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Mosad SM, Elmahallawy EK, Alghamdi AM, El-Khayat F, El-Khadragy MF, Ali LA, Abdo W. Molecular and pathological investigation of avian reovirus (ARV) in Egypt with the assessment of the genetic variability of field strains compared to vaccine strains. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1156251. [PMID: 37138631 PMCID: PMC10150020 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1156251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian orthoreovirus (ARV) is among the important viruses that cause drastic economic losses in the Egyptian poultry industry. Despite regular vaccination of breeder birds, a high prevalence of ARV infection in broilers has been noted in recent years. However, no reports have revealed the genetic and antigenic characteristics of Egyptian field ARV and vaccines used against it. Thus, this study was conducted to detect the molecular nature of emerging ARV strains in broiler chickens suffering from arthritis and tenosynovitis in comparison to vaccine strains. Synovial fluid samples (n = 400) were collected from 40 commercial broiler flocks in the Gharbia governorate, Egypt, and then pooled to obtain 40 samples, which were then used to screen ARV using reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) with the partial amplification of ARV sigma C gene. The obtained RT-PCR products were then sequenced, and their nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences were analyzed together with other ARV field and vaccine strains from GenBank. RT-PCR successfully amplified the predicted 940 bp PCR products from all tested samples. The phylogenetic tree revealed that the analyzed ARV strains were clustered into six genotypic clusters and six protein clusters, with high antigenic diversity between the genotypic clusters. Surprisingly, our isolates were genetically different from vaccine strains, which aligned in genotypic cluster I/protein cluster I, while our strains were aligned in genotypic cluster V/protein cluster V. More importantly, our strains were highly divergent from vaccine strains used in Egypt, with 55.09-56.23% diversity. Sequence analysis using BioEdit software revealed high genetic and protein diversity between our isolates and vaccine strains (397/797 nucleotide substitutions and 148-149/265 amino acid substitutions). This high genetic diversity explains the vaccination failure and recurrent circulation of ARV in Egypt. The present data highlight the need to formulate a new effective vaccine from locally isolated ARV strains after a thorough screening of the molecular nature of circulating ARV in Egypt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samah M. Mosad
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Ehab Kotb Elmahallawy
- Department of Zoonoses, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
- *Correspondence: Ehab Kotb Elmahallawy
| | - Abeer M. Alghamdi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Al-Baha University, Al-Baha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Fares El-Khayat
- Department of Poultry Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
| | - Manal F. El-Khadragy
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Lobna A. Ali
- Cell Biology and Histochemistry, Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, South Valley University, Qena, Egypt
| | - Walied Abdo
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
- Walied Abdo
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2
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Detection and Identification of Avian Reovirus in Young Geese ( Anser anser domestica) in Poland. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12233346. [PMID: 36496863 PMCID: PMC9736766 DOI: 10.3390/ani12233346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian reovirus (ARV) is a cause of infections of broiler and turkey flocks, as well as waterfowl birds. This case report describes a reovirus detection in a fattening goose flock. GRV-infected geese suffer from severe arthritis, tenosynovitis, pericarditis, depressed growth, or runting-stunting syndrome (RSS), malabsorption syndrome, and respiratory and enteric diseases. GRV (goose reovirus) caused pathological lesions in various organs and joints, especially in the liver and spleen. GRV infection causes splenic necrosis, which induces immunosuppression, predisposing geese to infection with other pathogens, which could worsen the disease and lead to death. Our results showed that GRV was detected via RT-PCR and isolated in SPF (Specific Pathogen Free) embryos. This is the first report of the involvement of reovirus in arthritis, and the generalized infection of young geese in Poland, resulting in pathological changes in internal organs and sudden death. This study also provides new information about the GRV, a disease that is little known and underestimated.
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Kumar R, Sharafeldin TA, Goyal SM, Mor SK, Porter RE. Infection and transmission dynamics of Turkey arthritis reovirus in different age Turkeys. Microb Pathog 2022; 173:105790. [PMID: 36170950 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Turkey arthritis reovirus (TARV) has been established as a cause of lameness in meat type turkeys in the past decade. However, no information is available on the age susceptibility of TARV or its transmission dynamics. We conducted this study to determine the age at which turkey poults are susceptible to TARV infection and whether infected birds can horizontally transmit the virus to their non-infected pen mates (sentinels). Five groups of turkeys were orally inoculated with TARV (∼106 TCID50/ml) at 2, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of age (DOA). Two days after each challenge, four uninfected sentinel turkeys of equal age were added to the virus-inoculated groups. At one- and two-weeks post infection, turkeys from each group, including two sentinels, were euthanized followed by necropsy. Inoculated birds in all age groups had TARV replication in the intestine and gastrocnemius tendon with no statistically significant variation at p < 0.5. Furthermore, the inoculated birds at different age groups showed consistently high gastrocnemius tendon histologic lesion scores while birds in the 28-days-old age group had numerically lower lesion scores at 14 days post inoculation (dpi). The sentinels, in turn, also showed virus replication in their intestines and tendons and histologic lesions in gastrocnemius tendons. The findings indicate that turkeys at the age of 28 days or less are susceptible to infection with TARV following oral challenge. It was also found that TARV-infected birds could transmit the infection to naïve sentinel turkeys of the same age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Kumar
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, USA; Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Veterinary Science University and Cattle Research Institute, Mathura, U.P, 281001, India
| | - Tamer A Sharafeldin
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA; Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Sharkia, 44511, Egypt
| | - Sagar M Goyal
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Sunil K Mor
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Robert E Porter
- Veterinary Population Medicine Department, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55108, USA.
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4
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Kumar R, Sharafeldin TA, Sobhy NM, Goyal SM, Porter RE, Mor SK. Comparative Pathogenesis of Turkey Reoviruses. Avian Pathol 2022; 51:435-444. [PMID: 35583932 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2022.2079474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACTTurkey reoviruses have been implicated in multiple disease syndromes resulting in significant economic losses to the turkey industry. Turkey enteric reovirus (TERV) has been known to be involved in poult enteritis complex for decades, but turkey arthritis reovirus (TARV), the causative agent of tenosynovitis in turkeys, emerged in 2011. Recently in 2019, we isolated reovirus from several cases of hepatitis in turkeys and tentatively named it as turkey hepatitis reovirus (THRV). The comparative pathogenesis of these viruses, and correlation with their genetic make-up (if any), is not known. In this study, we inoculated nine groups of 1-week-old turkey poults with 2 THRV, 5 TARV and 2 TERV via the oral route. A tenth group served as negative control. A subset of birds from each group was euthanized at 3-, 5-, 7-, 14-, 21-, and 28-days post inoculation (dpi). Tissues were collected for histology and real time RT-PCR. All nine viruses were found to be enterotropic; the virus gene copy number in the intestine reached a peak at 5 dpi followed by a sharp decline at 7 dpi. All viruses caused a significant decline in body weight gain of birds as compared to the negative control group. Both TARV and THRV strains replicated in tendons and produced histologic lesions consistent with tenosynovitis. Hepatic lesions were produced by THRV only and the virus was re-isolated from liver and spleen of inoculated birds fulfilling Koch's postulates. The results of this study should be helpful in facilitating diagnosis and designing future mitigation plans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Kumar
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA.,Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Veterinary Science University and Cattle Research Institute, Mathura, U.P-281001, India
| | - Tamer A Sharafeldin
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Animal Disease Research and Diagnostic Laboratory, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007.,Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Sharkia, Egypt 44511
| | - Nader M Sobhy
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA.,Department of Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Sharkia, Egypt 44511
| | - Sagar M Goyal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Robert E Porter
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Sunil K Mor
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN 55108, USA
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Egaña-Labrin S, Jerry C, Roh HJ, da Silva AP, Corsiglia C, Crossley B, Rejmanek D, Gallardo RA. Avian Reoviruses of the Same Genotype Induce Different Pathology in Chickens. Avian Dis 2021; 65:530-540. [DOI: 10.1637/0005-2086-65.4.530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Egaña-Labrin
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 4008 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616
| | - C. Jerry
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Turlock branch, University of California, Davis, 1550 N Soderquist Road, Turlock, CA 95380
| | - H. J. Roh
- CEVA Scientific Support and Investigation Unit (SSIU) and Science and Investigation Department (SID), CEVA Animal Health USA, 8930 Rosehill Road, Lenexa, KS 66215
| | - A. P. da Silva
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 4008 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616
| | - C. Corsiglia
- Foster Farms, 14519 Collier Road, Delhi, CA 95315
| | - B. Crossley
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Davis branch, University of California, Davis, 620 W Health Science Drive, Davis, CA 95616
| | - D. Rejmanek
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Davis branch, University of California, Davis, 620 W Health Science Drive, Davis, CA 95616
| | - R. A. Gallardo
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 4008 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616
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Egaña-Labrin S, Jerry C, Roh HJ, da Silva AP, Corsiglia C, Crossley B, Rejmanek D, Gallardo RA. Avian Reoviruses of the Same Genotype Induce Different Pathology in Chickens. Avian Dis 2021. [DOI: 10.1637/0005-2086-65.4.529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Egaña-Labrin
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 4008 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616
| | - C. Jerry
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Turlock branch, University of California, Davis, 1550 N Soderquist Road, Turlock, CA 95380
| | - H. J. Roh
- CEVA Scientific Support and Investigation Unit (SSIU) and Science and Investigation Department (SID), CEVA Animal Health USA, 8930 Rosehill Road, Lenexa, KS 66215
| | - A. P. da Silva
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 4008 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616
| | - C. Corsiglia
- Foster Farms, 14519 Collier Road, Delhi, CA 95315
| | - B. Crossley
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Davis branch, University of California, Davis, 620 W Health Science Drive, Davis, CA 95616
| | - D. Rejmanek
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Davis branch, University of California, Davis, 620 W Health Science Drive, Davis, CA 95616
| | - R. A. Gallardo
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, 1089 Veterinary Medicine Drive, 4008 VM3B, Davis, CA 95616
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Ayalew LE, Ahmed KA, Mekuria ZH, Lockerbie B, Popowich S, Tikoo SK, Ojkic D, Gomis S. The dynamics of molecular evolution of emerging avian reoviruses through accumulation of point mutations and genetic re-assortment. Virus Evol 2020; 6:veaa025. [PMID: 32411390 PMCID: PMC7211400 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veaa025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, the emergence of variant strains of avian reovirus (ARV) has caused enormous economic impact in the poultry industry across Canada and USA. ARVs are non-enveloped viruses with ten segments of double-stranded RNA genome. So far, only six genotyping cluster groups are identified worldwide based on sequence analysis of the σC protein encoded by the S1 segment. In this study, we performed deep next generation whole-genome sequencing and analysis of twelve purified ARVs isolated from Saskatchewan, Canada. The viruses represent different genotyping cluster. A genome-wide sequence divergence of up to 25 per cent was observed between the virus isolates with a comparable and contrasting evolutionary history. The proportion of synonymous single-nucleotide variations (sSNVs) was higher than the non-synonymous (ns) SNVs across all the genomic segments. Genomic segment S1 was the most variable as compared with the other genes followed by segment M2. Evidence of positive episodic/diversifying selection was observed at different codon positions in the σC protein sequence, which is the genetic marker for the classification of ARV genotypes. In addition, the N-terminus of σC protein had a persuasive diversifying selection, which was not detected in other genomic segments. We identified only four ARV genotypes based on the most variable σC gene sequence. However, a different pattern of phylogenetic clustering was observed with concatenated whole-genome sequences. Together with the accumulation of point mutations, multiple re-assortment events appeared as mechanisms of ARV evolution. For the first time, we determined the mean rate of molecular evolution of ARVs, which was computed as 2.3 × 10-3 substitution/site/year. In addition, widespread geographic intermixing of ARVs was observed between Canada and USA, and between different countries of the world. In conclusion, the study provides a comprehensive analysis of the complete genome of different genotyping clusters of ARVs including their molecular rate of evolution and spatial distribution. The new findings in this study can be utilized for the development of effective vaccines and other control strategies against ARV-induced arthritis/tenosynovitis in the poultry industry worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanework E Ayalew
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Khawaja Ashfaque Ahmed
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Zelalem H Mekuria
- College of Veterinary Medicine and Global One Health Initiative, Infectious Disease Molecular Epidemiology Laboratory, The Ohio State University, 1900 Coffey Road, Columbus, Ohio, 43210, USA
| | - Betty Lockerbie
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Shelly Popowich
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Suresh K Tikoo
- Vaccinology & Immunotherapeutic Program, School of Public Health, University of Saskatchewan, 104 Clinic Place, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5E3, Canada
| | - Davor Ojkic
- Animal Health Laboratory, Laboratory Services Division, University of Guelph, 419 Gordon St., Guelph, Ontario, N1H 6R8, Canada
| | - Susantha Gomis
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 5B4, Canada
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Moharam I, Razik AAE, Sultan H, Ghezlan M, Meseko C, Franzke K, Harder T, Beer M, Grund C. Investigation of suspected Newcastle disease (ND) outbreaks in Egypt uncovers a high virus velogenic ND virus burden in small-scale holdings and the presence of multiple pathogens. Avian Pathol 2019; 48:406-415. [PMID: 31090444 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2019.1612852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Highly contagious Newcastle disease (ND) is associated with devastating outbreaks with highly variable clinical signs among gallinaceous birds. In this study we aimed to verify clinical ND suspicions in poultry holdings in Egypt suffering from respiratory distress and elevated mortality, comparing two groups of ND-vaccinated poultry holdings in three governorates. Besides testing for Newcastle disease virus (NDV), samples were screened for infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) and avian influenza virus (AIV) by RT-qPCR as well as by non-directed cell-culture approach on LMH-cells. Virulent NDV was confirmed only in group A (n = 16) comprising small-scale holdings. Phylogenetic analysis of the fusion protein gene of 11 NDV-positive samples obtained from this group assigned all viruses to genotype 2.VIIb and point to four different virus populations that were circulating at the same time in one governorate, indicating independent epidemiological events. In group B, comprising large commercial broiler farms (n = 10), virulent NDV was not present, although in six farms NDV vaccine-type virus (genotype 2.II) was detected. Besides, in both groups, co-infections by IBV (n = 10), AIV H9 (n = 3) and/or avian reovirus (ARV) (n = 5) and avian astrovirus (AastVs) (n = 1) could be identified. Taken together, the study confirmed clinical ND suspicion in small scale holdings, pointing to inefficient vaccination practices in this group A. However, it also highlighted that, even in an endemic situation like ND in Egypt, in cases of suspected ND vaccine failure, clinical ND suspicion has to be verified by pathotype-specific diagnostic tests. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Velogenic NDV circulates in small-scale poultry holdings in Egypt. Viral transmission occurred among neighbouring farms and over long distances. Co-infections with multiple pathogens were identified. Pathotype specific diagnostic tests are essential to verify ND suspicions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim Moharam
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology; Friedrich Loeffler-Institut , Greifswald - Insel Riems , Germany.,Department of poultry disease, University of Sadat City , Sadat City , Egypt
| | - Alaa Abd El Razik
- Department of poultry disease, University of Sadat City , Sadat City , Egypt
| | - Hesham Sultan
- Department of poultry disease, University of Sadat City , Sadat City , Egypt
| | | | - Clement Meseko
- Virology Department, National Veterinary Research Institute , Vom , Nigeria
| | - Kati Franzke
- Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut , Greifswald - Insel Riems , Germany
| | - Timm Harder
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology; Friedrich Loeffler-Institut , Greifswald - Insel Riems , Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology; Friedrich Loeffler-Institut , Greifswald - Insel Riems , Germany
| | - Christian Grund
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology; Friedrich Loeffler-Institut , Greifswald - Insel Riems , Germany
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9
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Specific-pathogen-free Turkey model for reoviral arthritis. Vet Microbiol 2019; 235:170-179. [PMID: 31383299 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Turkey arthritis reovirus (TARV) infections have been recognized since 2011 to cause disease and significant economic losses to the U.S. turkey industry. Reoviral arthritis has been reproduced in commercial-origin turkeys. However, determination of pathogenesis or vaccine efficacy in these turkeys can be complicated by enteric reovirus strains and other pathogens that ubiquitously exist at subclinical levels among commercial turkey flocks. In this study, turkeys from a specific-pathogen-free (SPF) flock were evaluated for use as a turkey reoviral arthritis model. One-day-old or 1-week-old poults were orally inoculated with TARV (O'Neil strain) and monitored for disease onset and progression. A gut isolate of turkey reovirus (MN1 strain) was also tested for comparison. Disease was observed only in TARV-infected birds. Features of reoviral arthritis in SPF turkeys included swelling of hock joints, tenosynovitis, distal tibiotarsal cartilage erosion, and gait defects (lameness). Moreover, TARV infection resulted in a significant depression of body weights during the early times post-infection. Age-dependent susceptibility to TARV infection was unclear. TARV was transmitted to all sentinel birds, which manifested high levels of tenosynovitis and tibiotarsal cartilage erosion. Simulation of stressful conditions by dexamethasone treatment did not affect the viral load or exacerbate the disease. Collectively, the clinical and pathological features of reoviral arthritis in the SPF turkey model generally resembled those induced in commercial turkeys under field and/or experimental conditions. The SPF turkey reoviral arthritis model will be instrumental in evaluation of TARV pathogenesis and reoviral vaccine efficacy.
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Niu X, Zhang B, Yu X, Zhang X, Dou Y, Tang Y, Diao Y. Preparation and evaluation of goose reovirus inactivated vaccine. BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:214. [PMID: 28683792 PMCID: PMC5501479 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1134-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Infection with Goose Reovirus (GRV) can cause serious economic losses in the goose breeding industry. In this study, the GRV allantoic fluid was concentrated and used as an antigen in a formalin-inactivated oil-emulsion vaccine. Results When 6 day-old geese were inoculated, antibodies against GRV became detectable at 6 days post-vaccination, their concentration peaked at 3 weeks. These antibodies were maintained for longer than 2 weeks. As the most susceptible age for GRV infection is birds under 2 weeks of age this vaccine should provide adequate cover for the most at risk birds. When geese were exposed to reovirus at different time intervals after immunization, the data revealed that the vaccine can provide a protection rate of 80%. The developed vaccine has good stability and could be stored at 4 °C for at least 12 months. Conclusion These results indicate that the developed GRV vaccine is safe, effectively absorbed, efficacious in inducing a rapid immune response, and effective in controlling GRV infection. Our results should be useful for the application of vaccines for controlling GRV in different goose flocks. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-017-1134-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Niu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Daizong Road 61, Tai'an, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Bingqian Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Daizong Road 61, Tai'an, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Xianglong Yu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Daizong Road 61, Tai'an, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Daizong Road 61, Tai'an, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Yanguo Dou
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Daizong Road 61, Tai'an, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Yi Tang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Daizong Road 61, Tai'an, Shandong, 271018, China.
| | - Youxiang Diao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Daizong Road 61, Tai'an, Shandong, 271018, China.
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11
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Ayalew LE, Gupta A, Fricke J, Ahmed KA, Popowich S, Lockerbie B, Tikoo SK, Ojkic D, Gomis S. Phenotypic, genotypic and antigenic characterization of emerging avian reoviruses isolated from clinical cases of arthritis in broilers in Saskatchewan, Canada. Sci Rep 2017; 7:3565. [PMID: 28620186 PMCID: PMC5472580 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02743-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, emerging strains of pathogenic arthrogenic avian reovirus (ARV) have become a challenge to the chicken industry across USA and Canada causing significant economic impact. In this study, we characterized emerging variant ARV strains and examined their genetic and antigenic relationship with reference strains. We isolated 37 emerging variant ARV strains from tendons of broiler chickens with clinical cases of arthritis/tenosynovitis at commercial farms in Saskatchewan, Canada. Viral characterization using immunocytochemistry, gold-immunolabeling and electron microscopy revealed distinct features characteristic of ARV. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analyses of the viral Sigma C gene revealed genetic heterogeneity between the field isolates. On phylogenetic analyses, the Sigma C amino acid sequences of the isolates were clustered into four distinct genotypic groups. These ARV field strains were genetically diverse and quite distant from the vaccine and vaccine related field strains. Antibodies produced against a commercial Reo 2177 ® vaccine did not neutralize these variants. Moreover, structure based analysis of the Sigma C protein revealed significant antigenic variability between the cluster groups and the vaccine strains. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the genetic, phenotypic and antigenic characterization of emerging ARVs in Canada.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanework E Ayalew
- Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Ashish Gupta
- Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Jenny Fricke
- Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Khawaja Ashfaque Ahmed
- Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Shelly Popowich
- Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Betty Lockerbie
- Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Suresh K Tikoo
- Vaccinology & Immunotherapeutic Program, School of Public Health, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Davor Ojkic
- Animal Health Laboratory, Laboratory Services Division, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Susantha Gomis
- Veterinary Pathology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
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12
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Kort YH, Bourogâa H, Gribaa L, Hassen J, Ghram A. Genotyping and Classification of Tunisian Strains of Avian Reovirus using RT-PCR and RFLP Analysis. Avian Dis 2015; 59:14-9. [PMID: 26292528 DOI: 10.1637/10879-060414-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Since 1998, avian reovirus (ARV) infection has been detected in broiler and breeding chicken flocks in Tunisia. The genotype of avian reoviruses was established using simple and rapid approaches. Reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) on both sigma C (σC) and sigma B (σB)-encoding genes followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyses were used to better characterize Tunisian isolated strains. The RT-PCR amplified fragments of 738 and 540 bp for σC- and σB-encoding genes, respectively, of 15 ARV Tunisian strains. DNA fragments amplified from S 1133 vaccine and isolated strains were digested with different restrictions enzymes. RFLP on the σC gene indicated that the field isolates and the S 1133 vaccine strain have identical profiles when separately digested with TaqI, PstI, DdeI, and HincII. Considering the σB gene, RFLP profiles were identical with RsaI, BclI, DpnII, and NciI restriction enzymes for all the strains. However, using MseI and AciI enzymes, it was shown that all tested isolates could be clearly distinguished from the vaccine strain. ARV strains could be classified in groups with strong relatedness. Strain-typing based on cleavage site results are in agreement with ARV clustering based on nucleotide sequences of both the σC and σB genes. RT-PCR-RFLP provides a simple and a rapid approach for genotyping ARV isolates, especially when a large number of isolates are being studied. Additionally, this approach may also determine whether a new variant strain has been introduced into a flock or if a given virus strain is being spread from one flock to another.
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13
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Chen YS, Shen PC, Su BS, Liu TC, Lin CC, Lee LH. Avian reovirus replication in mononuclear phagocytes in chicken footpad and spleen after footpad inoculation. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY RESEARCH = REVUE CANADIENNE DE RECHERCHE VETERINAIRE 2015; 79:87-94. [PMID: 25852223 PMCID: PMC4365711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Circulating monocytes and tissue macrophages were suggested to be susceptible to avian reovirus (ARV) infection. To determine if ARV infects and replicates in mononuclear phagocytes (KUL01-positive cells), we infected 3-day-old specific-pathogen-free chickens with ARV strain 2408 by inoculation of the left footpad. The left footpads and spleens were collected for analysis at 1.5 and 2.5 d after inoculation. Replication of ARV in the footpad and spleen was demonstrated by detection of the viral protein σNS using immunohistochemical testing and viral S1 RNA expression by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Furthermore, immunofluorescent double-staining assay of cytocentrifuged cells and cryosections of the footpad and spleen for the viral protein σNS and the surface marker recognized by monoclonal antibody (MAb) KUL01 indicated that KUL01-positive cells costained with MAb H1E1, which recognizes ARV protein σNS. In addition, more ARV S1 RNA was measured by qPCR in the KUL01-positive cell samples prepared from the footpad or spleen 1.5 d after inoculation compared with non-KUL01-positive cell samples. The amounts of ARV S1 RNA in the spleen were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than the amounts in the footpad 1.5 d after inoculation. The results suggest that ARV infects mononuclear phagocytes and then replicates within these cells before migrating to the spleen, where it infects and replicates in KUL01-positive cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Cheng Chung Lin
- Address all correspondence to Dr. Long Huw Lee; telephone: 886-04-2286-0196; fax: 886-04-2287-2392; e-mail: or Dr. Cheng Chung Lin; telephone: 886-04-2284-0368, ext. 30; e-mail:
| | - Long Huw Lee
- Address all correspondence to Dr. Long Huw Lee; telephone: 886-04-2286-0196; fax: 886-04-2287-2392; e-mail: or Dr. Cheng Chung Lin; telephone: 886-04-2284-0368, ext. 30; e-mail:
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14
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Lin PY, Liu HJ, Chang CD, Chang CI, Hsu JL, Liao MH, Lee JW, Shih WL. Avian reovirus S1133-induced DNA damage signaling and subsequent apoptosis in cultured cells and in chickens. Arch Virol 2011; 156:1917-29. [PMID: 21779911 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-011-1063-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In this study, intracellular signaling in ARV S1133-mediated apoptosis was investigated. A microarray was used to examine the gene expression profiles of cells upon ARV S1133 infection and ARV-encoded pro-apoptotic protein σC overexpression. The analysis indicated that in the set of DNA-damage-responsive genes, DDIT-3 and GADD45α were both upregulated by viral infection and σC overexpression. Further investigation demonstrated that both treatments caused DNA breaks, which increased the expression and/or phosphorylation of DNA damage response proteins. ROS and lipid peroxidation levels were increased, and ARV S1133 and σC caused apoptosis mediated by DNA damage signaling. ROS scavenger NAC, caffeine and an ATM-specific inhibitor significantly reduced ARV S1133- and σC-induced DNA breaks, DDIT-3 and GADD45α expression, H2AX phosphorylation, and apoptosis. Overexpression of DDIT-3 and GADD45α enhanced the oxidative stress and apoptosis induced by ARV S1133 and σC. In conclusion, our results demonstrate the involvement of the DNA-damage-signaling pathway in ARV S1133- and σC-induced apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Yuan Lin
- Graduate Institute and Department of Life Science, Tzu-Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
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15
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Kibenge FS, Gwaze GE, Jones RC, Chapman AF, Savage CE. Experimental reovirus infection in chickens: observations on early viraemia and virus distribution in bone marrow, liver and enteric tissues. Avian Pathol 2008; 14:87-98. [PMID: 18766901 DOI: 10.1080/03079458508436210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The nature of viraemia and tissue distribution of reovirus were studied in the early phase after oral infection of 1-day-old specific-pathogen-free (SPF) White Leghorn chicks with the R2 strain of avian reovirus. A range of tissues collected up to 3 weeks after infection was titrated for their viral content. Virus was present in the plasma, erythrocyte and mononuclear fractions of the blood within 30 hours post-inoculation (p.i.) and was widely distributed in tissues, including the bone marrow by 3 to 5 days p.i. A greater part of the viraemia was associated with plasma, virus in the blood mononuclear fraction being detected only occasionally. There was more infectious virus in the duodenum than the liver and the highest virus titres were found in cloacal swabs taken 1 to 5 days p.i. It was also evident that virus reached the liver within a very short time after infection (<6 hours p.i.) although the source of this early hepatic virus was considered to be residual inoculum absorbed directly into the portal blood. Viraemic virus titres could not be correlated either with duodenal or hepatic virus titre alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- F S Kibenge
- Sub-Department of Avian Medicine, University of Liverpool, Neston, South Wirral, England
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16
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Abstract
The effect of breed of chicken on infection with an arthrotropic avian reovirus strain R2 was studied by oral or footpad inoculation of 1-day-old chicks of the following breeds: (1) specific pathogen-free (SPF) light-hybrid, (2) commercial White Leghorn egg-layer, and (3) commercial Ross I broiler, and observed to 12 weeks of age. Although most inoculated birds of all three breeds developed swelling of one or both legs below the hock joint at 3 to 4 weeks of age, gross lesions of tenosynovitis became progressively more severe and extended above the joints only in broilers, whereas in most orally-infected SPF and commercial light chickens gross lesions were intermittently severe and regressed with time. Cloacal virus shedding continued up to 2 weeks in the lighter breeds and 3 weeks after infection in broilers. From a small proportion of infected chickens, reovirus was also reisolated from heart, pancreas and caecal tonsils. In all breeds, the tissue in which virus persisted longest was the hock joint/tendon. There was a poor correlation between isolation of virus and the presence of gross lesions in chickens of 12 weeks of age, especially in broilers. Virus-neutralisation tests demonstrated that seroconversion in the lighter breeds occurred predominantly at 3 weeks and in broilers at 4 weeks after infection. In all three breeds the footpad infection gave significantly lower growth rates than were found in the control and oral-infection groups. Oral infection had no apparent effect on growth rates. The greater susceptibility of broilers to reovirus infection is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R C Jones
- Sub-Department of Avian Medicine, University of Liverpool Veterinary, Neston, South Wirral, England
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Engström B. Blue wing disease of chickens: Isolation of avian reovirus and chicken anaemia agent. Avian Pathol 2008; 17:23-32. [DOI: 10.1080/03079458808436425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B.E. Engström
- a The National Veterinary Institute , Box 7073, Uppsala, S‐750 07, Sweden
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Meanger J, Wickramasinghe R, Enriquez CE, Wilcox GE. Immune response to avian reovirus in chickens and protection against experimental infection. Aust Vet J 1997; 75:428-32. [PMID: 9247694 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1997.tb14348.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess the efficacy of the vaccination procedure and the effect of the transfer of maternal antibodies to progeny chickens on reovirus pathogenicity. DESIGN To vaccinate chickens and challenge progeny chickens with high doses of homologous and heterologous viruses. PROCEDURE High doses of reovirus strains RAM-1, 1091 and 724 were used to induce tenosynovitis lesions. High doses were produced by concentration of viruses grown in cell culture. Then similar doses of viruses were used to challenge immunised chickens progeny. RESULT Vaccination of breeding hens with the RAM-1 strain of avian reovirus, which resulted in the passive transfer of neutralising antibody to progeny chickens, completely prevented the development of tenosynovitis in 80% of progeny chickens infected with the homologous virus. Even though multiple injections of hens resulted in broadening of the normal type-specificity of the neutralising antibody response against heterologous serotypes of avian reovirus, only marginal protection against strains of two heterologous serotypes of avian reovirus was obtained. CONCLUSIONS A model for assessing the efficacy of vaccination against avian reovirus strains on clinical sign such as tenosynovitis was developed that overcome the normal low virulence of Australian strains of avian reovirus. Breeding hens can be immunised with Australian strain of avian reovirus with passive transfer of antibody via the yolk to the progeny chickens. Although the neutralising antibody response to three injections of inactivated virus decreased the specificity of the neutralising antibody response against antigenically heterologous strains of avian reovirus, the protective immunity appeared to retain type-specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Meanger
- School of Veterinary Studies, Murdoch University, Western Australia
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19
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Heffels‐Redmann U, Müller H, Kaleta EF. Structural and biological characteristics of reoviruses isolated from Muscovy ducks(Cairina moschata). Avian Pathol 1992; 21:481-91. [DOI: 10.1080/03079459208418866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Al Afaleq AI, Jones RC. A trypsin‐sensitive avian reovirus: Isolation and experimental infection of poults and chicks. Avian Pathol 1991; 20:5-16. [DOI: 10.1080/03079459108418736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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21
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Lozano LF, Bickford AA, Castro AE, Swartzman-Andert J, Chin R, Meteyer C, Cooper G, Reynolds B, Manalac RL. Association of Reoviridae particles in an enteric syndrome of poults observed in turkey flocks during 1988. J Vet Diagn Invest 1989; 1:254-9. [PMID: 2562199 DOI: 10.1177/104063878900100311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
An enteric syndrome of turkey poults, characterized by enteritis, crop mycosis, intestinal changes (pale, thin-walled ballooning with watery contents), and rickets, occurred during 1988 in 74 turkey flocks from different farms belonging to 9 California turkey growers. The flocks ranged in size from 9,000 to 120,000 birds. Pools of intestine sections from 618 birds, representing 78 field cases, were examined. Histopathological examination of the intestines showed a mild to severe atrophy with a reduced depth of crypts, which was more prominent in the distal part of the small intestine. Viral isolation attempts with primary cell cultures of chicken embryo kidney cells were negative. Examination by electron microscopy of negatively stained intestinal specimens revealed the presence of Reoviridae particles of 58.8 to 80 nm in diameter. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay results on the intestinal pools for mammalian and group A avian rotaviruses were negative. A statistically significant relationship was found for the presence of Reoviridae particles in the intestines of 10-21-day-old birds. Of the 7 most common pathological conditions analyzed, 2, rickets and intestinal changes (thin-walled ballooning intestine with watery contents), showed a statistically significant association with the presence of Reoviridae particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- L F Lozano
- California Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory System, University of California-Davis 95616
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22
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Kibenge FSB, Jones RC, Savage CE. Effects of experimental immunosuppression on reovirus‐induced tenosynovitis in light‐hybrid chickens. Avian Pathol 1987; 16:73-92. [DOI: 10.1080/03079458708436354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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23
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Bülow V, Rudolph R, Fuchs B. Folgen der Doppelinfektion von Küken mit Adenovirus oder Reovirus und dem Erreger der aviären infektiösen Anämie (CAA)*. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1986. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0450.1986.tb00092.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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24
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Jones R, El‐Taher A. Reisolation of avian arthrotropic reovirus r2 from chicks infected as embryos. Avian Pathol 1985; 14:377-82. [DOI: 10.1080/03079458508436239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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25
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Timms L. Influence of a 12·5 per cent rapeseed diet and an avian reovirus on the production of leg abnormalities in male broiler chickens. Res Vet Sci 1985. [DOI: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)31850-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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26
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Goodacre J, Dick WC. Controversy in Medicine Debate: the defect in rheumatoid arthritis is inherent to the lymphocyte. Eur J Clin Invest 1984; 14:403-7. [PMID: 6241152 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2362.1984.tb01202.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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27
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28
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Jones R, Guneratne J. The pathogenicity of some avian reoviruses with particular reference to tenosynovitis. Avian Pathol 1984; 13:173-89. [DOI: 10.1080/03079458408418522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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29
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Gouvea V, Huang DD, Ramos T, Schnitzer TJ. In vitro characterization of an avian reovirus vaccine strain. Virology 1983; 126:240-7. [PMID: 6845656 DOI: 10.1016/0042-6822(83)90475-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
In vitro studies were performed to characterize the vaccine strain, designated P100, derived from the arthrogenic reovirus isolate, S1133, by cold adaptation. P100 appeared to be temperature sensitive, shown by a marked drop in titer and efficiency of plaquing after incubation at 41 degrees. Studies indicated that genomic double-stranded RNA and protein synthesis were severely restricted at the elevated temperature. Differences in the growth behavior of P100 and S1133 at 37 degrees were also noted. The vaccine strain seemed to be more cell associated than S1133. Three outer coat proteins of P100 grown at 37 degrees displayed mobilities different from those of S1133 by PAGE. It is possible that alterations in these proteins may have some relationship to the growth characteristics observed for the P100 strain.
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