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Morgenstern AR, Peterson LF, Arnold KA, Brewer MG. Differentiation of keratinocytes or exposure to type 2 cytokines diminishes S. aureus internalization. mSphere 2024; 9:e0068523. [PMID: 38501828 PMCID: PMC11036805 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00685-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a leading cause of skin and soft tissue infections. Colonization by this bacterium is increased in individuals with chronic cutaneous diseases such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, and bullous pemphigoid. The greater abundance of S. aureus on the skin of subjects with atopic dermatitis in particular has been linked to recurrent cutaneous infections. The primary cell type of the epidermal layer of the skin is the keratinocyte, and it is thought that S. aureus internalized in keratinocytes associates with an increased incidence of skin infections. This study addresses whether keratinocyte differentiation and/or inflammation, two important characteristics altered in cutaneous diseases, influence bacterial internalization. To do this, S. aureus internalization was measured in immortalized and primary keratinocytes that were differentiated using high Ca2+-containing media and/or exposed to cytokines characteristic of atopic dermatitis (IL-4 and IL-13) or psoriasis (IL-17A and IL-22) skin. Our results indicate that S. aureus internalization is uniquely decreased upon keratinocyte differentiation, since this was not observed with another skin-resident bacterium, S. epidermidis. Additionally, treatment with IL-4 + IL-13 diminished bacterial internalization. We interpret this decrease as a mechanism of keratinocyte-based bacterial killing since a similar number of bacterial genomes were detected in cytokine-treated cells, but less viable internalized S. aureus was recovered. Finally, of the receptors reported for S. aureus binding/internalizing into keratinocytes, expression of the α5 component of the α5β1 integrin was in greatest accordance with the number of internalized bacteria in the context of keratinocyte differentiation.IMPORTANCEIndividuals with chronic cutaneous diseases demonstrate heightened susceptibility for severe and recurrent infections from Staphylococcus aureus. What drives this altered susceptibility remains poorly understood. Previous publications have detected S. aureus as deep as the dermal layer of skin in subjects with atopic dermatitis, suggesting that the cutaneous environment of this disease enables deeper bacterial infiltration than occurs in healthy individuals. This observation indicates that S. aureus has greater opportunity to interact with multiple skin cell types in individuals with chronic inflammatory skin diseases. Identifying the characteristics of the skin that influence bacterial internalization, a common method to establish reservoirs and evade the immune response, is critical for our understanding of S. aureus pathogenesis. The significance of this research is the novel identification of epidermal characteristics that influence S. aureus internalization. With this knowledge, methods can be developed to identify patient populations at greater risk for cutaneous infections.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liam F. Peterson
- Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Kimberly A. Arnold
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Matthew G. Brewer
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
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Atchade E, De Tymowski C, Grall N, Tanaka S, Montravers P. Toxic Shock Syndrome: A Literature Review. Antibiotics (Basel) 2024; 13:96. [PMID: 38247655 PMCID: PMC10812596 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics13010096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) is a rare, life-threatening, toxin-mediated infectious process linked, in the vast majority of cases, to toxin-producing strains of Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes. The pathophysiology, epidemiology, clinical presentation, microbiological features, management and outcome of TSS are described in this review. Bacterial superantigenic exotoxins induces unconventional polyclonal lymphocyte activation, which leads to rapid shock, multiple organ failure syndrome, and death. The main described superantigenic exotoxins are toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (TSST-1) and enterotoxins for Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxins (SpE) A, B, and C and streptococcal superantigen A (SsA) for Streptococcus pyogenes. Staphylococcal TSS can be menstrual or nonmenstrual. Streptococcal TSS is linked to a severe group A streptococcal infection and, most frequently, to a necrotizing soft tissue infection. Management of TSS is a medical emergency and relies on early detection, immediate resuscitation, source control and eradication of toxin production, bactericidal antibiotic treatment, and protein synthesis inhibiting antibiotic administration. The interest of polyclonal intravenous immunoglobulin G administration as an adjunctive treatment for TSS requires further evaluation. Scientific literature on TSS mainly consists of observational studies, clinical cases, and in vitro data; although more data on TSS are required, additional studies will be difficult to conduct due to the low incidence of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enora Atchade
- DMU PARABOL, Bichat-Claude Bernard Hospital, AP-HP, 75018 Paris, France; (C.D.T.); (S.T.); (P.M.)
| | - Christian De Tymowski
- DMU PARABOL, Bichat-Claude Bernard Hospital, AP-HP, 75018 Paris, France; (C.D.T.); (S.T.); (P.M.)
- UFR Diderot, Paris Cité University, 75018 Paris, France;
- INSERM UMR 1149, Immunoreceptor and Renal Immunopathology, Bichat-Claude Bernard Hospital, 75018 Paris, France
| | - Nathalie Grall
- UFR Diderot, Paris Cité University, 75018 Paris, France;
- Bacteriology Department, Bichat Claude Bernard Hospital, AP-HP, Paris Cité University, 75018 Paris, France
- INSERM UMR 1137 Infection, Antimicrobials, Modelling, Evolution, 75018 Paris, France
| | - Sébastien Tanaka
- DMU PARABOL, Bichat-Claude Bernard Hospital, AP-HP, 75018 Paris, France; (C.D.T.); (S.T.); (P.M.)
- INSERM, UMR 1188, Diabetes Atherothrombosis Réunion Océan Indien (DéTROI), la Réunion University, 97400 Saint-Denis de la Réunion, France
| | - Philippe Montravers
- DMU PARABOL, Bichat-Claude Bernard Hospital, AP-HP, 75018 Paris, France; (C.D.T.); (S.T.); (P.M.)
- UFR Diderot, Paris Cité University, 75018 Paris, France;
- INSERM UMR 1152 ANR 10—LABX-17, Pathophysiology and Epidemiology of Respiratory Diseases, 75018 Paris, France
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Armeftis C, Ioannou A, Lazarou T, Giannopoulos A, Dimitriadou E, Makrides K, Pana ZD. Staphylococcus epidermidis induced toxic shock syndrome (TSS) secondary to influenza infection. BMC Infect Dis 2023; 23:583. [PMID: 37674134 PMCID: PMC10481523 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-023-08487-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To date, few cases of TSS caused by coagulase negative (CoN) staphylococci have been reported in the literature. Recent data show that CoN staphylococci are capable of secreting a number of enterotoxins and cytotoxins, normally produced by S. aureus. Herewith, we describe a case of TSS caused by Staphylococcus epidermidis with a favorable outcome. CASE PRESENTATION We report a case of a 46-year-old man who developed TSS from S. epidermidis. The patient was admitted for a 7-day history of general malaise and headache following a recent influenza infection and a 3-day history of vomiting, diarrhea, diffuse erythroderma, and fever. The main laboratory findings on admission were leukopenia (WBC 800/mm3), thrombocytopenia (Plt count 78.000/mm3), elevated urea, creatine levels and increased inflammatory markers (CRP 368 mg/ml). The patient had clinical and radiological evidence of pneumonia with chest computed tomography (CT) showing diffuse bilateral airspace opacifications with air bronchogram. On the second day, a methicillin resistant S. epidermidis (MRSE) strain was detected in both sets of blood cultures, but the organism was unavailable for toxin testing. All other cultures and diagnostic PCR tests were negative. His clinical signs and symptoms fulfilled at that stage four out of five clinical criteria of TSS with a fever of 39 °C, diffuse erythroderma, multisystem involvement and hypotension. On the same day the patient was admitted to the ICU due to acute respiratory failure. The initial treatment was meropenem, vancomycin, levofloxacin, clindamycin, IVIG and steroids. Finger desquamation appeared on the 9th day of hospitalization, fulfilling all five clinical criteria for TSS. CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge, this is the first adult case with TSS induced by CoNS (MRSE) secondary to an influenza type B infection, who had favorable progression and outcome. Further research is warranted to determine how TSS is induced by the CoNS infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charis Armeftis
- Ygia Polyclinic Private Hospital, 21 Nafpliou Str, Limassol, 3025, Cyprus
- Medical School, European University, 6, Diogenous Str, Engomi, 2404, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Andreas Ioannou
- Ygia Polyclinic Private Hospital, 21 Nafpliou Str, Limassol, 3025, Cyprus
| | | | | | | | | | - Zoi Dorothea Pana
- Medical School, European University, 6, Diogenous Str, Engomi, 2404, Nicosia, Cyprus.
- Infection Control and Antimicrobial Stewardship Medical School, EUC, Engomi, Nicosia, Cyprus.
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Pomputius WF, Kilgore SH, Schlievert PM. Probable enterotoxin-associated toxic shock syndrome caused by Staphylococcus epidermidis. BMC Pediatr 2023; 23:108. [PMID: 36882717 PMCID: PMC9989563 DOI: 10.1186/s12887-023-03914-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We describe a case of a toxic shock-like syndrome in a child, which was associated with Staphylococcus epidermidis instead of Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pyogenes, the usual causes of toxic shock syndrome. CASE PRESENTATION The patient was an 8-year-old boy who developed a toxic shock syndrome-like illness, including fever, hypotension, and rash. The Staphylococcus epidermidis isolate was cultured from urine, but this organism was unavailable for toxin testing. Multiple blood cultures were negative. Instead, a highly novel assay was used on acute plasma from the patient which demonstrated the presence of the genes for superantigens, staphylococcal enterotoxins A, C, D, and E. Superantigens are the known causes of toxic shock syndrome. CONCLUSIONS Our study suggests strongly that Staphylococcus epidermidis was causing the TSS symptoms through the known Staphylococcus aureus superantigens. It is unknown how many other such patients exist; this should be explored. Of great importance is that PCR performed directly on blood plasma in the absence of microbial isolation could be used to demonstrate superantigen genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- William F Pomputius
- Division of Infectious Disease, Children's Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Samuel H Kilgore
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, 51 Newton Road, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA
| | - Patrick M Schlievert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, 51 Newton Road, Iowa City, Iowa, 52242, USA. .,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
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Functional and Immunological Studies Revealed a Second Superantigen Toxin in Staphylococcal Enterotoxin C Producing Staphylococcus aureus Strains. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14090595. [PMID: 36136533 PMCID: PMC9504012 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14090595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus is a human and animal pathogen as well as a commensal bacterium. It can be a causative agent of severe, life-threatening infections with high mortality, e.g., toxic shock syndrome, septic shock, and multi-organ failure. S. aureus strains secrete a number of toxins. Exotoxins/enterotoxins are considered important in the pathogenesis of the above-mentioned conditions. Exotoxins, e.g., superantigen toxins, cause uncontrolled and polyclonal T cell activation and unregulated activation of inflammatory cytokines. Here we show the importance of genomic analysis of infectious strains in order to identify disease-causing exotoxins. Further, we show through functional analysis of superantigenic properties of staphylococcal exotoxins that even very small amounts of a putative superantigenic contaminant can have a significant mitogenic effect. The results show expression and production of two distinct staphylococcal exotoxins, SEC and SEL, in several strains from clinical isolates. Antibodies against both toxins are required to neutralise the superantigenic activity of staphylococcal supernatants and purified staphylococcal toxins.
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Staphylococcal Enterotoxin Genes in Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci-Stability, Expression, and Genomic Context. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052560. [PMID: 35269697 PMCID: PMC8910179 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In the current study, we screened a collection of coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) isolates for orthologues of staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) involved in S. aureus-related staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP). The amplicons corresponding to SEs were detected in S. chromogenes, S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus, S. borealis, S. pasteuri, S. saprophyticus, S. vitulinus, S. warneri, and S. xylosus. All amplicons were sequenced and identified as parts of known S. aureus or S. epidermidis SE genes. Quantitative real-time PCR allowed determining the relative copy number of each SE amplicon. A significant portion of the amplicons of the sea, seb, sec, and seh genes occurred at low copy numbers. Only the amplicons of the sec gene identified in three isolates of S. epidermidis displayed relative copy numbers comparable to sec in the reference enterotoxigenic S. aureus and S. epidermidis strains. Consecutive passages in microbiological media of selected CoNS isolates carrying low copy numbers of sea, seb, sec, and seh genes resulted in a decrease of gene copy number. S. epidermidis isolates harbored a high copy number of sec, which remained stable over the passages. We demonstrated that enterotoxin genes may occur at highly variable copy numbers in CoNS. However, we could identify enterotoxin genes only in whole-genome sequences of CoNS carrying them in a stable form at high copy numbers. Only those enterotoxins were expressed at the protein level. Our results indicate that PCR-based detection of enterotoxin genes in CoNS should always require an additional control, like analysis of their presence in the bacterial genome. We also demonstrate S. epidermidis as a CoNS species harboring SE genes in a stable form at a specific chromosome site and expressing them as a protein.
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Tabiś A, Gonet M, Schubert J, Miazek A, Nowak M, Tomaszek A, Bania J. Analysis of enterotoxigenic effect of Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis enterotoxins C and L on mice. Microbiol Res 2022; 258:126979. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2022.126979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Staphylococcus epidermidis Phages Transduce Antimicrobial Resistance Plasmids and Mobilize Chromosomal Islands. mSphere 2021; 6:6/3/e00223-21. [PMID: 33980677 PMCID: PMC8125051 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00223-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Multidrug-resistant strains of S. epidermidis emerge in both nosocomial and livestock environments as the most important pathogens among coagulase-negative staphylococcal species. The study of transduction by phages is essential to understanding how virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes spread in originally commensal bacterial populations. Staphylococcus epidermidis is a leading opportunistic pathogen causing nosocomial infections that is notable for its ability to form a biofilm and for its high rates of antibiotic resistance. It serves as a reservoir of multiple antimicrobial resistance genes that spread among the staphylococcal population by horizontal gene transfer such as transduction. While phage-mediated transduction is well studied in Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis transducing phages have not been described in detail yet. Here, we report the characteristics of four phages, 27, 48, 456, and 459, previously used for S. epidermidis phage typing, and the newly isolated phage E72, from a clinical S. epidermidis strain. The phages, classified in the family Siphoviridae and genus Phietavirus, exhibited an S. epidermidis-specific host range, and together they infected 49% of the 35 strains tested. A whole-genome comparison revealed evolutionary relatedness to transducing S. aureus phietaviruses. In accordance with this, all the tested phages were capable of transduction with high frequencies up to 10−4 among S. epidermidis strains from different clonal complexes. Plasmids with sizes from 4 to 19 kb encoding resistance to streptomycin, tetracycline, and chloramphenicol were transferred. We provide here the first evidence of a phage-inducible chromosomal island transfer in S. epidermidis. Similarly to S. aureus pathogenicity islands, the transfer was accompanied by phage capsid remodeling; however, the interfering protein encoded by the island was distinct. Our findings underline the role of S. epidermidis temperate phages in the evolution of S. epidermidis strains by horizontal gene transfer, which can also be utilized for S. epidermidis genetic studies. IMPORTANCE Multidrug-resistant strains of S. epidermidis emerge in both nosocomial and livestock environments as the most important pathogens among coagulase-negative staphylococcal species. The study of transduction by phages is essential to understanding how virulence and antimicrobial resistance genes spread in originally commensal bacterial populations. In this work, we provide a detailed description of transducing S. epidermidis phages. The high transduction frequencies of antimicrobial resistance plasmids and the first evidence of chromosomal island transfer emphasize the decisive role of S. epidermidis phages in attaining a higher pathogenic potential of host strains. To date, such importance has been attributed only to S. aureus phages, not to those of coagulase-negative staphylococci. This study also proved that the described transducing bacteriophages represent valuable genetic modification tools in S. epidermidis strains where other methods for gene transfer fail.
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França A, Gaio V, Lopes N, Melo LDR. Virulence Factors in Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci. Pathogens 2021; 10:170. [PMID: 33557202 PMCID: PMC7913919 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) have emerged as major pathogens in healthcare-associated facilities, being S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus and, more recently, S. lugdunensis, the most clinically relevant species. Despite being less virulent than the well-studied pathogen S. aureus, the number of CoNS strains sequenced is constantly increasing and, with that, the number of virulence factors identified in those strains. In this regard, biofilm formation is considered the most important. Besides virulence factors, the presence of several antibiotic-resistance genes identified in CoNS is worrisome and makes treatment very challenging. In this review, we analyzed the different aspects involved in CoNS virulence and their impact on health and food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela França
- Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; (V.G.); (N.L.)
| | | | | | - Luís D. R. Melo
- Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal; (V.G.); (N.L.)
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Fusco V, Chieffi D, Fanelli F, Logrieco AF, Cho G, Kabisch J, Böhnlein C, Franz CMAP. Microbial quality and safety of milk and milk products in the 21st century. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:2013-2049. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 04/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzina Fusco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production National Research Council of Italy (CNR‐ISPA) Bari Italy
| | - Daniele Chieffi
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production National Research Council of Italy (CNR‐ISPA) Bari Italy
| | - Francesca Fanelli
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production National Research Council of Italy (CNR‐ISPA) Bari Italy
| | - Antonio F. Logrieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production National Research Council of Italy (CNR‐ISPA) Bari Italy
| | - Gyu‐Sung Cho
- Department of Microbiology and BiotechnologyMax‐Rubner Institut Kiel Germany
| | - Jan Kabisch
- Department of Microbiology and BiotechnologyMax‐Rubner Institut Kiel Germany
| | - Christina Böhnlein
- Department of Microbiology and BiotechnologyMax‐Rubner Institut Kiel Germany
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Banaszkiewicz S, Calland JK, Mourkas E, Sheppard SK, Pascoe B, Bania J. Genetic Diversity of Composite Enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus epidermidis Pathogenicity Islands. Genome Biol Evol 2020; 11:3498-3509. [PMID: 31769803 PMCID: PMC6931896 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evz259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The only known elements encoding enterotoxins in coagulase-negative staphylococci are composite Staphylococcus epidermidis pathogenicity islands (SePIs), including SePI and S. epidermidis composite insertion (SeCI) regions. We investigated 1545 Staphylococcus spp. genomes using whole-genome MLST, and queried them for genes of staphylococcal enterotoxin family and for 29 ORFs identified in prototype SePI from S. epidermidis FRI909. Enterotoxin-encoding genes were identified in 97% of Staphylococcus aureus genomes, in one Staphylococcus argenteus genome and in nine S. epidermidis genomes. All enterotoxigenic S. epidermidis strains carried composite SePI, encoding sec and sel enterotoxin genes, and were assigned to a discrete wgMLST cluster also containing genomes with incomplete islands located in the same region as complete SePI in enterotoxigenic strains. Staphylococcus epidermidis strains without SeCI and SePI genes, and strains with complete SeCI and no SePI genes were identified but no strains were found to carry only SePI and not SeCI genes. The systematic differences between SePI and SeCI regions imply a lineage-specific pattern of inheritance and support independent acquisition of the two elements in S. epidermidis. We provided evidence of reticulate evolution of mobile elements that contain elements with different putative ancestry, including composite SePI that contains genes found in other coagulase-negative staphylococci (SeCI), as well as in S. aureus (SePI-like elements). We conclude that SePI-associated elements present in nonenterotoxigenic S. epidermidis represent a scaffold associated with acquisition of virulence-associated genes. Gene exchange between S. aureus and S. epidermidis may promote emergence of new pathogenic S. epidermidis clones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Banaszkiewicz
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Poland
| | | | | | | | - Ben Pascoe
- The Milner Centre for Evolution, University of Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Jacek Bania
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Poland
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12
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Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci Pathogenomics. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20051215. [PMID: 30862021 PMCID: PMC6429511 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20051215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS) are skin commensal bacteria. Besides their role in maintaining homeostasis, CoNS have emerged as major pathogens in nosocomial settings. Several studies have investigated the molecular basis for this emergence and identified multiple putative virulence factors with regards to Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity. In the last decade, numerous CoNS whole-genome sequences have been released, leading to the identification of numerous putative virulence factors. Koch’s postulates and the molecular rendition of these postulates, established by Stanley Falkow in 1988, do not explain the microbial pathogenicity of CoNS. However, whole-genome sequence data has shed new light on CoNS pathogenicity. In this review, we analyzed the contribution of genomics in defining CoNS virulence, focusing on the most frequent and pathogenic CoNS species: S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus, S. saprophyticus, S. capitis, and S. lugdunensis.
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Aswani V, Najar F, Pantrangi M, Mau B, Schwan WR, Shukla SK. Virulence factor landscape of a Staphylococcus aureus sequence type 45 strain, MCRF184. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:123. [PMID: 30736742 PMCID: PMC6368776 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-018-5394-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background We describe the virulence factors of a methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus sequence type (ST) 45 strain, MCRF184, (spa type t917), that caused severe necrotizing fasciitis in a 72-year-old diabetic male. The genome of MCRF184 possesses three genomic islands: a relatively large type III νSaα with 42 open reading frames (ORFs) that includes superantigen- and lipoprotein-like genes, a truncated νSaβ that consists mostly of the enterotoxin gene cluster (egc), and a νSaγ island with 18 ORFs including α-toxin. Additionally, the genome has two phage-related regions: phage φSa3 with three genes of the immune evasion cluster (IEC), and an incomplete phage that is distinct from other S. aureus phages. Finally, the region between orfX and orfY harbors a putative efflux pump, acetyltransferase, regulators, and mobilization genes instead of genes of SCCmec. Results Virulence factors included phenol soluble modulins (PSMs) α1 through α4 and PSMs β1 and β2. Ten ORFs identified in MCRF184 had not been reported in previously sequenced S. aureus strains. Conclusion The dire clinical outcome in the patient and the described virulence factors all suggest that MCRF184, a ST45 strain is a highly virulent strain of S. aureus. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-5394-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijay Aswani
- Department of Internal Medicine & Pediatrics, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Fares Najar
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, USA
| | - Madhulatha Pantrangi
- Center for Human Genetics, 1000 North Oak Avenue # MLR, Marshfield, WI, 54449, USA
| | - Bob Mau
- Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - William R Schwan
- Department of Microbiology, University of Wisconsin -La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, USA
| | - Sanjay K Shukla
- Center for Human Genetics, 1000 North Oak Avenue # MLR, Marshfield, WI, 54449, USA.
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Tuffs SW, Haeryfar SMM, McCormick JK. Manipulation of Innate and Adaptive Immunity by Staphylococcal Superantigens. Pathogens 2018; 7:pathogens7020053. [PMID: 29843476 PMCID: PMC6027230 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens7020053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcal superantigens (SAgs) constitute a family of potent exotoxins secreted by Staphylococcus aureus and other select staphylococcal species. SAgs function to cross-link major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules with T cell receptors (TCRs) to stimulate the uncontrolled activation of T lymphocytes, potentially leading to severe human illnesses such as toxic shock syndrome. The ubiquity of SAgs in clinical S. aureus isolates suggests that they likely make an important contribution to the evolutionary fitness of S. aureus. Although the apparent redundancy of SAgs in S. aureus has not been explained, the high level of sequence diversity within this toxin family may allow for SAgs to recognize an assorted range of TCR and MHC class II molecules, as well as aid in the avoidance of humoral immunity. Herein, we outline the major diseases associated with the staphylococcal SAgs and how a dysregulated immune system may contribute to pathology. We then highlight recent research that considers the importance of SAgs in the pathogenesis of S. aureus infections, demonstrating that SAgs are more than simply an immunological diversion. We suggest that SAgs can act as targeted modulators that drive the immune response away from an effective response, and thus aid in S. aureus persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen W Tuffs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
| | - S M Mansour Haeryfar
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine, Western University, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada.
- Centre for Human Immunology, Western University, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada.
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON N6C 2R5, Canada.
| | - John K McCormick
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada.
- Centre for Human Immunology, Western University, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada.
- Lawson Health Research Institute, London, ON N6C 2R5, Canada.
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15
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Phumthanakorn N, Fungwithaya P, Chanchaithong P, Prapasarakul N. Enterotoxin gene profile of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius isolates from dogs, humans and the environment. J Med Microbiol 2018; 67:866-873. [PMID: 29724270 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to detect and identify staphylococcal enterotoxin (SE) genes in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (MRSP) strains from different sources, and to investigate the relationship between their sequence types (STs) and SE gene patterns. METHODOLOGY The profiles of 17 SE genes in 93 MRSP strains isolated from dogs (n=43), humans (n=18) and the environment (n=32) were detected by PCR. Multilocus sequence typing (MLST), SCCmec typing and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) were used to analyse the clonal relatedness between the molecular type and SE gene profiles.Results/Key findings. The human MRSP strains harboured the greatest number of SE genes (12/17; sea, sec, seg, sei, sek, sel, sem, sen, seo, sep, seq and tst-1) compared to those from dogs (5/17; sec, sel, sem, seq and tst-1) and environmental sources (3/17; sec, seq and tst-1). Using MLST and PFGE, different SE gene profiles were found within the same clonal type. CONCLUSION We show that isolates of MRSP vary in their virulence gene profiles, depending on the source from which they have been isolated. This insight should encourage the development of appropriate monitoring and mitigation strategies to reduce the transmission of MRSP in veterinary hospitals and households.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathita Phumthanakorn
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Punpichaya Fungwithaya
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Pattrarat Chanchaithong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Diagnosis and Monitoring of Animal Pathogen Research Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Nuvee Prapasarakul
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Diagnosis and Monitoring of Animal Pathogen Research Unit, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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16
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Characterization of Human Type C Enterotoxin Produced by Clinical S. epidermidis Isolates. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10040139. [PMID: 29584685 PMCID: PMC5923305 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10040139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcal Enterotoxins (SEs) are superantigens (SAg) originally produced by S. aureus, but their presence in coagulase negative staphylococci (CNS) has long been suspected. This study aims to better characterize a novel C-like enterotoxin expressed by clinical S. epidermidis strains, called SECepi. We isolated and characterized SECepi for its molecular and functional properties. The toxin was structurally modeled according to its significant similarity with S. aureus SEC3. Most of SEC amino acid residues important for the formation of the trimolecular Major Histocompatibility Complex II MHCII-SEC-T Cell Receptor TCR complex are conserved in SECepi. The functional properties of SECepi were estimated after cloning, expression in E. coli, and purification. The recombinant SECepi toxin exhibits biological characteristics of a SAg including stimulation of human T-cell mitogenicity, inducing and releasing high cytokines levels: IL-2, -4, -6, -8, -10, IFN-γ, TNF-α and GM-CSF at a dose as low as 3.7 pM. Compared to SECaureus, the production of pro-sepsis cytokine IL-6 is significantly higher with SECepi-activated lymphocytes. Furthermore, SECepi is stable to heat, pepsin or trypsin hydrolysis. The SECepi superantigen produced by CNS is functionally very close to that of S. aureus, possibly inducing a systemic inflammatory response at least comparable to that of SECaureus, and may account for S. epidermidis pathogenicity.
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17
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Abstract
The primary virulence factor of the skin commensal and opportunistic pathogen, Staphylococcus epidermidis, is the ability to form biofilms on surfaces of implanted materials. Much of this microorganism’s pathogenic success has been attributed to its ability to evade the innate immune system. The primary defense against S. epidermidis biofilm infection consists of complement activation, recruitment and subsequent killing of the pathogen by effector cells. Among pathogen-derived factors, the biofilm exopolysaccharide polysaccharide intercellular adhesion (PIA), as well as the accumulation-associated protein (Aap), and the extracellular matrix binding protein (Embp) have been shown to modulate effector cell-mediated killing of S. epidermidis. Phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs) constitute the only class of secreted toxins by S. epidermidis, at least one type of which (PSMδ) possesses strong cytolytic properties toward leukocytes. However, through selective production of non-cytolytic subtypes of PSMs, S. epidermidis is able to maintain a low inflammatory infection profile and avoid eradication by the host immune system. Taken together, our emerging understanding of the mechanisms behind immune modulation by S. epidermidis elucidates the microorganism’s success in the initial colonization of device surfaces as well as the maintenance of a chronic and indolent course of biofilm infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Y Le
- Pathogen Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States.,Division of Hospital Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Matthew D Park
- Pathogen Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Michael Otto
- Pathogen Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Bacteriology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
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18
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Comparative Genomics and Identification of an Enterotoxin-Bearing Pathogenicity Island, SEPI-1/SECI-1, in Staphylococcus epidermidis Pathogenic Strains. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10030093. [PMID: 29495323 PMCID: PMC5869381 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10030093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is a leading cause of nosocomial infections, majorly resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics, and may transfer several mobile genetic elements among the members of its own species, as well as to Staphylococcus aureus; however, a genetic exchange from S. aureus to S. epidermidis remains controversial. We recently identified two pathogenic clinical strains of S. epidermidis that produce a staphylococcal enterotoxin C3-like (SEC) similar to that by S. aureus pathogenicity islands. This study aimed to determine the genetic environment of the SEC-coding sequence and to identify the mobile genetic elements. Whole-genome sequencing and annotation of the S. epidermidis strains were performed using Illumina technology and a bioinformatics pipeline for assembly, which provided evidence that the SEC-coding sequences were located in a composite pathogenicity island that was previously described in the S. epidermidis strain FRI909, called SePI-1/SeCI-1, with 83.8–89.7% nucleotide similarity. Various other plasmids were identified, particularly p_3_95 and p_4_95, which carry antibiotic resistance genes (hsrA and dfrG, respectively), and share homologies with SAP085A and pUSA04-2-SUR11, two plasmids described in S. aureus. Eventually, one complete prophage was identified, ΦSE90, sharing 30 out of 52 coding sequences with the Acinetobacter phage vB_AbaM_IME200. Thus, the SePI-1/SeCI-1 pathogenicity island was identified in two pathogenic strains of S. epidermidis that produced a SEC enterotoxin causing septic shock. These findings suggest the existence of in vivo genetic exchange from S. aureus to S. epidermidis.
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19
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Rahmdel S, Hosseinzadeh S, Shekarforoush SS, Torriani S, Gatto V, Pashangeh S. Safety hazards in bacteriocinogenic Staphylococcus strains isolated from goat and sheep milk. Microb Pathog 2018; 116:100-108. [PMID: 29355699 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2018.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this study, 28 bacteriocinogenic Staphylococcus strains isolated from goat and sheep milk were subjected to the PCR detection of enterotoxin genes (sea-see), enterotoxin-like toxin Q gene (selq), toxic shock syndrome toxin gene (tst1), and antibiotic resistance genes. They were also evaluated for phenotypic resistance against 10 antibiotics and hemolytic activity. The tyramine and histamine production was investigated using the agar plate assay and capillary zone electrophoretic analysis (CZE). Twenty-five isolates harbored at least one enterotoxin gene. The gene sec was the most frequent (89%). The gene tst1 was found in 84% of sec-positive isolates. The occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes was in the order of blaZ/tetK (100%), mecA/ermB (86%), ermC (50%), and tetM (18%). The genes ermA, aac(6')Ie-aph(2″)Ia, vanA, and vanB were absent in all the isolates. Nineteen isolates were phenotypically susceptible to all the antibiotics. The only isolate with phenotypic resistance to penicillin G and oxacillin was S. epidermidis 4S93 which had a different SmaI-PFGE profile from those of the other S. epidermidis strains. All the S. haemolyticus and S. pseudintermedius isolates were not susceptible to trimethoprim. Twenty-five isolates showed complete or partial hemolytic activity. None of the isolates was able to decarboxylate tyrosine, while CZE analysis revealed histamine formation activity in S. haemolyticus 4S12. The occurrence of safety risks in the isolates reinforces the need for regular monitoring of food-producing animals to mitigate the risks of multidrug resistant and zoonotic pathogens. Moreover, none of the isolates fulfilled the safety criteria to be used as starter cultures or biopreservatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samane Rahmdel
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Saeid Hosseinzadeh
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Seyed Shahram Shekarforoush
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
| | - Sandra Torriani
- Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Veronica Gatto
- Food Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Safoora Pashangeh
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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20
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Wakabayashi Y, Umeda K, Yonogi S, Nakamura H, Yamamoto K, Kumeda Y, Kawatsu K. Staphylococcal food poisoning caused by Staphylococcus argenteus harboring staphylococcal enterotoxin genes. Int J Food Microbiol 2017; 265:23-29. [PMID: 29112896 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2017.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Revised: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP) is caused by staphylococcal enterotoxins (SEs) preformed in food materials. SE genes are encoded on mobile genetic elements and are widely found across Staphylococcus species including S. argenteus, although most SFP cases are caused by S. aureus. S. argenteus, recently discriminated from S. aureus as a novel species, are non-pigmented staphylococci phenotypically related to S. aureus. In 2014 and 2015, two independent food poisoning cases occurred in Osaka, Japan, in which non-pigmented staphylococci were predominantly isolated. Several enterotoxin genes (seb, seg, sei, sem, sen, seo, and selu2) were found in their genome and the production of SEB was confirmed by reverse passive agglutination tests. The non-pigmented isolates from patients, food handlers, food, and cooking utensils all produced the same pulsed-field gel electrophoresis pattern. These non-pigmented isolates were coagulase-positive and biochemically identical to S. aureus. We performed further genetic analysis using nucA sequencing and multi-locus sequence typing, and identified these isolates as S. argenteus. We also found that seb was encoded on the Staphylococcus aureus pathogenicity island, while seg, sei, sem, sen, seo, and selu2 were encoded on the enterotoxin gene cluster. From these results, we concluded that the two food poisoning outbreaks were SFP cases caused by S. argenteus harboring SE genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Wakabayashi
- Bacteriology Section, Division of Microbiology, Osaka Institute of Public Health Morinomiya Center, Higashinari-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kaoru Umeda
- Microbiology Section, Division of Microbiology, Osaka Institute of Public Health Tennoji Center, Tennoji-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shinya Yonogi
- Bacteriology Section, Division of Microbiology, Osaka Institute of Public Health Morinomiya Center, Higashinari-ku, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Hiromi Nakamura
- Microbiology Section, Division of Microbiology, Osaka Institute of Public Health Tennoji Center, Tennoji-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kaori Yamamoto
- Microbiology Section, Division of Microbiology, Osaka Institute of Public Health Tennoji Center, Tennoji-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuko Kumeda
- Research Organization for the 21st Century, Osaka Prefecture University, Naka-ku, Sakai, Japan
| | - Kentaro Kawatsu
- Bacteriology Section, Division of Microbiology, Osaka Institute of Public Health Morinomiya Center, Higashinari-ku, Osaka, Japan
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21
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Argemi X, Martin V, Loux V, Dahyot S, Lebeurre J, Guffroy A, Martin M, Velay A, Keller D, Riegel P, Hansmann Y, Paul N, Prévost G. Whole-Genome Sequencing of Seven Strains of Staphylococcus lugdunensis Allows Identification of Mobile Genetic Elements. Genome Biol Evol 2017; 9:3746526. [PMID: 28444231 PMCID: PMC5425232 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evx077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Coagulase negative staphylococci are normal inhabitant of the human skin flora that account for an increasing number of infections, particularly hospital-acquired infections. Staphylococcus lugdunensis has emerged as a most virulent species causing various infections with clinical characteristics close to what clinicians usually observe with Staphylococcus aureus and both bacteria share more than 70% of their genome. Virulence of S. aureus relies on a large repertoire of virulence factors, many of which are encoded on mobile genetic elements. S. lugdunensis also bears various putative virulence genes but only one complete genome with extensive analysis has been published with one prophage sequence (φSL2) and a unique plasmid was previously described. In this study, we performed de novo sequencing, whole genome assembly and annotation of seven strains of S. lugdunensis from VISLISI clinical trial. We searched for the presence of virulence genes and mobile genetics elements using bioinformatics tools. We identified four new prophages, named φSL2 to φSL4, belonging to the Siphoviridae class and five plasmids, named pVISLISI_1 to pVISLISI_5. Three plasmids are homologous to known plasmids that include, amongst others, one S. aureus plasmid. The two other plasmids were not described previously. This study provides a new context for the study of S. lugdunensis virulence suggesting the occurrence of several genetic recombination’ with other staphylococci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Argemi
- Hôpitaux Universitaires, Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Strasbourg, France.,Université de Strasbourg, CHRU de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Institut de bactériologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Véronique Martin
- INRA - Unité Mathématiques et Informatique Appliquées, du Genome à l'Environnement (MaIAGE), Jouy-en Josas, France
| | - Valentin Loux
- INRA - Unité Mathématiques et Informatique Appliquées, du Genome à l'Environnement (MaIAGE), Jouy-en Josas, France
| | - Sandrine Dahyot
- Laboratoire GRAM EA2656, Université de Rouen - IRIB UFR Médecine-Pharmacie Batiment Recherche, Rouen, France
| | - Jérémie Lebeurre
- Laboratoire GRAM EA2656, Université de Rouen - IRIB UFR Médecine-Pharmacie Batiment Recherche, Rouen, France
| | - Aurélien Guffroy
- Service d'Immunologie Clinique et de Médecine Interne, Centre National de Référence des Maladies Auto-immunes Rares, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,CNRS UPR 3572, Immunopathologie et Chimie Thérapeutique/Equipe, Tolérance Cellulaire B et Auto-immunité, Laboratoire d'excellence Medalis, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology (IBMC), Strasbourg, France
| | - Mickael Martin
- Service d'Immunologie Clinique et de Médecine Interne, Centre National de Référence des Maladies Auto-immunes Rares, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,CNRS UPR 3572, Immunopathologie et Chimie Thérapeutique/Equipe, Tolérance Cellulaire B et Auto-immunité, Laboratoire d'excellence Medalis, Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology (IBMC), Strasbourg, France
| | - Aurélie Velay
- Virology Laboratory, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France.,2-INSERM, UMR_S1109, LabEx Transplantex, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Daniel Keller
- Université de Strasbourg, CHRU de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Institut de bactériologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Philippe Riegel
- Université de Strasbourg, CHRU de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Institut de bactériologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Yves Hansmann
- Hôpitaux Universitaires, Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Strasbourg, France.,Université de Strasbourg, CHRU de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Institut de bactériologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
| | - Nicodème Paul
- Laboratoire d'ImmunoRhumatologie Moléculaire, INSERM UMR_S 1109, Plateforme GENOMAX, Faculté de Médecine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire OMICARE, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Gilles Prévost
- Université de Strasbourg, CHRU de Strasbourg, VBP EA7290, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS), Institut de bactériologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, France
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22
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Benkerroum N. Staphylococcal enterotoxins and enterotoxin-like toxins with special reference to dairy products: An overview. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017; 58:1943-1970. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2017.1289149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Noreddine Benkerroum
- Department of Food Science and Agricultural Chemistry, Macdonald-Stewart Building, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Canada
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23
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Pathogenic features of clinically significant coagulase-negative staphylococci in hospital and community infections in Benin. Int J Med Microbiol 2016; 307:75-82. [PMID: 27876296 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In West Africa, very little consideration has been given to coagulase negative Staphylococci (CNS). Herein, we describe the features contributing to the pathogenicity of 99 clinically-significant independent CNS isolates associated with infections encountered at the National Teaching Hospital Center of Cotonou (Benin). The pathogenic potentials of nosocomial strains were compared with community strains. S. haemolyticus (44%), S. epidermidis (22%) and S. hominis (7%) were the most frequently isolated while bacteremia (66.7%) and urinary tract infections (24.2%) were the most commonly encountered infections. Most strains were resistant to multiple antibiotics, including penicillin (92%), fosfomycin (81%), methicillin (74%) and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (72%). The most frequently isolated species were also the most frequently resistant to methicillin: S. hominis (100%), S. haemolyticus (93%) and S. epidermidis (67%). Screening of toxic functions or toxin presence revealed hemolytic potential in 25% of strains in over 50% of human erythrocytes in 1h. Twenty-six percent of strains exhibited protease activity with low (5%), moderate (10%) and high activity (11%), while 25% of strains displayed esterase activity. Three percent of strain supernatants were able to lyse 100% of human polymorphonuclear cells after 30min. Polymerase chain reaction and latex agglutination methods revealed staphylococcal enterotoxin C gene expression in 9% of S. epidermidis. A majority of hospital-associated CNS strains (68%) had at least one important virulence feature, compared with only 32% for community-acquired strains. The present investigation confirms that these microorganisms can be virulent, at least in some individual cases, possibly through genetic transfer from S. aureus.
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24
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Podkowik M, Seo KS, Schubert J, Tolo I, Robinson DA, Bania J, Bystroń J. Genotype and enterotoxigenicity of Staphylococcus epidermidis isolate from ready to eat meat products. Int J Food Microbiol 2016; 229:52-59. [PMID: 27105039 PMCID: PMC4877272 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2016.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 04/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
We have previously shown that potentially pathogenic isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis occur at high incidence in ready-to-eat food. Now, within 164 samples of ready-to-eat meat products we identified 32 S. epidermidis isolates. In 8 isolates we detected the genes encoding for staphylococcal enterotoxins, but in 7 S. epidermidis isolates these genes were not stable over passages. One isolate designated 4S was shown to stably harbour sec and sel genes. In the genome sequence of S. epidermidis 4S we identified 21,426-bp region flanked by direct-repeats, encompassing sec and sel genes, corresponding to the previously described composite staphylococcal pathogenicity island (SePI) in S. epidermidis FRI909. Alignment of S. epidermidis 4S and S. epidermidis FRI909 SePIs revealed 6 nucleotide mismatches located in 5 of the total of 29 ORFs. Genomic location of S. epidermidis 4S SePI was the same as in FRI909. S. epidermidis 4S is a single locus variant of ST561, being genetically different from FRI909. SECepi was secreted by S. epidermidis 4S to BHI broth ranging from 14 to almost 36μg/mL, to milk ranging from 6 to 9ng/mL, to beef meat juice from 2 to 3μg/mL and to pork meat juice from 1 to 2μg/mL after 24 and 48h of cultivation, respectively. We provide the first evidence that S. epidermidis occurring in food bears an element encoding an orthologue to Staphylococcus aureus SEC, and that SECepi can be produced in microbial broth, milk and meat juices. Regarding that only enterotoxins produced by S. aureus are officially tracked in food in EU, the ability to produce enterotoxin by S. epidermidis pose real risk for food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Podkowik
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland.
| | - Keun Seok Seo
- Department of Basic Sciences, Mississippi State University, Mississippi, USA
| | - Justyna Schubert
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Isaiah Tolo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, USA
| | - D Ashley Robinson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, USA
| | - Jacek Bania
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Jarosław Bystroń
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
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25
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Tolo I, Thomas JC, Fischer RSB, Brown EL, Gray BM, Robinson DA. Do Staphylococcus epidermidis Genetic Clusters Predict Isolation Sources? J Clin Microbiol 2016; 54:1711-1719. [PMID: 27076664 PMCID: PMC4922092 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.03345-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is a ubiquitous colonizer of human skin and a common cause of medical device-associated infections. The extent to which the population genetic structure of S. epidermidis distinguishes commensal from pathogenic isolates is unclear. Previously, Bayesian clustering of 437 multilocus sequence types (STs) in the international database revealed a population structure of six genetic clusters (GCs) that may reflect the species' ecology. Here, we first verified the presence of six GCs, including two (GC3 and GC5) with significant admixture, in an updated database of 578 STs. Next, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) assay was developed that accurately assigned 545 (94%) of 578 STs to GCs. Finally, the hypothesis that GCs could distinguish isolation sources was tested by SNP typing and GC assignment of 154 isolates from hospital patients with bacteremia and those with blood culture contaminants and from nonhospital carriage. GC5 was isolated almost exclusively from hospital sources. GC1 and GC6 were isolated from all sources but were overrepresented in isolates from nonhospital and infection sources, respectively. GC2, GC3, and GC4 were relatively rare in this collection. No association was detected between fdh-positive isolates (GC2 and GC4) and nonhospital sources. Using a machine learning algorithm, GCs predicted hospital and nonhospital sources with 80% accuracy and predicted infection and contaminant sources with 45% accuracy, which was comparable to the results seen with a combination of five genetic markers (icaA, IS256, sesD [bhp], mecA, and arginine catabolic mobile element [ACME]). Thus, analysis of population structure with subgenomic data shows the distinction of hospital and nonhospital sources and the near-inseparability of sources within a hospital.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaiah Tolo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, USA
| | | | - Rebecca S B Fischer
- Center for Infectious Disease, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Eric L Brown
- Center for Infectious Disease, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Barry M Gray
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Illinois College of Medicine at Peoria, Peoria, Illinois, USA
| | - D Ashley Robinson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, USA
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Enquebaher T, Siv S, Knut R, Taran S, Judith AN. Staphylococcus aureus and other Staphylococcus species in milk and milk products from Tigray region, Northern Ethiopia. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.5897/ajfs2015.1373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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Stach CS, Vu BG, Schlievert PM. Determining the Presence of Superantigens in Coagulase Negative Staphylococci from Humans. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143341. [PMID: 26599862 PMCID: PMC4658126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Superantigens (SAgs) are important virulence factors in S. aureus. Recent studies identified their presence in animal coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS). The emergence of human-associated SAg+ CNS would mark a prodigious shift in virulence capabilities. We examined CNS isolates from healthy human nares and diseased individuals, and determined that no known SAgs were present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher S. Stach
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Bao G. Vu
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Patrick M. Schlievert
- Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, Iowa, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus haemolyticus: Molecular Detection of Cytotoxin and Enterotoxin Genes. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:3688-99. [PMID: 26389954 PMCID: PMC4591658 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7093688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Although opportunistic pathogens, coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), including Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus haemolyticus, have long been regarded as avirulent organisms. The role of toxins in the development of infections caused by CoNS is still controversial. The objective of this study was to characterize the presence of enterotoxin and cytotoxin genes in S. epidermidis and S. haemolyticus isolates obtained from blood cultures. Cytotoxin genes were detected by PCR using novel species-specific primers. Among the 85 S. epidermidis and 84 S. haemolyticus isolates, 95.3% and 79.8%, respectively, carried at least one enterotoxin gene. The most frequent enterotoxin genes were sea (53.3%), seg (64.5%) and sei (67.5%). The seg gene was positively associated with S. epidermidis (p = 0.02), and this species was more toxigenic than S. haemolyticus. The hla/yidD gene was detected in 92.9% of S. epidermidis and the hla gene in 91.7% of S. haemolyticus isolates; hlb was detected in 92.9% of the S. epidermidis isolates and hld in 95.3%. Nosocomial Staphylococcus epidermidis and S. haemolyticus isolates exhibited a high toxigenic potential, mainly producing the non-classical enterotoxins seg and sei. The previously unreported detection of hla/yidD and hlb in S. epidermidis and S. haemolyticus using species-specific primers showed that these hemolysin genes differ between CoNS species and that they are highly frequent in blood culture isolates.
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Current Issues in Foodborne Illness Caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Food Saf (Tokyo) 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-800245-2.00009-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Melo LDR, Sillankorva S, Ackermann HW, Kropinski AM, Azeredo J, Cerca N. Characterization of Staphylococcus epidermidis phage vB_SepS_SEP9 - a unique member of the Siphoviridae family. Res Microbiol 2014; 165:679-85. [PMID: 25303835 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2014.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Relatively few phages (<10) of coagulase negative staphylococci (CoNS) have been described. Staphylococcus epidermidis phage vB_SepS_SEP9 is a siphovirus with a unique morphology as a staphylococcal phage, possessing a very long tail. Its genome is unique and unrelated to any phage genomes deposited in public databases. It appears to encode a nonfunctional integrase. Due to the not having a recognizable lysogeny module, the phage is unable lysogenize. The genome comprises 129 coding sequences (CDS), 46 of which have an assigned function and 59 are unique. Its unique morphology and genome led to the proposal of the establishment of a new Siphoviridae genus named "Sep9likevirus".
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís D R Melo
- CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO - Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Sanna Sillankorva
- CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO - Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Hans-Wolfgang Ackermann
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectiology, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, Québec, QC G1X 4C6, Canada
| | - Andrew M Kropinski
- Public Health Agency of Canada, Laboratory for Foodborne Zoonoses, Guelph, ON N1G 3W4, Canada; Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Joana Azeredo
- CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO - Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Nuno Cerca
- CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, LIBRO - Laboratory of Research in Biofilms Rosário Oliveira, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal.
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Jeong DW, Han S, Lee JH. Safety and technological characterization of Staphylococcus equorum isolates from jeotgal, a Korean high-salt-fermented seafood, for starter development. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 188:108-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2014] [Revised: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/20/2014] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Abstract
The definition of the heterogeneous group of coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) is still based on diagnostic procedures that fulfill the clinical need to differentiate between Staphylococcus aureus and those staphylococci classified historically as being less or nonpathogenic. Due to patient- and procedure-related changes, CoNS now represent one of the major nosocomial pathogens, with S. epidermidis and S. haemolyticus being the most significant species. They account substantially for foreign body-related infections and infections in preterm newborns. While S. saprophyticus has been associated with acute urethritis, S. lugdunensis has a unique status, in some aspects resembling S. aureus in causing infectious endocarditis. In addition to CoNS found as food-associated saprophytes, many other CoNS species colonize the skin and mucous membranes of humans and animals and are less frequently involved in clinically manifested infections. This blurred gradation in terms of pathogenicity is reflected by species- and strain-specific virulence factors and the development of different host-defending strategies. Clearly, CoNS possess fewer virulence properties than S. aureus, with a respectively different disease spectrum. In this regard, host susceptibility is much more important. Therapeutically, CoNS are challenging due to the large proportion of methicillin-resistant strains and increasing numbers of isolates with less susceptibility to glycopeptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karsten Becker
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Christine Heilmann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Georg Peters
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
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Savijoki K, Iivanainen A, Siljamäki P, Laine PK, Paulin L, Karonen T, Pyörälä S, Kankainen M, Nyman TA, Salomäki T, Koskinen P, Holm L, Simojoki H, Taponen S, Sukura A, Kalkkinen N, Auvinen P, Varmanen P. Genomics and Proteomics Provide New Insight into the Commensal and Pathogenic Lifestyles of Bovine- and Human-Associated Staphylococcus epidermidis Strains. J Proteome Res 2014; 13:3748-3762. [DOI: 10.1021/pr500322d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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34
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Dong Y, Speer CP. The role of Staphylococcus epidermidis in neonatal sepsis: Guarding angel or pathogenic devil? Int J Med Microbiol 2014; 304:513-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijmm.2014.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Revised: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 04/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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Gomes F, Teixeira P, Oliveira R. Mini-review: Staphylococcus epidermidis as the most frequent cause of nosocomial infections: old and new fighting strategies. BIOFOULING 2014; 30:131-141. [PMID: 24283376 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2013.848858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is nowadays regarded as the most frequent cause of nosocomial infections and indwelling medical device-associated infections. One of the features that contributes to the success of this microorganism and which is elemental to the onset of pathogenesis is its ability to form biofilms. Cells in this mode of growth are inherently more resistant to antimicrobials. Seeking to treat staphylococcal-related infections and to prevent their side effects, such as the significant morbidity and health care costs, many efforts are being made to develop of new and effective antistaphylococcal drugs. Indeed, due to its frequency and extreme resistance to treatment, staphylococcal-associated infections represent a serious burden for the public health system. This review will provide an overview of some conventional and emerging anti-biofilm approaches in the management of medical device-associated infections related to this important nosocomial pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Gomes
- a Centre of Biological Engineering, IBB - Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, University of Minho , Braga , Portugal
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36
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Abstract
SUMMARY This review begins with a discussion of the large family of Staphylococcus aureus and beta-hemolytic streptococcal pyrogenic toxin T lymphocyte superantigens from structural and immunobiological perspectives. With this as background, the review then discusses the major known and possible human disease associations with superantigens, including associations with toxic shock syndromes, atopic dermatitis, pneumonia, infective endocarditis, and autoimmune sequelae to streptococcal illnesses. Finally, the review addresses current and possible novel strategies to prevent superantigen production and passive and active immunization strategies.
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37
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Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is the most frequently encountered member of the coagulase-negative staphylococci on human epithelial surfaces. It has emerged as an important nosocomial pathogen, especially in infections of indwelling medical devices. The mechanisms that S. epidermidis uses to survive during infection are in general of a passive nature, reflecting their possible origin in the commensal life of this bacterium. Most importantly, S. epidermidis excels in forming biofilms, sticky agglomerations that inhibit major host defense mechanisms. Furthermore, S. epidermidis produces a series of protective surface polymers and exoenzymes. Moreover, S. epidermidis has the capacity to secrete strongly cytolytic members of the phenol-soluble modulin (PSM) family, but PSMs in S. epidermidis overall appear to participate primarily in biofilm development. Finally, there is evidence for a virulence gene reservoir function of S. epidermidis, as it appears to have transferred important immune evasion and antibiotic resistance factors to Staphylococcus aureus. Conversely, S. epidermidis also has a beneficial role in balancing the microflora on human epithelial surfaces by controlling outgrowth of harmful bacteria such as in particular S. aureus. Recent research yielded detailed insight into key S. epidermidis virulence determinants and their regulation, in particular as far as biofilm formation is concerned, but we still have a serious lack of understanding of the in vivo relevance of many pathogenesis mechanisms and the factors that govern the commensal life of S. epidermidis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Otto
- Pathogen Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Human Bacterial Pathogenesis, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, U.S. National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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38
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Melo LDR, Sillankorva S, Ackermann HW, Kropinski AM, Azeredo J, Cerca N. Isolation and characterization of a new Staphylococcus epidermidis broad-spectrum bacteriophage. J Gen Virol 2013; 95:506-515. [PMID: 24189619 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.060590-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is considered an important nosocomial pathogen, being very tolerant to the host immune system and antibiotherapy, particularly when in biofilms. Due to its high resistance, alternative antimicrobial strategies are under development. The use of bacteriophages is seen as an important strategy to combat pathogenic organisms. In this study, a S. epidermidis myovirus, SEP1, was isolated and characterized. The genome of this phage was sequenced and shown to be related peripherally to the genus Twortlikevirus. However, when compared with other phages of this genus, it showed DNA sequence identities no greater than 58.2 %. As opposed to other polyvalent viruses of the genus Twortlikevirus, SEP1 is highly specific to S. epidermidis strains. The good infectivity shown by this phage as well as its high lytic spectrum suggested that it might be a good candidate for therapeutic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luís D R Melo
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4700-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Sanna Sillankorva
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4700-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Hans-Wolfgang Ackermann
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Infectiology, Faculty of Medicine, Laval University, Québec, QC G1X 4C6, Canada
| | - Andrew M Kropinski
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.,Public Health Agency of Canada, Laboratory for Foodborne Zoonoses, Guelph, ON N1G 3W4, Canada
| | - Joana Azeredo
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4700-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Nuno Cerca
- Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, 4700-057 Braga, Portugal
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New structure of phage-related islands carrying fusB and a virulence gene in fusidic acid-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57:5737-9. [PMID: 23979742 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01433-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Nucleotide sequencing of the fusB-flanking regions in two fusidic acid-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates with the type IV aj1-leader peptide (LP)-fusB structure (lacking aj1) revealed that their fusB gene was located on novel phage-related islands inserted downstream of smpB and are here referred to as SeRIfusB-3692 and SePIfusB-857. The novel SePIfusB-857 structure was followed by SeCI857, forming a composite pathogenicity island which contained a putative virulence gene, vapE. The linkage of fusB and vapE may contribute to bacterial adaption.
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40
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Abstract
Due to their crucial role in pathogenesis and virulence, phages of Staphylococcus aureus have been extensively studied. Most of them encode and disseminate potent staphylococcal virulence factors. In addition, their movements contribute to the extraordinary versatility and adaptability of this prominent pathogen by improving genome plasticity. In addition to S. aureus, phages from coagulase-negative Staphylococci (CoNS) are gaining increasing interest. Some of these species, such as S. epidermidis, cause nosocomial infections and are therefore problematic for public health. This review provides an overview of the staphylococcal phages family extended to CoNS phages. At the morphological level, all these phages characterized so far belong to the Caudovirales order and are mainly temperate Siphoviridae. At the molecular level, comparative genomics revealed an extensive mosaicism, with genes organized into functional modules that are frequently exchanged between phages. Evolutionary relationships within this family, as well as with other families, have been highlighted. All these aspects are of crucial importance for our understanding of evolution and emergence of pathogens among bacterial species such as Staphylococci.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Deghorain
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; (L.V.M.); (M.D.); Tel.: +32-2-650-97-76 (M.D.); +32-2-650-97-78 (L.V.M.); Fax: +32-2-650-97-70
| | - Laurence Van Melderen
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; (L.V.M.); (M.D.); Tel.: +32-2-650-97-76 (M.D.); +32-2-650-97-78 (L.V.M.); Fax: +32-2-650-97-70
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Podkowik M, Park JY, Seo KS, Bystroń J, Bania J. Enterotoxigenic potential of coagulase-negative staphylococci. Int J Food Microbiol 2013; 163:34-40. [PMID: 23500613 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Revised: 01/31/2013] [Accepted: 02/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Staphylococci are a worldwide cause of human and animal infections including life-threatening cases of bacteraemia, wound infections, pyogenic lesions, and mastitis. Enterotoxins produced by some staphylococcal species were recognized as causative agents of staphylococcal food poisoning (SFP), being also able to interrupt human and animal immune responses. Only enterotoxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus were as yet well characterized. Much less is known about enterotoxigenic potential of coagulase-negative species of genus Staphylococcus (CNS). The pathogenic role of CNS and their enterotoxigenicity in developing SFP has not been well established. Although it has been reported that enterotoxigenic CNS strains have been associated with human and animal infections and food poisoning, most of research lacked a deeper insight into structure of elements encoding CNS enterotoxins. Recent studies provided us with strong evidence for the presence and localization of enterotoxin-coding elements in CNS genomes and production of enterotoxins. Thus, the importance of pathogenic potential of CNS as a source of staphylococcal enterotoxins has been highlighted in human and animal infections as well as in food poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Podkowik
- Department of Food Hygiene and Consumer Health Protection, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
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42
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Characterization of novel phages isolated in coagulase-negative staphylococci reveals evolutionary relationships with Staphylococcus aureus phages. J Bacteriol 2012; 194:5829-39. [PMID: 22923589 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01085-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite increasing interest in coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), little information is available about their bacteriophages. We isolated and sequenced three novel temperate Siphoviridae phages (StB12, StB27, and StB20) from the CoNS Staphylococcus hominis and S. capitis species. The genome sizes are around 40 kb, and open reading frames (ORFs) are arranged in functional modules encoding lysogeny, DNA metabolism, morphology, and cell lysis. Bioinformatics analysis allowed us to assign a potential function to half of the predicted proteins. Structural elements were further identified by proteomic analysis of phage particles, and DNA-packaging mechanisms were determined. Interestingly, the three phages show identical integration sites within their host genomes. In addition to this experimental characterization, we propose a novel classification based on the analysis of 85 phage and prophage genomes, including 15 originating from CoNS. Our analysis established 9 distinct clusters and revealed close relationships between S. aureus and CoNS phages. Genes involved in DNA metabolism and lysis and potentially in phage-host interaction appear to be widespread, while structural genes tend to be cluster specific. Our findings support the notion of a possible reciprocal exchange of genes between phages originating from S. aureus and CoNS, which may be of crucial importance for pathogenesis in staphylococci.
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Gutiérrez D, Martínez B, Rodríguez A, García P. Genomic characterization of two Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteriophages with anti-biofilm potential. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:228. [PMID: 22681775 PMCID: PMC3505474 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Staphylococcus epidermidis is a commensal bacterium but can colonize the hospital environment due to its ability to form biofilms favouring adhesion to host tissues, medical devices and increasing resistance to antibiotics. In this context, the use of phages to destroy biofilms is an interesting alternative. Results The complete genomes of two Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteriophages, vB_SepiS-phiIPLA5 and vB_SepiS-phiIPLA7, have been analyzed. Their genomes are 43,581 bp and 42,123 bp, and contain 67 and 59 orfs. Bioinformatic analyses enabled the assignment of putative functions to 36 and 29 gene products, respectively, including DNA packaging and morphogenetic proteins, lysis components, and proteins necessary for DNA recombination, regulation, modification and replication. A point mutation in vB_SepiS-phiIPLA5 lysogeny control-associated genes explained its strictly lytic behaviour. Comparative analysis of phi-IPLA5 and phi-IPLA7 genome structure resembled those of S. epidermidis ϕPH15 and ϕCNPH82 phages. A mosaic structure of S. epidermidis prophage genomes was revealed by PCR analysis of three marker genes (integrase, major head protein and holin). Using these genes, high prevalence (73%) of phage DNA in a representative S. epidermidis strain collection consisting of 60 isolates from women with mastitis and healthy women was determined. Putative pectin lyase-like domains detected in virion-associated proteins of both phages could be involved in exopolysaccharide (EPS) depolymerization, as evidenced by both the presence of a clear halo surrounding the phage lysis zone and the phage-mediated biofilm degradation. Conclusions Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteriophages, vB_SepiS-phiIPLA5 and vB_SepiS-phiIPLA7, have a mosaic structure similar to other widespread S. epidermidis prophages. Virions of these phages are provided of pectin lyase-like domains, which may be regarded as promising anti-biofilm tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Gutiérrez
- DairySafe Group, Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Dairy Products, Instituto de Productos Lácteos de Asturias-IPLA-CSIC, Paseo Río Linares, 33300 Villaviciosa, Asturias, Spain
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Francis AR, Tanaka MM. Evolution of variation in presence and absence of genes in bacterial pathways. BMC Evol Biol 2012; 12:55. [PMID: 22520826 PMCID: PMC3514204 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-12-55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bacterial genomes exhibit a remarkable degree of variation in the presence and absence of genes, which probably extends to the level of individual pathways. This variation may be a consequence of the significant evolutionary role played by horizontal gene transfer, but might also be explained by the loss of genes through mutation. A challenge is to understand why there would be variation in gene presence within pathways if they confer a benefit only when complete. Results Here, we develop a mathematical model to study how variation in pathway content is produced by horizontal transfer, gene loss and partial exposure of a population to a novel environment. Conclusions We discuss the possibility that variation in gene presence acts as cryptic genetic variation on which selection acts when the appropriate environment occurs. We find that a high level of variation in gene presence can be readily explained by decay of the pathway through mutation when there is no longer exposure to the selective environment, or when selection becomes too weak to maintain the genes. In the context of pathway variation the role of horizontal gene transfer is probably the initial introduction of a complete novel pathway rather than in building up the variation in a genome without the pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew R Francis
- School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, University of Western Sydney, Penrith 2751, Locked Bag 1797, Australia.
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45
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Rosenstein R, Götz F. What Distinguishes Highly Pathogenic Staphylococci from Medium- and Non-pathogenic? Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2012; 358:33-89. [DOI: 10.1007/82_2012_286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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46
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Molecular basis of Staphylococcus epidermidis infections. Semin Immunopathol 2011; 34:201-14. [PMID: 22095240 DOI: 10.1007/s00281-011-0296-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus epidermidis is the most important member of the coagulase-negative staphylococci and one of the most abundant colonizers of human skin. While for a long time regarded as innocuous, it has been identified as the most frequent cause of device-related infections occurring in the hospital setting and is therefore now recognized as an important opportunistic pathogen. S. epidermidis produces a series of molecules that provide protection from host defenses. Specifically, many proteins and exopolymers, such as the exopolysaccharide PIA, contribute to biofilm formation and inhibit phagocytosis and the activity of human antimicrobial peptides. Furthermore, recent research has identified a family of pro-inflammatory peptides in S. epidermidis, the phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs), which have multiple functions in immune evasion and biofilm development, and may be cytolytic. However, in accordance with the relatively benign relationship that S. epidermidis has with its host, production of aggressive members of the PSM family is kept at a low level. Interestingly, in contrast to S. aureus with its large arsenal of toxins developed for causing infection in the human host, most if not all "virulence factors" of S. epidermidis appear to have original functions in the commensal lifestyle of this bacterium.
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