a dry matter of the medium inoculated with either G. arilaitensis Re117, Po102, or Stp101. Based on the UV–vis absorption spectra, the elution order, and fluorescent property, compared to those of the porphyrin standards, eight metal-free porphyrins, including UPI, UPIII, 7PI, 6PI, 5PI, CPI, CPIII, and MPIX, were indicated as components of the red pigments produced by these G. arilaitensis strains. However, following the chromatographic profiles, the degree of porphyrins formed by each strain was apparently different. Regardless of precise quantitative measurement, the type strains Re117 and Po102 manifested a potential to produce a high amount of CPIII, whereas MPIX was formed by the strains Po102 and Stp101, but exceptionally high by the strain Stp101. The variation in both yield and form of the red pigments synthesized by the cheese-related bacterial G. arilaitensis has not previously been reported; therefore, our results provide the first information on these aspects.
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16
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Ko YJ, Kim M, You SK, Shin SK, Chang J, Choi HJ, Jeong WY, Lee ME, Hwang DH, Han SO. Animal-free heme production for artificial meat in Corynebacterium glutamicum via systems metabolic and membrane engineering. Metab Eng 2021; 66:217-228. [PMID: 33945844 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2021.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recently, heme has attracted much attention as a main ingredient that mimics meat flavor in artificial meat in the food industry. Here, we developed Corynebacterium glutamicum capable of high-yield production of heme with systems metabolic engineering and modification of membrane surface. The combination of two precursor pathways based on thermodynamic information increased carbon flux toward heme and porphyrin intermediate biosynthesis. The co-overexpression of genes involved in a noncanonical downstream pathway and the gene encoding the transcriptional regulator DtxR significantly enhanced heme production. The overexpression of the putative heme exporters, knockout of heme-binding proteins, modification of the cell wall by chemical treatment, and reduction of intermediate UP III substantially improved heme secretion. The fed-batch fermentation showed a maximum heme titer of 309.18 ± 16.43 mg l-1, including secreted heme of 242.95 ± 11.45 mg l-1, a yield on glucose of 0.61 mmol mol-1, and productivity of 6.44 mg l-1h-1, which are the highest values reported to date. These results demonstrate that engineered C. glutamicum can be an attractive cell factory for animal-free heme production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Jin Ko
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Minhye Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Kyou You
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Kyu Shin
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Joonhee Chang
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Jin Choi
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Wu-Young Jeong
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeong-Eun Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hyeok Hwang
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Ok Han
- Department of Biotechnology, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Republic of Korea.
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17
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Jaén KE, Velazquez D, Sigala J, Lara AR. Enhancing microaerobic plasmid DNA production by chromosomal expression of Vitreoscilla hemoglobin in E. coli. Biochem Eng J 2021; 166:107862. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2020.107862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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18
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Wang W, Sheng Y. Ampicillin used in aseptic processing influences the production of pigments and fatty acids in Chlorella sorokiniana. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 37:3. [PMID: 33392872 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-020-02985-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Ampicillin sodium salt (AMP) is commonly and effectively used to prevent bacterial infection in algal culture, but the response of algal strains to AMP has not been investigated. In this study, Chlorella sorokiniana was selected to evaluate the influence of AMP on algae. AMP enhanced the contents of chlorophyll and two fatty acids, myristic acid (C22:1N9) and tetracosanoic acid (C6:0), but inhibited the growth, carotenoid production, and contents of 16 fatty acids in C. sorokiniana. A global transcriptome analysis from experimental data identified 3 825 upregulated and 1 432 downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in C. sorokiniana. The upregulated DEGs, such as hemB/alaD, mmaB/pduO, cox15/ctaA, fxN, cpoX/hemF, and earS/gltX, were enriched in the porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism pathways, whereas the downregulated DEGs, including lcyB (crtL1), crtY (lcyE, crtL2), lut1 (CYP97C1), z-isO, crtZ and crtisO (crtH), were enriched in the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway, and the downregulated DEGs, abH, fadD, fabF, acsL, fabG, and accD were enriched in the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway. Thus, the use of AMP to obtain an axenic strain revealed that AMP might affect the regulatory dynamics and the results of the metabolic process in C. sorokiniana. The data obtained in the study provide foundational information for algal purification and aseptic processing.
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19
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Bruckbauer ST, Martin J, Minkoff BB, Veling MT, Lancaster I, Liu J, Trimarco JD, Bushnell B, Lipzen A, Wood EA, Sussman MR, Pennacchio C, Cox MM. Physiology of Highly Radioresistant Escherichia coli After Experimental Evolution for 100 Cycles of Selection. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:582590. [PMID: 33072055 PMCID: PMC7536353 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.582590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ionizing radiation (IR) is lethal to most organisms at high doses, damaging every cellular macromolecule via induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Utilizing experimental evolution and continuing previous work, we have generated the most IR-resistant Escherichia coli populations developed to date. After 100 cycles of selection, the dose required to kill 99% the four replicate populations (IR9-100, IR10-100, IR11-100, and IR12-100) has increased from 750 Gy to approximately 3,000 Gy. Fitness trade-offs, specialization, and clonal interference are evident. Long-lived competing sub-populations are present in three of the four lineages. In IR9, one lineage accumulates the heme precursor, porphyrin, leading to generation of yellow-brown colonies. Major genomic alterations are present. IR9 and IR10 exhibit major deletions and/or duplications proximal to the chromosome replication terminus. Contributions to IR resistance have expanded beyond the alterations in DNA repair systems documented previously. Variants of proteins involved in ATP synthesis (AtpA), iron-sulfur cluster biogenesis (SufD) and cadaverine synthesis (CadA) each contribute to IR resistance in IR9-100. Major genomic and physiological changes are emerging. An isolate from IR10 exhibits protein protection from ROS similar to the extremely radiation resistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans, without evident changes in cellular metal homeostasis. Selection is continuing with no limit to IR resistance in evidence as our E. coli populations approach levels of IR resistance typical of D. radiodurans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven T Bruckbauer
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Joel Martin
- DOE Joint Genome Institute, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Benjamin B Minkoff
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Center for Genomic Science Innovation, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Mike T Veling
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Illissa Lancaster
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Jessica Liu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Joseph D Trimarco
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | | | - Anna Lipzen
- DOE Joint Genome Institute, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Elizabeth A Wood
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Michael R Sussman
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Center for Genomic Science Innovation, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, United States
| | | | - Michael M Cox
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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20
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Zhao X, Zhou J, Du G, Chen J. Recent Advances in the Microbial Synthesis of Hemoglobin. Trends Biotechnol 2020; 39:286-297. [PMID: 32912649 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Hemoglobin is a cofactor-containing protein with heme that plays important roles in transporting and storing oxygen. Hemoglobins have been widely applied as acellular oxygen carriers, bioavailable iron-supplying agents, and food-grade coloring and flavoring agents. To meet increasing demands and overcome the drawbacks of chemical extraction, the biosynthesis of hemoglobin has become an attractive alternative. Several hemoglobins have recently been synthesized by various microorganisms through metabolic engineering and synthetic biology. In this review, we summarize the novel strategies that have been used to biosynthesize hemoglobin. These strategies can also serve as references for producing other heme-binding proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinrui Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Jingwen Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; National Engineering Laboratory of Cereal Fermentation Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China.
| | - Guocheng Du
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
| | - Jian Chen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China; National Engineering Laboratory of Cereal Fermentation Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, China
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21
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Yang D, Park SY, Park YS, Eun H, Lee SY. Metabolic Engineering of Escherichia coli for Natural Product Biosynthesis. Trends Biotechnol 2020; 38:745-765. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2019.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 11/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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22
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Victorious A, Saha S, Pandey R, Didar TF, Soleymani L. Affinity-Based Detection of Biomolecules Using Photo-Electrochemical Readout. Front Chem 2019; 7:617. [PMID: 31572709 PMCID: PMC6749010 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Detection and quantification of biologically-relevant analytes using handheld platforms are important for point-of-care diagnostics, real-time health monitoring, and treatment monitoring. Among the various signal transduction methods used in portable biosensors, photoelectrochemcial (PEC) readout has emerged as a promising approach due to its low limit-of-detection and high sensitivity. For this readout method to be applicable to analyzing native samples, performance requirements beyond sensitivity such as specificity, stability, and ease of operation are critical. These performance requirements are governed by the properties of the photoactive materials and signal transduction mechanisms that are used in PEC biosensing. In this review, we categorize PEC biosensors into five areas based on their signal transduction strategy: (a) introduction of photoactive species, (b) generation of electron/hole donors, (c) use of steric hinderance, (d) in situ induction of light, and (e) resonance energy transfer. We discuss the combination of strengths and weaknesses that these signal transduction systems and their material building blocks offer by reviewing the recent progress in this area. Developing the appropriate PEC biosensor starts with defining the application case followed by choosing the materials and signal transduction strategies that meet the application-based specifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda Victorious
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Sudip Saha
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Richa Pandey
- Department of Engineering Physics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Tohid F. Didar
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Leyla Soleymani
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Department of Engineering Physics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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23
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Su T, Guo Q, Zheng Y, Liang Q, Wang Q, Qi Q. Fine-Tuning of hemB Using CRISPRi for Increasing 5-Aminolevulinic Acid Production in Escherichia coli. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1731. [PMID: 31417522 PMCID: PMC6685056 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
5-aminolevulinic acid (5-ALA) is an important metabolic intermediate in the biosynthesis of heme and has been broadly applied in medicine, agriculture, and organic synthesis. Compared to the chemical synthesis methods, microbial fermentation of ALA has significant economic and environmental advantages. However, the heme biosynthesis pathway downstream of ALA is essential for cell survival, so it cannot be completely blocked. In this work, we fine-tuned the expression of HemB, the key enzyme involved in heme biosynthesis, using CRISPR interference (CRISPRi), and investigated its effect on promoting ALA accumulation. The activity of HemB was down-regulated by 15, 19, 33, 36, 71, and 80% respectively, with six CRISPRi sites targeting various regions of hemB. ALA accumulation in these hemB weakened strains varied from 90.2 to 493.1% compared to that of the original strain. This work provided new insights into fine-tuning of heme biosynthesis pathway for promoting ALA production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyuan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qi Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yi Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Quanfeng Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qingsheng Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China.,CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
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24
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Cabral J, Ag R. Blue Light Disinfection in Hospital Infection Control: Advantages, Drawbacks, and Pitfalls. Antibiotics (Basel) 2019; 8:antibiotics8020058. [PMID: 31067733 PMCID: PMC6627448 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics8020058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Hospital acquired infections (HAIs) are a serious problem that potentially affects millions of patients whenever in contact with hospital settings. Worsening the panorama is the emergence of antimicrobial resistance by most microorganisms implicated in HAIs. Therefore, the improvement of the actual surveillance methods and the discovery of alternative approaches with novel modes of action is vital to overcome the threats created by the emergence of such resistances. Light therapy modalities represent a viable and effective alternative to the conventional antimicrobial treatment and can be preponderant in the control of HAIs, even against multidrug resistant organisms (MDROs). This review will initially focus on the actual state of HAIs and MDROs and which methods are currently available to fight them, which is followed by the exploration of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) and antimicrobial blue light therapy (aBLT) as alternative approaches to control microorganisms involved in HAIs. The advantages and drawbacks of BLT relatively to aPDT and conventional antimicrobial drugs as well as its potential applications to destroy microorganisms in the healthcare setting will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Cabral
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology, Porto Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Rodrigues Ag
- Division of Microbiology, Department of Pathology, Porto Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal.
- CINTESIS-Center for Health Technology and Services Research, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal.
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Ko YJ, Joo YC, Hyeon JE, Lee E, Lee ME, Seok J, Kim SW, Park C, Han SO. Biosynthesis of organic photosensitizer Zn-porphyrin by diphtheria toxin repressor (DtxR)-mediated global upregulation of engineered heme biosynthesis pathway in Corynebacterium glutamicum. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14460. [PMID: 30262872 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32854-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Zn-porphyrin is a promising organic photosensitizer in various fields including solar cells, interface and biomedical research, but the biosynthesis study has been limited, probably due to the difficulty of understanding complex biosynthesis pathways. In this study, we developed a Corynebacterium glutamicum platform strain for the biosynthesis of Zn-coproporphyrin III (Zn-CP III), in which the heme biosynthesis pathway was efficiently upregulated. The pathway was activated and reinforced by strong promoter-induced expression of hemAM (encoding mutated glutamyl-tRNA reductase) and hemL (encoding glutamate-1-semialdehyde aminotransferase) genes. This engineered strain produced 33.54 ± 3.44 mg/l of Zn-CP III, while the control strain produced none. For efficient global regulation of the complex pathway, the dtxR gene encoding the transcriptional regulator diphtheria toxin repressor (DtxR) was first overexpressed in C. glutamicum with hemAM and hemL genes, and its combinatorial expression was improved by using effective genetic tools. This engineered strain biosynthesized 68.31 ± 2.15 mg/l of Zn-CP III. Finally, fed-batch fermentation allowed for the production of 132.09 mg/l of Zn-CP III. This titer represents the highest in bacterial production of Zn-CP III reported to date, to our knowledge. This study demonstrates that engineered C. glutamicum can be a robust biotechnological model for the production of photosensitizer Zn-porphyrin.
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Honda Y, Nanasawa K, Fujii H. Coexpression of 5-Aminolevulinic Acid Synthase Gene Facilitates Heterologous Production of Thermostable Cytochrome P450, CYP119, in Holo Form in Escherichia coli. Chembiochem 2018; 19:2156-2159. [PMID: 30101489 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201800331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 enzymes are heme-containing monooxygenases that exhibit potential as biocatalysts for practical applications. The Escherichia coli expression system is frequently used for biocatalyst production; however, heterologous production of hemeproteins in their holo form is difficult due to insufficient heme synthesis by the host. In this study, 5-aminolevulinic acid synthase (ALAS) from Rhodobacter capsulatus is used to accelerate intracellular heme biosynthesis in E. coli; this demonstrates that coexpression of the ALAS gene (ALAS) improves the heterologous production of cytochrome P450, CYP119, from Sulfolobus acidocaldarius. Coexpression of ALAS increased the amount of heterologous CYP119 isolated and the ratio of its holo form. The ratio of holo-CYP119 resulting from the coexpression of ALAS in E. coli was 99 %, whereas that from cells expressing CYP119 exclusively was 66 %. Coexpression of ALAS is a promising alternative for the efficient heterologous production of hemeproteins by using E. coli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Honda
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Nara Women's University, Kitauoyanishi-machi, Nara, 630-8506, Japan
| | - Kii Nanasawa
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Nara Women's University, Kitauoyanishi-machi, Nara, 630-8506, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Fujii
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Nara Women's University, Kitauoyanishi-machi, Nara, 630-8506, Japan
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Ge B, Chen Y, Yu Q, Lin X, Li J, Qin S. Regulation of the heme biosynthetic pathway for combinational biosynthesis of phycocyanobilin in Escherichia coli. Process Biochem 2018; 71:23-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2018.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Fyrestam J, Östman C. Determination of heme in microorganisms using HPLC-MS/MS and cobalt(III) protoporphyrin IX inhibition of heme acquisition in Escherichia coli. Anal Bioanal Chem 2017; 409:6999-7010. [PMID: 29043383 PMCID: PMC5717118 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-017-0610-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 08/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
One of the main threats to the achievements in modern medicine is antimicrobial resistance. Molecular targeting of bacterial acquisition mechanisms of heme has been suggested to be an alternative to antibiotics. In the present study, HPLC-MS/MS combined with a simple clean-up based on liquid-liquid extraction has been developed and evaluated for simultaneous determination of heme and porphyrin heme precursors in microorganisms. Experimental design was used to optimize the extraction parameters, to obtain a method with high recovery, low matrix effects, and high precision. The effects of additives in the culture medium on the biosynthesis of heme were studied using Escherichia coli as a model microorganism. 5-Aminolaevulinic acid and hemin increased the heme concentration in E. coli by a factor of 1.5 and 4.5, respectively. Addition of 5-aminolaevulinic acid bypassed the E. coli negative feedback control of heme biosynthesis, which led to high amounts of intracellular porphyrins. The high heme concentration obtained when hemin was used as a culture additive shows that E. coli has an uptake of heme from its surroundings. In contrast, addition of cobalt protoporphyrin IX to the growth medium reduced the amount of heme in E. coli, demonstrating this compound's ability to mimic real heme and inhibit the heme acquisition mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Fyrestam
- Division of Analytical and Toxicological Chemistry, Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Svante arrheniusväg 16C, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Conny Östman
- Division of Analytical and Toxicological Chemistry, Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Svante arrheniusväg 16C, 106 91, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Yu X, Sun J, Wang W, Jiang L, Wang R, Xiao W, Cheng B, Fan J. Tobacco etch virus protease mediating cleavage of the cellulose-binding module tagged colored proteins immobilized on the regenerated amorphous cellulose. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2017; 40:1101-1110. [DOI: 10.1007/s00449-017-1772-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Halpern D, Gruss A. A sensitive bacterial-growth-based test reveals how intestinal Bacteroides meet their porphyrin requirement. BMC Microbiol 2015; 15:282. [PMID: 26715069 PMCID: PMC4696147 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-015-0616-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 12/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bacteroides sp. are dominant constituents of the human and animal intestinal microbiota require porphyrins (i.e., protoporphyrin IX or iron-charged heme) for normal growth. The highly stimulatory effect of porphyrins on Bacteroides growth lead us to propose their use as a potential determinant of bacterial colonization. However, showing a role for porphryins would require sensitive detection methods that work in complex samples such as feces. Results We devised a highly sensitive semi-quantitative porphyrin detection method (detection limit 1-4 ng heme or PPIX) that can be used to assay pure or complex biological samples, based on Bacteroides growth stimulation. The test revealed that healthy colonized or non-colonized murine and human hosts provide porphyrins in feces, which stimulate Bacteroides growth. In addition, a common microbiota constituent, Escherichia coli, is shown to be a porphyrin donor, suggesting a novel basis for intestinal bacterial interactions. Conclusions A highly sensitive method to detect porphyrins based on bacterial growth is devised and is functional in complex biological samples. Host feces, independently of their microbiota, and E. coli, which are present in the intestine, are shown to be porphryin donors. The role of porphyrins as key bioactive molecules can now be assessed for their impact on Bacteroides and other bacterial populations in the gut. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12866-015-0616-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Halpern
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France, Jouy en Josas, 78352, France.
| | - Alexandra Gruss
- Micalis Institute, INRA, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France, Jouy en Josas, 78352, France.
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Nielsen MT, Madsen KM, Seppälä S, Christensen U, Riisberg L, Harrison SJ, Møller BL, Nørholm MHH. Assembly of highly standardized gene fragments for high-level production of porphyrins in E. coli. ACS Synth Biol 2015; 4:274-82. [PMID: 24905856 DOI: 10.1021/sb500055u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Standardization of molecular cloning greatly facilitates advanced DNA engineering, parts sharing, and collaborative efforts such as the iGEM competition. All of these attributes facilitate exploitation of the wealth of genetic information made available by genome and RNA sequencing. Standardization also comes at the cost of reduced flexibility. We addressed this paradox by formulating a set of design principles aimed at maximizing standardization while maintaining high flexibility in choice of cloning technique and minimizing the impact of standard sequences. The design principles were applied to formulate a molecular cloning pipeline and iteratively assemble and optimize a six-gene pathway for protoporphyrin IX synthesis in Escherichia coli. State of the art production levels were achieved through two simple cycles of engineering and screening. The principles defined here are generally applicable and simplifies the experimental design of projects aimed at biosynthetic pathway construction or engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morten T. Nielsen
- Novo
Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kogle Allé 6, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Karina M. Madsen
- Novo
Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kogle Allé 6, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Susanna Seppälä
- Novo
Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kogle Allé 6, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Ulla Christensen
- Novo
Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kogle Allé 6, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Lone Riisberg
- Novo
Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kogle Allé 6, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Scott J. Harrison
- Novo
Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kogle Allé 6, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Birger Lindberg Møller
- Novo
Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kogle Allé 6, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Morten H. H. Nørholm
- Novo
Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Kogle Allé 6, DK-2970 Hørsholm, Denmark
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Wang Z, Yan H, Li S, Zhang K, Cheng B, Fan J. Coupled selection of protein solubility in E. coli using uroporphyrinogen III methyltransferase as red fluorescent reporter. J Biotechnol 2014; 186:169-74. [PMID: 24998762 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2014.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2014] [Revised: 06/22/2014] [Accepted: 06/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Uroporphyrinogen III methyltransferase (UMT) is a novel reporter owing to the catalytic products accumulated in cells emitting red florescence. Overexpression of UMT confers resistance of the Escherichia coli cells to potassium tellurite that inhibits cell growth. In this study, we applied UMT reporter for monitoring protein solubility of MBP or TEV protease variants under different expression conditions, as well as 12 maize proteins with either the designed linker or N-terminal SUMO tag. Effects of five enzymes involved in heme and siroheme biosynthesis on the reporter were also investigated. With increasing concentrations of potassium tellurite, colony numbers of the mixed cells expressing the selected five proteins with different solubility were decreased, but colonies displaying red fluorescence was identified to be produced the protein with relatively high solubility. The developed UMT reporter system is sensitive for monitoring protein solubility based on coupled fluorescence and chemical selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenzhen Wang
- School of Life Science, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui 230036, PR China
| | - Hanwei Yan
- School of Life Science, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui 230036, PR China
| | - Si Li
- School of Life Science, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui 230036, PR China
| | - Kuanliang Zhang
- School of Life Science, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui 230036, PR China
| | - Beijiu Cheng
- School of Life Science, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui 230036, PR China
| | - Jun Fan
- School of Life Science, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, Anhui 230036, PR China.
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Tikh IB, Quin MB, Schmidt-Dannert C. A tale of two reductases: extending the bacteriochlorophyll biosynthetic pathway in E. coli. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89734. [PMID: 24586995 PMCID: PMC3931815 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The creation of a synthetic microbe that can harvest energy from sunlight to drive its metabolic processes is an attractive approach to the economically viable biosynthetic production of target compounds. Our aim is to design and engineer a genetically tractable non-photosynthetic microbe to produce light-harvesting molecules. Previously we created a modular, multienzyme system for the heterologous production of intermediates of the bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) pathway in E. coli. In this report we extend this pathway to include a substrate promiscuous 8-vinyl reductase that can accept multiple intermediates of BChl biosynthesis. We present an informative comparative analysis of homologues of 8-vinyl reductase from the model photosynthetic organisms Rhodobacter sphaeroides and Chlorobaculum tepidum. The first purification of the enzymes leads to their detailed biochemical and biophysical characterization. The data obtained reveal that the two 8-vinyl reductases are substrate promiscuous, capable of reducing the C8-vinyl group of Mg protoporphyrin IX, Mg protoporphyrin IX methylester, and divinyl protochlorophyllide. However, activity is dependent upon the presence of chelated Mg2+ in the porphyrin ring, with no activity against non-Mg2+ chelated intermediates observed. Additionally, CD analyses reveal that the two 8-vinyl reductases appear to bind the same substrate in a different fashion. Furthermore, we discover that the different rates of reaction of the two 8-vinyl reductases both in vitro, and in vivo as part of our engineered system, results in the suitability of only one of the homologues for our BChl pathway in E. coli. Our results offer the first insights into the different functionalities of homologous 8-vinyl reductases. This study also takes us one step closer to the creation of a nonphotosynthetic microbe that is capable of harvesting energy from sunlight for the biosynthesis of molecules of choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilya B. Tikh
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Maureen B. Quin
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Claudia Schmidt-Dannert
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Hibino A, Petri R, Büchs J, Ohtake H. Production of uroporphyrinogen III, which is the common precursor of all tetrapyrrole cofactors, from 5-aminolevulinic acid by Escherichia coli expressing thermostable enzymes. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2013; 97:7337-44. [PMID: 23604563 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-013-4904-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2013] [Revised: 04/01/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Uroporphyrinogen III (urogen III) was produced from 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), which is a common precursor of all metabolic tetrapyrroles, using thermostable ALA dehydratase (ALAD), porphobilinogen deaminase (PBGD), and urogen III synthase (UROS) of Thermus thermophilus HB8. The UROS-coding gene (hemD₂) of T. thermophilus HB8 was identified by examining the gene product for its ability to produce urogen III in a coupled reaction with ALAD and PBGD. The genes encoding ALAD, PBGD, and UROS were separately expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). To inactivate indigenous mesophilic enzymes, the E. coli transformants were heated at 70 °C for 10 min. The bioconversion of ALA to urogen III was performed using a mixture of heat-treated E. coli transformants expressing ALAD, PBGD, and UROS at a cell ratio of 1:1:1. When the total cell concentration was 7.5 g/l, the mixture of heat-treated E. coli transformants could convert about 88 % 10 mM ALA to urogen III at 60 °C after 4 h. Since eight ALA molecules are required for the synthesis of one porphyrin molecule, approximately 1.1 mM (990 mg/l) urogen III was produced from 10 mM ALA. The present technology has great potential to supply urogen III for the biocatalytic production of vitamin B₁₂.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiko Hibino
- Department of Biotechnology, Osaka University, Yamada-oka 2-1, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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Tikh I, Schmidt-dannert C. Towards Engineered Light–Energy Conversion in Nonphotosynthetic Microorganisms. Synthetic Biology. Elsevier; 2013. pp. 303-16. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394430-6.00016-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] Open
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He R, Wakimoto T, Takeshige Y, Egami Y, Kenmoku H, Ito T, Wang B, Asakawa Y, Abe I. Porphyrins from a metagenomic library of the marine sponge Discodermia calyx. Mol Biosyst 2012; 8:2334-8. [PMID: 22735778 DOI: 10.1039/c2mb25169h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Marine sponges harbouring uncultured symbiotic bacteria are important sources of biologically active compounds. Since they would be interesting resources to explore unknown functional genes by means of a metagenomic approach, we constructed a metagenomic library of the Japanese marine sponge Discodermia calyx. The functional screening afforded the two clones producing porphyrins as red pigments. The isolation and structural elucidation of the red pigments revealed that the major red pigment was Zn-coproporphyrin III. The sequence data of the clones identified genes encoding glutamyl-tRNA reductase along with other ORFs related to porphyrin biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui He
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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Faulkner MJ, Ma Z, Fuangthong M, Helmann JD. Derepression of the Bacillus subtilis PerR peroxide stress response leads to iron deficiency. J Bacteriol 2012; 194:1226-35. [PMID: 22194458 DOI: 10.1128/JB.06566-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The Bacillus subtilis PerR repressor regulates the adaptive response to peroxide stress. The PerR regulon includes the major vegetative catalase (katA), an iron storage protein (mrgA), an alkylhydroperoxide reductase (ahpCF), a zinc uptake system (zosA), heme biosynthesis enzymes (hemAXCDBL), the iron uptake repressor (fur), and perR itself. A perR null strain is resistant to hydrogen peroxide, accumulates a porphyrin-like compound, and grows very slowly. The poor growth of the perR mutant can be largely accounted for by the elevated expression of two proteins: the KatA catalase and Fur. Genetic studies support a model in which poor growth of the perR null mutant is due to elevated repression of iron uptake by Fur, exacerbated by heme sequestration by the abundant catalase protein. Analysis of the altered-function allele perR991 further supports a link between PerR and iron homeostasis. Strains containing perR991 are peroxide resistant but grow nearly as well as the wild type. Unlike a perR null allele, the perR991 allele (F51S) derepresses KatA, but not Fur, which likely accounts for its comparatively rapid growth.
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Gomez Maqueo Chew A, Frigaard NU, Bryant DA. Mutational analysis of three bchH paralogs in (bacterio-)chlorophyll biosynthesis in Chlorobaculum tepidum. Photosynth Res 2009; 101:21-34. [PMID: 19568953 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-009-9460-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2009] [Accepted: 06/10/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The first committed step in the biosynthesis of (bacterio-)chlorophyll is the insertion of Mg2+ into protoporphyrin IX by Mg-chelatase. In all known (B)Chl-synthesizing organisms, Mg-chelatase is encoded by three genes that are homologous to bchH, bchD, and bchI of Rhodobacter spp. The genomes of all sequenced strains of green sulfur bacteria (Chlorobi) encode multiple bchH paralogs, and in the genome of Chlorobaculum tepidum, there are three bchH paralogs, denoted CT1295 (bchT), CT1955 (bchS), and CT1957 (bchH). Cba. tepidum mutants lacking one or two of these paralogs were constructed and characterized. All of the mutants lacking only one of these BchH homologs, as well as bchS bchT and bchH bchT double mutants, which can only produce BchH or BchS, respectively, were viable. However, attempts to construct a bchH bchS double mutant, in which only BchT was functional, were consistently unsuccessful. This result suggested that BchT alone is unable to support the minimal (B)Chl synthesis requirements of cells required for viability. The pigment compositions of the various mutant strains varied significantly. The BChl c content of the bchS mutant was only approximately 10% of that of the wild type, and this mutant excreted large amounts of protoporphyrin IX into the growth medium. The observed differences in BChl c production of the mutant strains were consistent with the hypothesis that the three BchH homologs function in end product regulation and/or substrate channeling of intermediates in the BChl c biosynthetic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Gomez Maqueo Chew
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, S-235 Frear Building, PA 16802, University Park, USA
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Kim JS, Lim HK, Lee MH, Park JH, Hwang EC, Moon BJ, Lee SW. Production of porphyrin intermediates in Escherichia coli carrying soil metagenomic genes. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2009; 295:42-9. [PMID: 19473249 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2009.01577.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrapyrrole pigments are important components of many biological processes, and many of them are produced primarily by microorganisms. We constructed a soil metagenomic library using rice paddy soil consisting of 107 000 fosmid clones with an average DNA insert size of 35 kb. We isolated a clone carrying genes in the porphyrin biosynthetic pathway based on function-driven screening of the library. Through subcloning and mutagenesis analysis, we showed that two genes from soil metagenome, gtrA and hemC, were responsible for pigmentation in Escherichia coli. HPLC and LC-MS analysis of the purified pigments from E. coli carrying pSY143 identified coproporphyrin III without metal as a major compound as well as some other minor porphyrin intermediates. As gtrA and hemC encode glutamyl-tRNA reductase and porphobilinogen deaminase, respectively, which are enzymes involved in the C5 biosynthetic pathway for porphyrin intermediates, our results suggest that hemL, hemB, hemD, and hemE should be provided by the E. coli chromosome to generate a hybrid biosynthetic pathway for production of porphyrin intermediates using E. coli and metagenomic genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin-Seog Kim
- Sustainable Chemical Technologies Division, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, Daejeon, Korea
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Johnson ET, Schmidt-Dannert C. Light-energy conversion in engineered microorganisms. Trends Biotechnol 2008; 26:682-9. [PMID: 18951642 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2008] [Revised: 09/05/2008] [Accepted: 09/11/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Increasing interest in renewable resources by the energy and chemical industries has spurred new technologies both to capture solar energy and to develop biologically derived chemical feedstocks and fuels. Advances in molecular biology and metabolic engineering have provided new insights and techniques for increasing biomass and biohydrogen production, and recent efforts in synthetic biology have demonstrated that complex regulatory and metabolic networks can be designed and engineered in microorganisms. Here, we explore how light-driven processes may be incorporated into nonphotosynthetic microbes to boost metabolic capacity for the production of industrial and fine chemicals. Progress towards the introduction of light-driven proton pumping or anoxygenic photosynthesis into Escherichia coli to increase the efficiency of metabolically-engineered biosynthetic pathways is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan T Johnson
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, 1479 Gortner Avenue, 140 Gortner Laboratory, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
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Johnson ET, Schmidt-Dannert C. Characterization of Three Homologs of the Large Subunit of the Magnesium Chelatase from Chlorobaculum tepidum and Interaction with the Magnesium Protoporphyrin IX Methyltransferase. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:27776-27784. [DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m804486200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Dixon DP, Lapthorn A, Madesis P, Mudd EA, Day A, Edwards R. Binding and glutathione conjugation of porphyrinogens by plant glutathione transferases. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:20268-76. [PMID: 18492666 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m802026200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Overexpression in Escherichia coli of a tau (U) class glutathione transferase (GST) from maize (Zea mays L.), termed ZmGSTU1, caused a reduction in heme levels and an accumulation of porphyrin precursors. This disruption was highly specific, with the expression of the closely related ZmGSTU2 or other maize GSTs having little effect. Expression in E. coli of a series of chimeric ZmGSTU1/ZmGSTU2 proteins identified domains responsible for disrupting porphyrin metabolism. In addition to known heme precursors, expression of ZmGSTU1 led to the accumulation of a novel glutathione conjugate of harderoporphyrin(ogen) (2,7,12,18-tetramethyl-3-vinylporphyrin-8,13,17-tripropionic acid). Using the related protoporphyrinogen as a substrate, conjugation could be shown to occur on one vinyl group and was actively catalyzed by the ZmGSTU. In plant transgenesis studies, the ZmGSTUs did not perturb porphyrin metabolism when expressed in the cytosol of Arabidopsis or tobacco. However, expression of a ZmGSTU1-ZmGSTU2 chimera in the chloroplasts of tobacco resulted in the accumulation of the harderoporphyrin(ogen)-glutathione conjugate observed in the expression studies in bacteria. Our results show that the well known ability of GSTs to act as ligand binding (ligandin) proteins of porphyrins in vitro results in highly specific interactions with porphyrinogen intermediates, which can be demonstrated in both plants and bacteria in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Dixon
- Centre for Bioactive Chemistry, School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, Durham, UK
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Sobotka R, McLean S, Zuberova M, Hunter CN, Tichy M. The C-terminal extension of ferrochelatase is critical for enzyme activity and for functioning of the tetrapyrrole pathway in Synechocystis strain PCC 6803. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:2086-95. [PMID: 18192382 DOI: 10.1128/JB.01678-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme and chlorophyll (Chl) share a common biosynthetic pathway up to the branch point where magnesium chelatase and ferrochelatase (FeCH) insert either magnesium for Chl biosynthesis or ferrous iron for heme biosynthesis. A distinctive feature of FeCHs in cyanobacteria is their C-terminal extension, which forms a putative transmembrane segment containing a Chl-binding motif. We analyzed the deltaH324 strain of Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803, which contains a truncated FeCH enzyme lacking this C-terminal domain. Truncated FeCH was localized to the membrane fraction, suggesting that the C-terminal domain is not necessary for membrane association of the enzyme. Measurements of enzyme activity and complementation experiments revealed that the deltaH324 mutation dramatically reduced activity of the FeCH, which resulted in highly upregulated 5-aminolevulinic acid synthesis in the deltaH324 mutant, implying a direct role for heme in the regulation of flux through the pathway. Moreover, the deltaH324 mutant accumulated a large amount of protoporphyrin IX, and levels of Chl precursors were also significantly increased, suggesting that some, but not all, of the "extra" flux can be diverted down the Chl branch. Analysis of the recombinant full-length and truncated FeCHs demonstrated that the C-terminal extension is critical for activity of the FeCH and that it is strictly required for oligomerization of this enzyme. The observed changes in tetrapyrrole trafficking and the role of the C terminus in the functioning of FeCH are discussed.
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Suzuki N, Inui M, Yukawa H. Site-directed integration system using a combination of mutant lox sites for Corynebacterium glutamicum. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2007; 77:871-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-007-1215-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2007] [Revised: 09/12/2007] [Accepted: 09/16/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Kwon SJ, Lee MY, Ku B, Sherman DH, Dordick JS. High-throughput, microarray-based synthesis of natural product analogues via in vitro metabolic pathway construction. ACS Chem Biol 2007; 2:419-25. [PMID: 17530734 DOI: 10.1021/cb700033s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The generation of biological diversity by engineering the biosynthetic gene assembly of metabolic pathway enzymes has led to a wide range of "unnatural" variants of natural products. However, current biosynthetic techniques do not allow the rapid manipulation of pathway components and are often fundamentally limited by the compatibility of new pathways, their gene expression, and the resulting biosynthetic products and pathway intermediates with cell growth and function. To overcome these limitations, we have developed an entirely in vitro approach to synthesize analogues of natural products in high throughput. Using several type III polyketide synthases (PKS) together with oxidative post-PKS tailoring enzymes, we performed 192 individual and multienzymatic reactions on a single glass microarray. Subsequent array-based screening with a human tyrosine kinase led to the identification of three compounds that acted as modest inhibitors in the low-micromolar range. This approach, therefore, enables the rapid construction of analogues of natural products as potential pharmaceutical lead compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seok Joon Kwon
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York 12180, USA
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Dietel W, Pottier R, Pfister W, Schleier P, Zinner K. 5-Aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) induced formation of different fluorescent porphyrins: A study of the biosynthesis of porphyrins by bacteria of the human digestive tract. Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology 2007; 86:77-86. [PMID: 16973372 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2006.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2006] [Revised: 06/11/2006] [Accepted: 07/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) induces porphyrin formation in almost all living cells. The fluorescence spectra of porphyrins produced from a variety of 31 bacterial strains from the human oral cavity and other parts of digestive tract have been examined. Many of the bacteria exposed to ALA were able to induce protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) fluorescence, but under aerobic condition some bacteria can also produced different fluorescent porphyrins, in particular water-soluble porphyrins that can arise from an oxidation of the corresponding porphyrinogen precursors. The formation of fluorescent porphyrins can be different from one bacterial strain to another, but also one specific bacterium can form different fluorescent porphyrins. Irradiation of the ALA incubated cultures led to a rapid formation of water-soluble porphyrins exhibiting fluorescence maxima at wavelengths of 618-620 nm. This light induced formation of water-soluble porphyrins could be attributed to a photooxidation of the non-fluorescent (Uro/Copro)-porphyrinogen precursors. Addition of detergents to some of the bacterial cultures led to a strong PpIX fluorescence increase, indicating that some of the PpIX originally produced can be present in a non-fluorescent, probably aggregated, form. The large abundance of bacteria in the oral cavity and other parts of digestive tract, with their capacity to easily produce fluorescent porphyrins, indicates that such bacterial fluorescence should be suppressed during the ALA-based diagnosis of tumours in order to eliminate false positive results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wieland Dietel
- Institute for Optics and Quantum Electronics, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Max-Wien-Platz 1, D 07743 Jena, Germany.
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Abstract
Systematic approaches to directed evolution of proteins have been documented since the 1970s. The ability to recruit new protein functions arises from the considerable substrate ambiguity of many proteins. The substrate ambiguity of a protein can be interpreted as the evolutionary potential that allows a protein to acquire new specificities through mutation or to regain function via mutations that differ from the original protein sequence. All organisms have evolutionarily exploited this substrate ambiguity. When exploited in a laboratory under controlled mutagenesis and selection, it enables a protein to "evolve" in desired directions. One of the most effective strategies in directed protein evolution is to gradually accumulate mutations, either sequentially or by recombination, while applying selective pressure. This is typically achieved by the generation of libraries of mutants followed by efficient screening of these libraries for targeted functions and subsequent repetition of the process using improved mutants from the previous screening. Here we review some of the successful strategies in creating protein diversity and the more recent progress in directed protein evolution in a wide range of scientific disciplines and its impacts in chemical, pharmaceutical, and agricultural sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Yuan
- Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, and Kentucky Tobacco Research and Development Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40546, USA.
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Abstract
Microorganisms and plants synthesize a diverse array of natural products, many of which have proven indispensable to human health and well-being. Although many thousands of these have been characterized, the space of possible natural products--those that could be made biosynthetically--remains largely unexplored. For decades, this space has largely been the domain of chemists, who have synthesized scores of natural product analogs and have found many with improved or novel functions. New natural products have also been made in recombinant organisms, via engineered biosynthetic pathways. Recently, methods inspired by natural evolution have begun to be applied to the search for new natural products. These methods force pathways to evolve in convenient laboratory organisms, where the products of new pathways can be identified and characterized in high-throughput screening programs. Carotenoid biosynthetic pathways have served as a convenient experimental system with which to demonstrate these ideas. Researchers have mixed, matched, and mutated carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes and screened libraries of these "evolved" pathways for the emergence of new carotenoid products. This has led to dozens of new pathway products not previously known to be made by the assembled enzymes. These new products include whole families of carotenoids built from backbones not found in nature. This review details the strategies and specific methods that have been employed to generate new carotenoid biosynthetic pathways in the laboratory. The potential application of laboratory evolution to other biosynthetic pathways is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Umeno
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
| | - Alexander V. Tobias
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
| | - Frances H. Arnold
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
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Kwon SJ, Petri R, DeBoer AL, Schmidt-Dannert C. A High-Throughput Screen for Porphyrin Metal Chelatases: Application to the Directed Evolution of Ferrochelatases for Metalloporphyrin Biosynthesis. Chembiochem 2004; 5:1069-74. [PMID: 15300829 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200400051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Porphyrins are of particular interest in a variety of applications ranging from biocatalysis and chemical synthesis to biosensor and electronic technologies as well as cancer treatment. Recently, we have developed a versatile system for the high-level production of porphyrins in engineered E. coli cells with the aim of diversifying substitution patterns and accessing porphyrin systems not readily available through chemical synthesis. However, this approach failed to produce significant amounts of the metalloporphyrin in vivo from overproduced protoporphyrin due to insufficient metal insertion. Therefore, we systematically assessed the activity of the B. subtilis ferrochelatase in vivo and in vitro. A true high-throughput-screening approach based on catalytic in vivo ferrochelatase activity was developed by using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). This assay was used to screen a library of 2.4 x 10(6) ferrochelatase mutants expressed in protoporphyrin-overproducing recombinant E. coli cells. Several selected protein variants were purified, and their improved catalytic activity was confirmed in vitro. In addition to ferrochelatase activity, metal transport into E. coli was identified as another limitation for in vivo heme overproduction. Overexpression of the metal transporter zupT as part of the assembled pathway increased the overall metalloporphyrin production twofold. This report represents the most exhaustive in vitro evolution study of a ferrochelatase and demonstrates the effectiveness of our novel high-throughput-screening system for directed evolution of ferrochelatases based on their catalytic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seok Joon Kwon
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, 1479 Gortner Avenue, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
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