African 2, a clonal complex of Mycobacterium bovis epidemiologically important in East Africa

Isolation and Molecular Identification of Mycobacterium bovis from Slaughtered Cattle in Nekemte Municipality Abattoir, Ethiopia

Tuberculosis (TB) is a zoonotic disease that can spread from animals to humans as well as from human to human. Little research has been conducted on bovine tuberculosis prevalence and molecular characterization in the western part of Ethiopia. To investigate this, a cross-sectional study was conducted on slaughtered cattle at the Nekemte municipal abattoir between January 2020 and June 2021. A detailed postmortem examination, culture, acid-fast staining technique, molecular characterization using RD4 deletion, and spoligotyping were all carried out. Based on a detailed postmortem examination, the overall prevalence of bovine tuberculosis was 7.8% (80 of 1020). Mycobacterium isolation confirmed only 12.5% (10/80) of the suspected tuberculosis tissue lesions. With acid-fast bacilli staining, all Mycobacterium spp. isolates (n = 10) were positive. However, only 9/10 isolates were confirmed to be M. bovis with RD4 molecular deletion typing. Spoligotyping revealed that 55.6% (5/9) of the isolate patterns had previously been reported, but 44.4% (4/9) of the isolates were new. In the current investigation, it was discovered that 80% (4/5) of the M. bovis strains circulating in the cattle population of study regions were SB2233 (2/5) and SB0134 (2/5), whereas 20% (1/5) of the strains corresponded to SB1176, which is compatible with previously documented M. bovis spoligotypes. These findings suggested that M. bovis was the main cause of bovine tuberculosis in the study area and posed a risk of disease transmission from cattle to humans due to low levels of public health awareness. As such, improved awareness among citizens and the development of control policies are warranted.

Insight into the genetic diversity of Mycobacterium bovis isolated from cattle in Malawi

We describe the genetic diversity and phylogenetic relationships of Mycobacterium bovis, isolated from cattle in Malawi. Deletion analysis, spoligotyping, and MIRU-VNTR typing were used to genotype the isolates. Combined with a larger dataset from neighboring countries, the overall M. bovis diversity in Southern Africa was contextualized. From the southern and northern regions of Malawi, 24 isolates were confirmed as M. bovis. We pooled data for the central region (60 isolates) from our recent publication to conceptualize the genetic and phylogenetic relationships of M. bovis in Malawi. European 1 was the dominant M. bovis clonal complex, with 10 unique spoligotype patterns, and SB0131 was ubiquitous. High genetic diversity, a low clustering rate, and many singletons, coupled with a low mutation transmission index, infer a low level of recent transmission, and suggest an endemic status of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in Malawi. M. bovis isolates from Zambia, Mozambique, and South Africa were genetically related to Malawian isolates, whereas Tanzanian isolates were distantly related. The diversity and phylogenetic analysis suggest earlier introductions and maintenance of M. bovis by constant reinfection from reservoir animals. These findings are fundamental to understanding the source and route of infection in order to establish alternative management strategies for bTB.

Recent progress in the genotyping of bovine tuberculosis and its rapid diagnosis via nanoparticle-based electrochemical biosensors

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is considered a worldwide infectious zoonotic disease. Mycobacterium bovis causes bTB disease. It is one of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) members. MTBC is a clonal complex of close relatives with approximately 99.95% similarity. M. bovis is a spillover pathogen that can transmit from animals to humans and rarely from humans to animals with contact. Genotyping techniques are important to discriminate and differentiate between MTBC species. Spoligotyping and mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable number tandem repeat (MIRU-VNTR) are widely used but they have some limitations. As an alternative, whole genome sequencing approaches have been utilized due to their high-resolution power. They are employed in typing M. bovis and explain the evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships between isolates. The control of bTB disease has attracted a large amount of attention. Rapid and proper diagnosis is necessary for monitoring the disease as an initial step for its control and treatment. Nanotechnology has a potential impact on the rapid diagnosis and treatment of bTB through the use of nanocarrier and metal nanoparticles (NPs). Special attention has been paid to voltammetric and impedimetric electrochemical strategies as facile, sensitive, and selective methods for the efficient detection of tuberculosis. The efficacy of these sensors is enhanced in the presence of NPs, which act as recognition and/or redox probes. Gold, silver, copper, cobalt, graphene, and magnetic NPs, as well as polypyrrole nanowires and multiwalled carbon nanotubes have been employed for detecting tuberculosis. Overall, NP-based electrochemical sensors represent a promising tool for the diagnosis of bTB.

Deciphering the evolution of the temporal and geographic distribution of French Mycobacterium bovis genotypes using a high throughput SNP-targeted amplicon sequencing method

Mycobacterium bovis, which belongs to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex, is a highly clonal pathogen. However, several lineages of M. bovis have been described worldwide and nine different clusters were identified in France. Targeted amplicon sequencing using next-generation sequencing technology of eighty-eight phylogenetically informative single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were used to infer the phylogenetic relationship of 630 strains of the National Reference Laboratory isolated between 1979 and 2018 from various animal species. This study allowed classifying 618 different genotypic profiles (combination of a spoligotype and 8 loci-MIRU-VNTR profiles) into the nine previously identified clusters. A global analysis of the entire collection of the National Reference Laboratory has made it possible to represent the evolution of clonal complexes and clusters in time and space for better assessing epidemiological changes of bovine tuberculosis in France.

Features of Mycobacterium bovis Complete Genomes Belonging to 5 Different Lineages

Mammalian tuberculosis (TB) is a zoonotic disease mainly due to Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis). A current challenge for its eradication is understanding its transmission within multi-host systems. Improvements in long-read sequencing technologies have made it possible to obtain complete bacterial genomes that provide a comprehensive view of species-specific genomic features. In the context of TB, new genomic references based on complete genomes genetically close to field strains are also essential to perform precise field molecular epidemiological studies. A total of 10 M. bovis strains representing each genetic lineage identified in France and in other countries were selected for performing complete assembly of their genomes. Pangenome analysis revealed a "closed" pangenome composed of 3900 core genes and only 96 accessory genes. Whole genomes-based alignment using progressive Mauve showed remarkable conservation of the genomic synteny except that the genomes have a variable number of copies of IS6110. Characteristic genomic traits of each lineage were identified through the discovery of specific indels. Altogether, these results provide new genetic features that improve the description of M. bovis lineages. The availability of new complete representative genomes of M. bovis will be useful to epidemiological studies and better understand the transmission of this clonal-evolving pathogen.

Selective sweep sites and SNP dense regions differentiate Mycobacterium bovis isolates across scales

Mycobacterium bovis, a bacterial zoonotic pathogen responsible for the economically and agriculturally important livestock disease bovine tuberculosis (bTB), infects a broad mammalian host range worldwide. This characteristic has led to bidirectional transmission events between livestock and wildlife species as well as the formation of wildlife reservoirs, impacting the success of bTB control measures. Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) has transformed our ability to understand disease transmission events by tracking variant sites, however the genomic signatures related to host adaptation following spillover, alongside the role of other genomic factors in the M. bovis transmission process are understudied problems. We analyzed publicly available M. bovis datasets collected from 700 hosts across three countries with bTB endemic regions (United Kingdom, United States, and New Zealand) to investigate if genomic regions with high SNP density and/or selective sweep sites play a role in Mycobacterium bovis adaptation to new environments (e.g., at the host-species, geographical, and/or sub-population levels). A simulated M. bovis alignment was created to generate null distributions for defining genomic regions with high SNP counts and regions with selective sweeps evidence. Random Forest (RF) models were used to investigate evolutionary metrics within the genomic regions of interest to determine which genomic processes were the best for classifying M. bovis across ecological scales. We identified in the M. bovis genomes 14 and 132 high SNP density and selective sweep regions, respectively. Selective sweep regions were ranked as the most important in classifying M. bovis across the different scales in all RF models. SNP dense regions were found to have high importance in the badger and cattle specific RF models in classifying badger derived isolates from livestock derived ones. Additionally, the genes detected within these genomic regions harbor various pathogenic functions such as virulence and immunogenicity, membrane structure, host survival, and mycobactin production. The results of this study demonstrate how comparative genomics alongside machine learning approaches are useful to investigate further the nature of M. bovis host-pathogen interactions.

Molecular epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis in Northern Ghana identifies several uncharacterized bovine spoligotypes and suggests possible zoonotic transmission

Objective

We conducted an abattoir-based cross-sectional study in the five administrative regions of Northern Ghana to determine the distribution of bovine tuberculosis (BTB) among slaughtered carcasses and identify the possibility of zoonotic transmission.

Methods

Direct smear microscopy was done on 438 tuberculosis-like lesions from selected cattle organs and cultured on Lowenstein-Jensen media. Acid-fast bacilli (AFB) isolates were confirmed as members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) by PCR amplification of IS6110 and rpoß. Characterization and assignment into MTBC lineage and sub-lineage were done by spoligotyping, with the aid of the SITVIT2, miruvntrplus and mbovis.org databases. Spoligotype data was compared to that of clinical M. bovis isolates from the same regions to identify similarities.

Results

A total of 319/438 (72.8%) lesion homogenates were smear positive out of which, 84.6% (270/319) had microscopic grade of at least 1+ for AFB. Two hundred and sixty-five samples (265/438; 60.5%) were culture positive, of which 212 (80.0%) were MTBC. Approximately 16.7% (34/203) of the isolates with correctly defined spoligotypes were negative for IS6110 PCR but were confirmed by rpoß. Spoligotyping characterized 203 isolates as M. bovis (198, 97.5%), M. caprae (3, 1.5%), M. tuberculosis (Mtbss) lineage (L) 4 Cameroon sub-lineage, (1, 0.5%), and M. africanum (Maf) L6 (1, 0.5%). A total of 53 unique spoligotype patterns were identified across the five administrative regions (33 and 28 were identified as orphan respectively by the SITVIT2 and mbovis.org databases), with the most dominant spoligotype being SIT1037/ SB0944 (77/203, 37.93%). Analysis of the bovine and human M. bovis isolates showed 75% (3/4) human M. bovis isolates sharing the same spoligotype pattern with the bovine isolates.

Conclusion

Our study identified that approximately 29% of M. bovis strains causing BTB in Northern Ghana are caused by uncharacterized spoligotypes. Our findings suggest possible zoonotic transmission and highlight the need for BTB disease control in Northern Ghana.

Spatial distribution of Mycobacterium bovis spoligotypes in cattle from the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil

Genotyping methods have led to a better understanding of the epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) infection, and its transmission dynamics, as well as the possible phylogenetic relationships between Mycobacterium strains, thus making bovine tuberculosis control programs more efficient. The goal of this study was to characterize the main spoligotypes of M. bovis isolated from cattle in the State of Minas Gerais, Brazil. It was carried out in 28 municipalities of "Triângulo Mineiro" and "Alto Paranaíba" regions of the state. Viscera samples were obtained from 58 bovines positive for tuberculosis according to comparative cervical tests, and from another 100 bovines with lesions suggestive of tuberculosis, which were donated by the National Agricultural Laboratory of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais. Microbiological isolation was performed in Stonebrink medium, and molecular identification of mycobacteria was performed by PCR. Genotyping was performed using the spoligotyping method at the Agrobiotechnology and Molecular Biology Institute of National Agricultural Technology Institute-National Scientific and Technical Research Council, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Among the 158 viscera samples, we obtained 40 (25%) isolates of M. bovis, and detected 11 spoligotype patterns, with a predominance of SB1142 (37.5%), SB0121 (25.0%), and SB1145 (10.0%). Other standards, SB0295, SB1050, SB0881, SB1144, SB1802, SB0140, SB0120, and SB0849, varied from 2.5 to 7.5%, heterogeneously distributed among the municipalities. The presence of spoligotypes shared with other Brazilian states and different countries indicates their possible exchange through epidemiological relationships, such as the transit of live animals and/or genetic similarity between strains that share a common ancestor.

Spoligotype analysis of Mycobacterium bovis isolates from cattle and assessment of zoonotic TB transmission among individuals working in bovine TB ‐infected dairy farms in Ethiopia

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a disease with impact on dairy productivity, as well as having the potential for zoonotic transmission. Understanding the genetic diversity of the disease agent Mycobacterium bovis is important for identifying its routes of transmission. Here we investigated the level of genetic diversity of M. bovis isolates and assessed the zoonotic potential in risk groups of people working in bTB‐infected dairy farms in central Ethiopia. M. bovis was isolated and spoligotyped from tissue lesions collected from slaughtered cattle as well as from raw milk collected from bTB positive cows in dairy farms from six urban areas of central Ethiopia. From consented dairy farm workers, knowledge and practices related to zoonotic TB transmission, together with demographic and clinical information, was collected through interviews. Sputum or Fine Needle Aspirate (FNA) samples were collected from suspected TB cases. Spoligotyping of 55 M. bovis isolates that originated either from cattle tissues with tuberculous lesion or from raw milk revealed seven spoligotype patterns where SB1176 was the most prevalent type (47.3%). Most isolates (89.1%) were of the M. bovis African 2 clonal complex. All sputum and FNA samples from 41 dairy farm workers with symptoms of TB were culture negative for any mycobacteria. Among the 41 TB suspected farm workers, 61% did not know about bTB in cattle and its zoonotic potential, and over two‐third of these workers practiced raw milk consumption. Our spoligotype analysis suggests a wider transmission of a single spoligotype in the study area. The results reported here may be useful in guiding future work to identify the source and direction of bTB transmission and hence design of a control strategy. Isolation of M. bovis from milk, knowledge gap on zoonotic TB and practice of consumption of raw milk in the study population showed potential risk for zoonotic transmission.

SITVITBovis—a publicly available database and mapping tool to get an improved overview of animal and human cases caused by Mycobacterium bovis

Limited data are available for bovine tuberculosis and the infections it can cause in humans and other mammals. We therefore constructed a publicly accessible SITVITBovis database that incorporates genotyping and epidemiological data on Mycobacterium bovis. It also includes limited data on Mycobacterium caprae (previously synonymous with the name M. bovis subsp. Caprae) that can infect both animals and humans. SITVITBovis incorporates data on 25,741 isolates corresponding to 60 countries of origin (75 countries of isolation). It reports a total of 1000 spoligotype patterns: 537 spoligotype international types (SITs, containing 25 278 clinical isolates) and 463 orphan patterns, allowing a wide overview of the geographic distribution of various phylogenetical sublineages (BOV_1, BOV_2, BOV_3 and BOV_4-CAPRAE). The SIT identifiers of the SITVITBovis were compared to the SB numbers of the Mbovis.org database to facilitate crosscheck among databases. Note that SITVITBovis also contains limited information on mycobacterial interspersed repetitive units-variable number of tandem repeats when available. Significant differences were observed when comparing age/gender of human isolates as well as various hosts. The database includes information on the regions where a strain was isolated as well as hosts involved, making it possible to see geographic trends. SITVITBovis is publicly accessible at: http://www.pasteur-guadeloupe.fr:8081/SITVIT_Bovis. Finally, a future second version is currently in progress to allow query of associated whole-genome sequencing data.

Database URLhttp://www.pasteur-guadeloupe.fr:8081/SITVIT_Bovis

A new nomenclature for the livestock-associated Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex based on phylogenomics

Background:  The bacteria that compose the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) cause tuberculosis (TB) in humans and in different animals, including livestock. Much progress has been made in understanding the population structure of the human-adapted members of the MTBC by combining phylogenetics with genomics. Accompanying the discovery of new genetic diversity, a body of operational nomenclature has evolved to assist comparative and molecular epidemiological studies of human TB. By contrast, for the livestock-associated MTBC members, Mycobacterium bovis, M. caprae and M. orygis, there has been a lack of comprehensive nomenclature to accommodate new genetic diversity uncovered by emerging phylogenomic studies. We propose to fill this gap by putting forward a new nomenclature covering the main phylogenetic groups within M. bovis, M. caprae and M. orygis. Methods:  We gathered a total of 8,736 whole-genome sequences (WGS) from public sources and 39 newly sequenced strains, and selected a subset of 829 WGS, representative of the worldwide diversity of M. bovis, M. caprae and M. orygis. We used phylogenetics and genetic diversity patterns inferred from WGS to define groups. Results:  We propose to divide M. bovis, M. caprae and M. orygis in three main phylogenetic lineages, which we named La1, La2 and La3, respectively. Within La1, we identified several monophyletic groups, which we propose to classify into eight sublineages (La1.1-La1.8). These sublineages differed in geographic distribution, with some being geographically restricted and others globally widespread, suggesting different expansion abilities. To ease molecular characterization of these MTBC groups by the community, we provide phylogenetically informed, single nucleotide polymorphisms that can be used as barcodes for genotyping. These markers were implemented in KvarQ and TB-Profiler, which are platform-independent, open-source tools. Conclusions:  Our results contribute to an improved classification of the genetic diversity within the livestock-associated MTBC, which will benefit future molecular epidemiological and evolutionary studies.

Inferring Mycobacterium bovis transmission between cattle and badgers using isolates from the Randomised Badger Culling Trial

Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) is a causative agent of bovine tuberculosis, a significant source of morbidity and mortality in the global cattle industry. The Randomised Badger Culling Trial was a field experiment carried out between 1998 and 2005 in the South West of England. As part of this trial, M. bovis isolates were collected from contemporaneous and overlapping populations of badgers and cattle within ten defined trial areas. We combined whole genome sequences from 1,442 isolates with location and cattle movement data, identifying transmission clusters and inferred rates and routes of transmission of M. bovis. Most trial areas contained a single transmission cluster that had been established shortly before sampling, often contemporaneous with the expansion of bovine tuberculosis in the 1980s. The estimated rate of transmission from badger to cattle was approximately two times higher than from cattle to badger, and the rate of within-species transmission considerably exceeded these for both species. We identified long distance transmission events linked to cattle movement, recurrence of herd breakdown by infection within the same transmission clusters and superspreader events driven by cattle but not badgers. Overall, our data suggests that the transmission clusters in different parts of South West England that are still evident today were established by long-distance seeding events involving cattle movement, not by recrudescence from a long-established wildlife reservoir. Clusters are maintained primarily by within-species transmission, with less frequent spill-over both from badger to cattle and cattle to badger.

The open pan-genome architecture and virulence landscape of Mycobacterium bovis

Animal tuberculosis (TB) is an emergent disease caused by Mycobacterium bovis, one of the animal-adapted ecotypes of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTC). In this work, whole-genome comparative analyses of 70 M. bovis were performed to gain insights into the pan-genome architecture. The comparison across M. bovis predicted genome composition enabled clustering into the core- and accessory-genome components, with 2736 CDS for the former, while the accessory moiety included 3897 CDS, of which 2656 are restricted to one/two genomes only. These analyses predicted an open pan-genome architecture, with an average of 32 CDS added by each genome and show the diversification of discrete M. bovis subpopulations supported by both core- and accessory-genome components. The functional annotation of the pan-genome classified each CDS into one or several COG (Clusters of Orthologous Groups) categories, revealing ‘transcription’ (total average CDSs, n=258), ‘lipid metabolism and transport’ (n=242), ‘energy production and conversion’ (n=214) and ‘unknown function’ (n=876) as the most represented. The closer analysis of polymorphisms in virulence-related genes in a restrict group of M. bovis from a multi-host system enabled the identification of clade-monomorphic non-synonymous SNPs, illustrating clade-specific virulence landscapes and correlating with disease severity. This first comparative pan-genome study of a diverse collection of M. bovis encompassing all clonal complexes indicates a high percentage of accessory genes and denotes an open, dynamic non-conservative pan-genome structure, with high evolutionary potential, defying the canons of MTC biology. Furthermore, it shows that M. bovis can shape its virulence repertoire, either by acquisition and loss of genes or by SNP-based diversification, likely towards host immune evasion, adaptation and persistence.

Bacteriological and molecular characterization of Mycobacterium bovis isolates from tuberculous lesions collected among slaughtered cattle, Northwest Ethiopia

Background

In Ethiopia, the distribution of bovine tuberculosis (BTB) has long been known and documented as a major problem of animal health. However, the burden of circulating M. bovis strains is poorly understood in the country. Therefore; this study aimed to identify and characterize the mycobacterial isolates responsible for BTB in Northwest Ethiopia.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted on tuberculous lesions that had been collected from slaughtered cattle between September 2018 to June 2019. Collected lesions were cultured and tested for tuberculous bacilli. The MPT64 assay and Genotype line probe assay (LPA) were used for identification of mycobacterial isolates, and region of deletion 4 (RD4) typing and spoligotyping were used to characterize the M. bovis strains.

Results

Of the total 1458 examined slaughtered cattle, only 62 (4.3, 95%CI; 0.0328–0.0542) had tuberculous lesions. The highest number of gross tuberculous lesions were observed from the lymph nodes of the thoracic cavity; at the mediastinal (40.3%, 25/62) and bronchial (22.6%, 14/62) lymph nodes. Of the 62 collected tuberculous lesions; 18 (29.0%) were culture positive for mycobacterium isolates, and only five isolates were confirmed for M. tuberculosis complex (MTBc) by the MPT64 assay and LPA. All the five MTBc isolates were positive for RD4 typing of M. bovis with a PCR product size of 446 bp, and no isolate was noticed to have M. tuberculosis. The detected M. bovis strains displayed five spoligotypes; with the common SB1176 and SB0133 M. bovis strains, although the two spoligotypes had not been previously reported.

Conclusion

The present study shows that BTB in North Gondar, Ethiopia, is caused by M. bovis strains SB1176 and SB0033, with low frequency. Thus, the finding highlights the importance of continuous surveillance for mycobacterial strains in cattle populations.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12866-021-02349-1.

Genomic analysis of an outbreak of bovine tuberculosis in a man-made multi-host species system: A call for action on wildlife in Brazil

We report on a 15-year-long outbreak of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in wildlife from a Brazilian safari park. A timeline of diagnostic events and whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of 21 Mycobacterium bovis isolates from deer and llamas were analyzed. Accordingly, from 2003 to 2018, at least 16 animals, from eight species, died due to TB, which is likely an underestimated number. In three occasions since 2013, the deer presented positive tuberculin tests, leading to the park closure and culling of all deer. WGS indicated that multiple M. bovis strains were circulating, with at least three founding introductions since the park inauguration in 1977. Using a previously sequenced dataset of 71 M. bovis genomes from cattle, we found no recent transmission events between nearby farms and the park based on WGS. Lastly, by discussing socio-economic and environmental factors escaping current regulatory gaps that were determinant of this outbreak, we pledge for the development of a plan to report and control bTB in wildlife in Brazil.

Genome-wide estimation of recombination, mutation and positive selection enlightens diversification drivers of Mycobacterium bovis

Genome sequencing has reinvigorated the infectious disease research field, shedding light on disease epidemiology, pathogenesis, host-pathogen interactions and also evolutionary processes exerted upon pathogens. Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), enclosing M. bovis as one of its animal-adapted members causing tuberculosis (TB) in terrestrial mammals, is a paradigmatic model of bacterial evolution. As other MTBC members, M. bovis is postulated as a strictly clonal, slowly evolving pathogen, with apparently no signs of recombination or horizontal gene transfer. In this work, we applied comparative genomics to a whole genome sequence (WGS) dataset composed by 70 M. bovis from different lineages (European and African) to gain insights into the evolutionary forces that shape genetic diversification in M. bovis. Three distinct approaches were used to estimate signs of recombination. Globally, a small number of recombinant events was identified and confirmed by two independent methods with solid support. Still, recombination reveals a weaker effect on M. bovis diversity compared with mutation (overall r/m = 0.037). The differential r/m average values obtained across the clonal complexes of M. bovis in our dataset are consistent with the general notion that the extent of recombination may vary widely among lineages assigned to the same taxonomical species. Based on this work, recombination in M. bovis cannot be excluded and should thus be a topic of further effort in future comparative genomics studies for which WGS of large datasets from different epidemiological scenarios across the world is crucial. A smaller M. bovis dataset (n = 42) from a multi-host TB endemic scenario was then subjected to additional analyses, with the identification of more than 1,800 sites wherein at least one strain showed a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). The majority (87.1%) was located in coding regions, with the global ratio of non-synonymous upon synonymous alterations (dN/dS) exceeding 1.5, suggesting that positive selection is an important evolutionary force exerted upon M. bovis. A higher percentage of SNPs was detected in genes enriched into "lipid metabolism", "cell wall and cell processes" and "intermediary metabolism and respiration" functional categories, revealing their underlying importance in M. bovis biology and evolution. A closer look on genes prone to horizontal gene transfer in the MTBC ancestor and included in the 3R (DNA repair, replication and recombination) system revealed a global average negative value for Taijima's D neutrality test, suggesting that past selective sweeps and population expansion after a recent bottleneck remain as major evolutionary drivers of the obligatory pathogen M. bovis in its struggle with the host.

Evaluation of Postmortem Inspection Procedures to Diagnose Bovine Tuberculosis at Debre Birhan Municipal Abattoir

Simple Summary

Tuberculosis is transmitted from animal to human by consuming raw or under cooked meat and milk from infected animals. Careful meat inspection considering all parts of the carcass is very important. However, most abattoirs in Ethiopia are performing only routine meat inspection which does not examine the organs in detail. Failure to do so might result in undetected lesions. In this study, two methods (routine and detailed meat inspections) were compared to inspect carcasses at abattoir level. Our study clearly shows that the routine meat inspection method misses about 89% of the tuberculosis lesions identified by detailed meat inspection. Based on detailed meat inspection, overall 4.7% of lesions suggestive of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) were found in the carcass of cattle slaughtered at Debre Birhan municipality abattoir during the study period. However, the routine meat inspection only detected 0.5% of the carcasses examined as having Tuberclosis (TB) lesions. Anatomically, 66% of the lesions were found in the lungs and associated lymph nodes, 21% in lymph nodes of the head, and 13% in the lymph nodes of the gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, lesion distribution routine and detailed meat inspection and their sensitivity with respect to lesion detection was identified.

Abstract

Routine meat inspection in the abattoir was used to examine carcass for subsequent approval for consumption. However, the chance of missing lesions results in approval of carcass and/or the offal with lesions of tuberculosis. A cross-sectional study was conducted at Debre Birhan Municipal abattoir from October 2016 to May 2017. Lesion prevalence estimation and two meat inspection procedures’ efficacy evaluation was attempted. The breeds of the animals inspected were zebu breeds. Routine abattoir meat inspection involves visual inspection, palpation and incision of intact organs such as the liver and kidneys, as well as inspection, palpation and incision of tracheobronchial, mediastinal and prescapular lymph nodes. The detailed meat inspection involves inspection of each of the carcass. In this case, the seven lobes of the two lungs, lymph nodes and organs were also thoroughly examined. The cut surfaces were examined under bright light sources for the presence of an abscess, cheesy mass, and tubercles in detail. The study involved and compared both routine and detailed meat inspections at the abattoir. Chi-square test of independence and odds ratio were used to see the association of lesion and different risk factors. Based on detailed meat inspection, the overall lesion prevalence of bovine tuberculosis in the carcass of cattle slaughtered at Debre Birhan municipality abattoir was found to be 4.7% but only 0.5% of the carcass examined had detectable bovine tuberculosis lesions when routine abattoir meat inspection alone was used. The majority of the lesions were distributed to the lungs and associated lymph nodes. There was a significant association (p < 0.05) in TB infection rate and body condition score. In conclusion, this study has clearly indicated the prevalence of bovine tuberculosis lesions in the abattoir that are missed by routine abattoir meat inspection. In addition, it showed low sensitivity of the routine meat inspection procedure used. Hence, our study warrants immediate attention to strengthen the current meat inspection practices at Debre Birhan public abattoir.

Whole-Genome SNP Analysis Identifies Putative Mycobacterium bovis Transmission Clusters in Livestock and Wildlife in Catalonia, Spain

The high-resolution WGS analyses of MTBC strains have provided useful insight for determining sources of infection for animal tuberculosis. In Spain, tuberculosis in livestock is caused by Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium caprae, where wildlife reservoirs play an important role. We analyzed a set of 125 M. bovis isolates obtained from livestock and wildlife from Catalonia to investigate strain diversity and identify possible sources and/or causes of infection. Whole-genome SNP profiles were used for phylogenetic reconstruction and pairwise SNP distance analysis. Additionally, SNPs were investigated to identify virulence and antimicrobial resistance factors to investigate clade-specific associations. Putative transmission clusters (≤12 SNPs) were identified, and associated epidemiological metadata were used to determine possible explanatory factors for transmission. M. bovis distribution was heterogeneous, with 7 major clades and 21 putative transmission clusters. In order of importance, the explanatory factors associated were proximity and neighborhood, residual infection, livestock-wildlife interaction, shared pasture, and movement. Genes related to lipid transport and metabolism showed the highest number of SNPs. All isolates were pyrazinamide resistant, and five were additionally resistant to isoniazid, but no clade-specific associations could be determined. Our findings highlight the importance of high-resolution molecular surveillance to monitor bovine tuberculosis dynamics in a low-prevalence setting.

Population structure and transmission of Mycobacterium bovis in Ethiopia

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is endemic in cattle in Ethiopia, a country that hosts the largest national cattle herd in Africa. The intensive dairy sector, most of which is peri-urban, has the highest prevalence of disease. Previous studies in Ethiopia have demonstrated that the main cause is Mycobacterium bovis, which has been investigated using conventional molecular tools including deletion typing, spoligotyping and Mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable number tandem repeat (MIRU-VNTR). Here we use whole-genome sequencing to examine the population structure of M. bovis in Ethiopia. A total of 134 M. bovis isolates were sequenced including 128 genomes from 85 mainly dairy cattle and six genomes isolated from humans, originating from 12 study sites across Ethiopia. These genomes provided a good representation of the previously described population structure of M. bovis, based on spoligotyping and demonstrated that the population is dominated by the clonal complexes African 2 (Af2) and European 3 (Eu3). A range of within-host diversity was observed amongst the isolates and evidence was found for both short- and long-distance transmission. Detailed analysis of available genomes from the Eu3 clonal complex combined with previously published genomes revealed two distinct introductions of this clonal complex into Ethiopia between 1950 and 1987, likely from Europe. This work is important to help better understand bTB transmission in cattle in Ethiopia and can potentially inform national strategies for bTB control in Ethiopia and beyond.

Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis in central parts of Malawi

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a neglected disease that affects cattle and humans. The burden of bTB is higher in developing countries as compared to industrialized countries. The reasons behind this discrepancy include the fact that bTB control measures, such as testing and slaughter of infected cattle and pasteurization of milk, are not usually practised in developing countries largely because of their high cost. To improve our understanding of bTB in developing countries, molecular typing studies are essential, in particular in terms of transmission dynamics, infection sources and knowledge of circulating strains of the principal causative agent, Mycobacterium bovis. In this study, we applied a suite of molecular typing techniques encompassing deletion analysis, spoligotyping and MIRU-VNTR to isolates recovered from samples collected during the routine post-mortem of cattle at the cold storage abattoir in Lilongwe, Malawi. Out of 63 isolates, 51 (81%) belonged to the European 1. M. bovis clonal complex. Spoligotyping identified 8 profiles, with SB0131 being the predominant type (56% of isolates). Spoligotypes SB0273 and SB0425 were identified in 14% and 13%, respectively, of the isolates. MIRU-VNTR showed a high discriminatory power of 0.959 and differentiated the 8 spoligotypes to 31 genotypes. The high diversity of M. bovis within the study area suggests the infection has been circulating in the area for a considerable period of time, likely facilitated by the lack of effective control measures. We also observed genetic similarities between isolates from Malawi (this study) to isolates described in previous studies in Zambia and Mozambique, suggesting transmission links in this region. The information provided by this study provides much needed evidence for the formulation of improved bTB control strategies.

Epidemiology of Bovine Tuberculosis and Its Zoonotic Implication in Addis Ababa Milkshed, Central Ethiopia

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) continues to be one of the most widely distributed chronic infectious diseases of zoonotic importance, which causes a significant economic loss in animal production. A cross-sectional study was conducted to estimate the prevalence of bTB and its associated risk factors and type the Mycobacterium bovis isolated in central Ethiopia. A total of 65 dairy farms and 654 cattle were tested for bTB using a single intradermal comparative cervical tuberculin (SICCT) test. Data on farm management, animal-related characteristics, and the owner's knowledge of the zoonotic importance of bTB were collected using a structured questionnaire. In addition, a total of 16 animals from different farms were identified for postmortem examination. Lowenstein Jensen (LJ) culture was also conducted, and spoligotyping was used to type the M. bovis strains isolated. Chi-square test and logistic regression models were used to analyze the herd- and animal-level risk factors. Herd- and animal-level prevalence rates of bTB were 58.5% (95% CI: 46.2%-69.2%) and 39.3% (95% CI: 35.5%-43.5%), respectively. At the herd level, poor farm management was the predictor for bTB positivity (p < 0.05). Animal breed, poor BCS, farm type, and poor farm management conditions were significant predictors of bTB positivity (p < 0.05) at an individual animal level. All animals identified for postmortem examination were found to have gross TB-like lesions. A total of 14 M. bovis strains were identified from 12 animals that were positive for LJ culture. The strain with the largest number of clusters (five isolates) was SB1176, followed by SB0134 (three isolates), SB0192 (two isolates), and SB2233 (two isolates), and two new strains, each consisting of only one isolate. The majority (58.5%) of the respondents did not know the zoonotic importance of bTB. The result of this study showed a high prevalence of bTB in the Addis Ababa milkshed and a low level of consciousness of the owners on its transmission to humans. Therefore, the launching of acceptable control measures of bTB and the creation of public awareness about its zoonotic transmission and prevention measures are required.

Genetic Diversity and Potential Paths of Transmission of Mycobacterium bovis in the Amazon: The Discovery of M. bovis Lineage Lb1 Circulating in South America

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) has yet to be eradicated in Brazil. Herds of cattle and buffalo are important sources of revenue to people living in the banks of the Amazon River basin. A better understanding of Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) populational structure and transmission dynamics affecting these animals can significantly contribute in efforts to improve their sanitary status. Herein, we sequenced the whole genome of 22 M. bovis isolates (15 from buffalo and 7 from cattle) from 10 municipalities in the region of the Lower Amazon River Basin in Brazil and performed phylogenomic analysis and Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)-based transmission inference to evaluate population structure and transmission networks. Additionally, we compared these genomes to others obtained in unrelated studies in the Marajó Island (n = 15) and worldwide (n = 128) to understand strain diversity in the Amazon and to infer M. bovis lineages. Our results show a higher genomic diversity of M. bovis genomes obtained in the Lower Amazon River region when compared to the Marajó Island, while no significant difference was observed between M. bovis genomes obtained from cattle and buffalo (p ≥ 0.05). This high genetic diversity is reflected by the weak phylogenetic clustering of M. bovis from the Lower Amazon River region based on geographic proximity and in the detection of only two putative transmission clusters in the region. One of these clusters is the first description of inter-species transmission between cattle and buffalo in the Amazon, bringing implications to the bTB control program. Surprisingly, two M. bovis lineages were detected in our dataset, namely Lb1 and Lb3, constituting the first description of Lb1 in South America. Most of the strains of this study (13/22) and all 15 strains of the Marajó Island carried no clonal complex marker, suggesting that the recent lineage classification better describe the diversity of M. bovis in the Amazon.

Long-term molecular surveillance provides clues on a cattle origin for Mycobacterium bovis in Portugal

Animal tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis, is maintained in Portugal in a multi-host system, with cattle, red deer and wild boar, playing a central role. However, the ecological processes driving transmission are not understood. The main aim of this study was thus to contribute to the reconstruction of the spatiotemporal history of animal TB and to refine knowledge on M. bovis population structure in order to inform novel intervention strategies. A collection of 948 M. bovis isolates obtained during long-term surveillance (2002–2016, 15 years) of cattle (n = 384), red deer (n = 303) and wild boar (n = 261), from the main TB hotspot areas, was characterized by spoligotyping and 8 to 12-loci MIRU-VNTR. Spoligotyping identified 64 profiles and MIRU-VNTR distinguished 2 to 36 subtypes within each spoligotype, enabling differentiation of mixed or clonal populations. Common genotypic profiles within and among livestock and wildlife in the same spatiotemporal context highlighted epidemiological links across hosts and regions, as for example the SB0119-M205 genotype shared by cattle in Beja district or SB0121-M34 shared by the three hosts in Castelo Branco and Beja districts. These genomic data, together with metadata, were integrated in a Bayesian inference framework, identifying five ancestral M. bovis populations. The phylogeographic segregation of M. bovis in specific areas of Portugal where the disease persists locally is postulated. Concurrently, robust statistics indicates an association of the most probable ancient population with cattle and Beja, providing a clue on the origin of animal TB epidemics. This relationship was further confirmed through a multinomial probability model that assessed the influence of host species on spatiotemporal clustering. Two significant clusters were identified, one that persisted between 2004 and 2010, in Beja district, with Barrancos county at the centre, overlapping the central TB core area of the Iberian Peninsula, and highlighting a significant higher risk associated to cattle. The second cluster was predominant in the 2012–2016 period, holding the county Rosmaninhal at the centre, in Castelo Branco district, for which wild boar contributed the most in relative risk. These results provide novel quantitative insights beyond empirical perceptions, that may inform adaptive TB control choices in different regions.

Genotype Diversity of Mycobacterium bovis and Pathology of Bovine Tuberculosis in Selected Emerging Dairy Regions of Ethiopia

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is endemic in Ethiopia with higher prevalence in cattle, particularly in the central parts. Spread of Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis) to wider regions is inevitable in uncontrolled conditions. This study was conducted to explore the pathology, characterize M. bovis strains, and describe genotypic diversity to demonstrate possible epidemiological links in emerging dairy areas of Ethiopia, namely, Mekelle and Gondar. Twenty-seven bTB positive cattle identified by the Single Intradermal Comparative Cervical Tuberculin (SICCT) test were subjected to post-mortem inspection to determine lesion distribution and pathological score. Samples from tissues with visible tuberculous or suspected non-visible lesions were processed and cultured following a standard protocol. Isolates identified as M. bovis by Region of Difference (RD)-based Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) were also spoligotyped to determine their spoligotype patterns. Post-mortem inspection of visceral organs indicated bTB suggestive lesions in 41% of the animals, with 25% being in the lungs. Lymph nodes from 77% of the animals had lesions. Fifty-five isolates identified from 24 of the slaughtered animals were confirmed as M. bovis. No other mycobacterial species were isolated. Spoligotyping classified strains from 21 of these animals into seven spoligotype patterns: SB0133, SB0134, SB1176, SB2233, SB2290, SB2467, and SB2520. More than one spoligotype were identified from five of these animals, and none of the last four spoligotypes had been reported in Ethiopia before. SB0134 was the most predominant type (47%) followed by SB0133 (25.5%). SB0133, SB2290, SB2467, and SB1176 are spoligotypes lacking spacers 3–7, characteristics of M. bovis strains of the African 2 (Af2) clonal complex, while SB0134, SB2233, and SB2520 do not belong to any of the established clonal complexes and likely to have a different evolutionary history. Despite a small sample size, the present study showed strain diversity with multiple genotypes identified in a single herd and even within a single animal, and the genotypes showed no sign of geographical localization, which could be a consequence of significant movement of bTB diseased cattle around the country, spreading the disease. Therefore, any future control programme of bTB in Ethiopia needs to address the risks of cattle movement.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex in wildlife: Review of current applications of antemortem and postmortem diagnosis

Tuberculosis (TB) is a chronic inflammatory and zoonotic disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) members, which affects various domestic animals, wildlife, and humans. Some wild animals serve as reservoir hosts in the transmission and epidemiology of the disease. Therefore, the monitoring and surveillance of both wild and domestic hosts are critical for prevention and control strategies. For TB diagnosis, the single intradermal tuberculin test or the single comparative intradermal tuberculin test, and the gamma-interferon test, which is regarded as an ancillary test, are used. Postmortem examination can identify granulomatous lesions compatible with a diagnosis of TB. In contrast, smears of the lesions can be stained for acid-fast bacilli, and samples of the affected organs can be subjected to histopathological analyses. Culture is the gold standard test for isolating mycobacterial bacilli because it has high sensitivity and specificity compared with other methods. Serology for antibody detection allows the testing of many samples simply, rapidly, and inexpensively, and the protocol can be standardized in different laboratories. Molecular biological analyses are also applicable to trace the epidemiology of the disease. In conclusion, reviewing the various techniques used in MTBC diagnosis can help establish guidelines for researchers when choosing a particular diagnostic method depending on the situation at hand, be it disease outbreaks in wildlife or for epidemiological studies. This is because a good understanding of various diagnostic techniques will aid in monitoring and managing emerging pandemic threats of infectious diseases from wildlife and also preventing the potential spread of zoonotic TB to livestock and humans. This review aimed to provide up-to-date information on different techniques used for diagnosing TB at the interfaces between wildlife, livestock, and humans.

Global Distribution and Evolution of Mycobacterium bovis Lineages

Mycobacterium bovis is the main causative agent of zoonotic tuberculosis in humans and frequently devastates livestock and wildlife worldwide. Previous studies suggested the existence of genetic groups of M. bovis strains based on limited DNA markers (a.k.a. clonal complexes), and the evolution and ecology of this pathogen has been only marginally explored at the global level. We have screened over 2,600 publicly available M. bovis genomes and newly sequenced four wildlife M. bovis strains, gathering 1,969 genomes from 23 countries and at least 24 host species, including humans, to complete a phylogenomic analyses. We propose the existence of four distinct global lineages of M. bovis (Lb1, Lb2, Lb3, and Lb4) underlying the current disease distribution. These lineages are not fully represented by clonal complexes and are dispersed based on geographic location rather than host species. Our data divergence analysis agreed with previous studies reporting independent archeological data of ancient M. bovis (South Siberian infected skeletons at ∼2,000 years before present) and indicates that extant M. bovis originated between 715 and 3,556 years BP, with later emergence in the New World and Oceania, likely influenced by trades among countries.

Mycobacterium bovis: From Genotyping to Genome Sequencing

Mycobacterium bovis is the main pathogen of bovine, zoonotic, and wildlife tuberculosis. Despite the existence of programs for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) control in many regions, the disease remains a challenge for the veterinary and public health sectors, especially in developing countries and in high-income nations with wildlife reservoirs. Current bTB control programs are mostly based on test-and-slaughter, movement restrictions, and post-mortem inspection measures. In certain settings, contact tracing and surveillance has benefited from M. bovis genotyping techniques. More recently, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) has become the preferential technique to inform outbreak response through contact tracing and source identification for many infectious diseases. As the cost per genome decreases, the application of WGS to bTB control programs is inevitable moving forward. However, there are technical challenges in data analyses and interpretation that hinder the implementation of M. bovis WGS as a molecular epidemiology tool. Therefore, the aim of this review is to describe M. bovis genotyping techniques and discuss current standards and challenges of the use of M. bovis WGS for transmission investigation, surveillance, and global lineages distribution. We compiled a series of associated research gaps to be explored with the ultimate goal of implementing M. bovis WGS in a standardized manner in bTB control programs.

The complete genome sequence of Mycobacterium bovis Mb3601, a SB0120 spoligotype strain representative of a new clonal group

Mycobacterium bovis strain Mb3601 was isolated from the lymph node of an infected bovine in a bovine tuberculosis highly enzoonotic area of Burgundy, France. It was selected to obtain a complete genome for a new clonal complex, mainly constituted by SB0120-spoligotype strains that we propose to name "European 3". It was recently described as "clonal group I" based on whole-genome SNP analysis of 87 French strains. Here we describe the 4,365,068 bp complete genome obtained by the combination of PacBio and Illumina technologies. This genome of 65.64% G + C content includes 4024 predicted protein-coding genes, 52 tRNA, 3 rRNA and 11 copies of IS6110.

Phylogenomic Perspective on a Unique Mycobacterium bovis Clade Dominating Bovine Tuberculosis Infections among Cattle and Buffalos in Northern Brazil

Lack of routine surveillance in countries endemic for bovine tuberculosis (TB) and limited laboratory support contributes to the inability to differentiate the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex species, leading to an underestimated burden of the disease. Here, Whole-Genome Sequencing of Mycobacterium bovis isolated from tissues with TB-like lesions obtained from cattle and buffalos at Marajó Island, Brazil, demonstrates that recent transmission of M. bovis is ongoing at distinct sites. Moreover, the M. bovis epidemiology in this setting is herein found to be dominated by an endemic and unique clade composed of strains evolved from a common ancestor that are now genetically differentiated from other M. bovis clades. Additionally, envisioning a rapid strain differentiation and tracing across multiple settings, 28 globally validated strain-specific SNPs were identified, three of which considered as robust markers for the M. bovis Marajó strain. In conclusion, this study contributes with data regarding the identification of a novel M. bovis phylogenetic clade responsible for ongoing transmission events in both cattle and buffalo species in Brazil, provides a framework to investigate the dissemination of this highly prevalent strain and, holds the potential to inform TB control strategies that may help to prevent the spread of bovine and zoonotic TB.

An African origin for Mycobacterium bovis

Background and objectives

Mycobacterium bovis and Mycobacterium caprae are two of the most important agents of tuberculosis in livestock and the most important causes of zoonotic tuberculosis in humans. However, little is known about the global population structure, phylogeography and evolutionary history of these pathogens.

Methodology

We compiled a global collection of 3364 whole-genome sequences from M.bovis and M.caprae originating from 35 countries and inferred their phylogenetic relationships, geographic origins and age.

Results

Our results resolved the phylogenetic relationship among the four previously defined clonal complexes of M.bovis, and another eight newly described here. Our phylogeographic analysis showed that M.bovis likely originated in East Africa. While some groups remained restricted to East and West Africa, others have subsequently dispersed to different parts of the world.

Conclusions and implications

Our results allow a better understanding of the global population structure of M.bovis and its evolutionary history. This knowledge can be used to define better molecular markers for epidemiological investigations of M.bovis in settings where whole-genome sequencing cannot easily be implemented.

Lay summary

During the last few years, analyses of large globally representative collections of whole-genome sequences (WGS) from the human-adapted Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) lineages have enhanced our understanding of the global population structure, phylogeography and evolutionary history of these pathogens. In contrast, little corresponding data exists for M. bovis, the most important agent of tuberculosis in livestock. Using whole-genome sequences of globally distributed M. bovis isolates, we inferred the genetic relationships among different M. bovis genotypes distributed around the world. The most likely origin of M. bovis is East Africa according to our inferences. While some M. bovis groups remained restricted to East and West Africa, others have subsequently dispersed to different parts of the world driven by cattle movements.

Genomic Polymorphism Associated with the Emergence of Virulent Isolates of Mycobacterium bovis in the Nile Delta

Mycobacterium bovis is responsible for bovine tuberculosis in both animals and humans. Despite being one of the most important global zoonotic disease, data related to the ecology and pathogenicity of bovine tuberculosis is scarce, especially in developing countries. In this report, we examined the dynamics of M. bovis transmission among dairy cattle in the Nile Delta of Egypt. Animals belonging to 27 herds from 7 governorates were tested by the Single Intradermal Comparative Skin Tuberculin (SICST), as a preliminary screen for the presence of bovine tuberculosis. Positive SICST reactors were identified in 3% of the animals spread among 40% of the examined herds. Post-mortem examination of slaughtered reactors confirmed the presence of both pulmonary and/or digestive forms of tuberculosis in > 50% of the examined animals. Targeted and whole-genome analysis of M. bovis isolates indicated the emergences of a predominant spoligotype (SB0268) between 2013–2015, suggesting a recent clonal spread of this isolate within the Nile Delta. Surprisingly, 2 isolates belonged to M. bovis BCG group, which are not allowed for animal vaccination in Egypt, while the rest of isolates belonged to the virulent M. bovis clonal complex European 2 present in Latin America and several European countries. Analysis of strain virulence in the murine model of tuberculosis indicated the emergence of a more virulent strain (MBE4) with a specific genotype. More analysis is needed to understand the molecular basis for successful spread of virulent isolates of bovine tuberculosis among animals and to establish genotype/phenotype association.

Identification of clonal complexes of Mycobacterium bovis in Brazil

Bovine tuberculosis is a disease that is widely distributed around the world. Its causative agent, Mycobacterium bovis, has characteristics of a microorganism with clonal multiplication in populations with no evidence of genetic exchange between strains, and, consequently, a group of strains can be identified as descending from a common ancestor. The aim of this study was to investigate the clonal complexes of M. bovis isolated from samples of lesions suggestive of bovine tuberculosis collected from slaughterhouses in various states of Brazil between 2006 and 2012. Ninety samples were analyzed, and it was found that 14.4% belonged to the clonal complex European1 and 81.1% to the clonal complex European2, while 4.65% were not identified as any of the four known complexes.

Wild Animal Tuberculosis: Stakeholder Value Systems and Management of Disease

When human health is put at risk from the transmission of animal diseases, the options for intervention often require input from stakeholders whose differing values systems contribute to decisions on disease management. Animal tuberculosis (TB), caused principally by Mycobacterium bovis is an archetypical zoonotic pathogen in that it can be transmitted from animals to humans and vice versa. Although elimination of zoonotic transmission of TB to humans is frequently promoted as the raison d'être for TB management in livestock, in many countries the control strategies are more likely based on minimizing the impact of sustained infection on the agricultural industry. Where wild animals are implicated in the epidemiology of the disease, the options for control and eradication can require involvement of additional stakeholder groups. Conflict can arise when different monetary and/or societal values are assigned to the affected animals. This may impose practical and ethical dilemmas for decision makers where one or more species of wild animal is seen by some stakeholders to have a greater value than the affected livestock. Here we assess the role of stakeholder values in influencing TB eradication strategies in a number of countries including Ireland, the UK, the USA, Spain, France, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. What it reveals is that the level of stakeholder involvement increases with the complexity of the epidemiology, and that similar groups of stakeholders may agree to a set of control and eradication measures in one region only to disagree with applying the same measures in another. The level of consensus depends on the considerations of the reservoir status of the infected host, the societal values assigned to each species, the type of interventions proposed, ethical issues raised by culling of sentient wild animals, and the economic cost benefit effectiveness of dealing with the problem in one or more species over a long time frame. While there is a societal benefit from controlling TB, the means to achieve this requires identification and long-term engagement with all key stakeholders in order to reach agreement on ethical frameworks that prioritize and justify control options, particularly where culling of wild animals is concerned.

Genetic profiling of Mycobacterium bovis strains from slaughtered cattle in Eritrea

Mycobacterium bovis (M.bovis) is the main causative agent for bovine tuberculosis (BTB) and can also be the cause of zoonotic tuberculosis in humans. In view of its zoonotic nature, slaughterhouse surveillance, potentially resulting in total or partial condemnation of the carcasses and organs, is conducted routinely. Spoligotyping, VNTR profiling, and whole genome sequencing (WGS) of M. bovis isolated from tissues with tuberculosis-like lesions collected from 14 cattle at Eritrea’s largest slaughterhouse in the capital Asmara, were conducted.The 14 M. bovis isolates were classified into three different spoligotype patterns (SB0120, SB0134 and SB0948) and six VNTR profiles. WGS results matched those of the conventional genotyping methods and further discriminated the six VNTR profiles into 14 strains. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis of the M. bovis isolates suggests two independent introductions of BTB into Eritrea possibly evolving from a common ancestral strain in Europe.This molecular study revealed the most important strains of M. bovis in Eritrea and their (dis)similarities with the strains generally present in East Africa and Europe, as well as potential routes of introduction of M. bovis. Though the sample size is small, the current study provides important information as well as platform for future in-depth molecular studies on isolates from both the dairy and the traditional livestock sectors in Eritrea and the region. This study provides information onthe origin of some of the M. bovis strains in Eritrea, its genetic diversity, evolution and patterns of spread between dairy herds. Such information is essential in the development and implementation of future BTB control strategy for Eritrea.

The livestock sector plays a major role in poverty and hunger reduction in the vast majority of Africa, as a source of food, cash income, manure, draught power, transportation, savings, insurance and social status. However, for livestock to play this vital role, the impact of diseases of economic and zoonotic importance need to be reduced. Bovine tuberculosis, mainly caused by Mycobacterium bovis, is such an infectious disease. Slaughterhouse (gross pathology) surveillance, followed by bacterial culture and genotyping, are options to identify the disease-causing agents, their distribution, and enabling trace back of the sources of infections, in order to prevent their re-introduction and spread. Unfortunately, genotyping is by far not generally introduced in the continent. In the present study, tissues with tuberculosis-like lesions were collected from the Asmara municipal slaughterhouse, the largest slaughterhouse in Eritrea, and bacterial culture, classical Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex typing (Spoligotyping and VNTR profiling), as well as whole genome sequencing (WGS) were used to gain insight into the spatial and temporal distribution, genetic diversity and evolution of M. bovis strains circulating in Eritrean dairy cattle. The results revealed (dis)similarities of the Eritrean M. bovis strains with the strains generally present in Africa and Europe, potential routes of introduction to Eritrea and genetic diversity of the M. bovis strains. Future in-depth molecular studies including more samples from dairy cattle as well as cattle and goats from the traditional livestock sector are recommended.

Genetic diversity and potential routes of transmission of Mycobacterium bovis in Mozambique

Bovine tuberculosis is a zoonotic disease with largely unknown impact in Africa, with risk factors such as HIV and direct contact with animals or consumption of Mycobacterium bovis infected animal products. In order to understand and quantify this risk and design intervention strategies, good epidemiological studies are needed. Such studies can include molecular typing of M. bovis isolates. The aim of this study was to apply these tools to provide novel information concerning the distribution of bovine tuberculosis in cattle in Mozambique and thereby provide relevant information to guide policy development and strategies to contain the disease in livestock, and reduce the risk associated with transmission to humans. A collection of 178 M. bovis isolates was obtained from cattle in Mozambique. Using spoligotyping and regions of difference analysis, we classified the isolates into clonal complexes, thus reporting the first characterisation of M. bovis strains in this region. Data from MIRU-VNTR typing was used to compare isolates from a number of African countries, revealing a deeply geographically structured diversity of M. bovis. Eastern Africa appears to show high diversity, suggesting deep evolution in that region. The diversity of M. bovis in Africa does not seem to be a function of recent importation of animals, but is probably maintained within each particular region by constant reinfection from reservoir animals. Understanding the transmission routes of M. bovis in Mozambique and elsewhere is essential in order to focus public health and veterinary resources to contain bovine tuberculosis.

Bovine tuberculosis is a rather neglected zoonotic disease caused by Mycobacterium bovis that is of global concern owing to the persistence of the bacillus in reservoirs that can spread bovine tuberculosis between animals and humans. Africa remains understudied regarding this pathogen, and should be an area of concern given that in many regions the consumption of raw milk or meat from infected animals persists and the presence of HIV infection renders the population more susceptible. In order to control the disease, we need to understand M. bovis epidemiology, which includes the sources of infection. The important conclusion drawn from the work presented here is that there is a strong association between M. bovis genetic characteristics and geography. This implies that the diversity of M. bovis isolates in Mozambique does not seem to be caused by recent introductions to the territory, but is probably maintained within reservoirs in each particular region.

Whole genome sequencing of the monomorphic pathogen Mycobacterium bovis reveals local differentiation of cattle clinical isolates

Background

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) poses serious risks to animal welfare and economy, as well as to public health as a zoonosis. Its etiological agent, Mycobacterium bovis, belongs to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), a group of genetically monomorphic organisms featured by a remarkably high overall nucleotide identity (99.9%). Indeed, this characteristic is of major concern for correct typing and determination of strain-specific traits based on sequence diversity. Due to its historical economic dependence on cattle production, Uruguay is deeply affected by the prevailing incidence of Mycobacterium bovis. With the world’s highest number of cattle per human, and its intensive cattle production, Uruguay represents a particularly suited setting to evaluate genomic variability among isolates, and the diversity traits associated to this pathogen.

Results

We compared 186 genomes from MTBC strains isolated worldwide, and found a highly structured population in M. bovis. The analysis of 23 new M. bovis genomes, belonging to strains isolated in Uruguay evidenced three groups present in the country. Despite presenting an expected highly conserved genomic structure and sequence, these strains segregate into a clustered manner within the worldwide phylogeny. Analysis of the non-pe/ppe differential areas against a reference genome defined four main sources of variability, namely: regions of difference (RD), variable genes, duplications and novel genes. RDs and variant analysis segregated the strains into clusters that are concordant with their spoligotype identities. Due to its high homoplasy rate, spoligotyping failed to reflect the true genomic diversity among worldwide representative strains, however, it remains a good indicator for closely related populations.

Conclusions

This study introduces a comprehensive population structure analysis of worldwide M. bovis isolates. The incorporation and analysis of 23 novel Uruguayan M. bovis genomes, sheds light onto the genomic diversity of this pathogen, evidencing the existence of greater genetic variability among strains than previously contemplated.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-017-4249-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Complete Genome Sequencing of Mycobacterium bovis SP38 and Comparative Genomics of Mycobacterium bovis and M. tuberculosis Strains

Mycobacterium bovis causes bovine tuberculosis and is the main organism responsible for zoonotic tuberculosis in humans. We performed the sequencing, assembly and annotation of a Brazilian strain of M. bovis named SP38, and performed comparative genomics of M. bovis genomes deposited in GenBank. M. bovis SP38 has a traditional tuberculous mycobacterium genome of 4,347,648 bp, with 65.5% GC, and 4,216 genes. The majority of CDSs (2,805, 69.3%) have predictive function, while 1,206 (30.07%) are hypothetical. For comparative analysis, 31 M. bovis, 32 M. bovis BCG, and 23 Mycobacterium tuberculosis genomes available in GenBank were selected. M. bovis RDs (regions of difference) and Clonal Complexes (CC) were identified in silico. Genome dynamics of bacterial groups were analyzed by gene orthology and polymorphic sites identification. M. bovis polymorphic sites were used to construct a phylogenetic tree. Our RD analyses resulted in the exclusion of three genomes, mistakenly annotated as virulent M. bovis. M. bovis SP38 along with strain 35 represent the first report of CC European 2 in Brazil, whereas two other M. bovis strains failed to be classified within current CC. Results of M. bovis orthologous genes analysis suggest a process of genome remodeling through genomic decay and gene duplication. Quantification, pairwise comparisons and distribution analyses of polymorphic sites demonstrate greater genetic variability of M. tuberculosis when compared to M. bovis and M. bovis BCG (p ≤ 0.05), indicating that currently defined M. tuberculosis lineages are more genetically diverse than M. bovis CC and animal-adapted MTC (M. tuberculosis Complex) species. As expected, polymorphic sites annotation shows that M. bovis BCG are subjected to different evolutionary pressures when compared to virulent mycobacteria. Lastly, M. bovis phylogeny indicates that polymorphic sites may be used as markers of M. bovis lineages in association with CC. Our findings highlight the need to better understand host-pathogen co-evolution in genetically homogeneous and/or diverse host populations, considering the fact that M. bovis has a broader host range when compared to M. tuberculosis. Also, the identification of M. bovis genomes not classified within CC indicates that the diversity of M. bovis lineages may be larger than previously thought or that current classification should be reviewed.

Molecular characterization of bovine tuberculosis strains in two slaughterhouses in Morocco

BACKGROUND

Bovine tuberculosis (BTB) is caused by Mycobacterium bovis, which belongs to the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. Mycobacterium bovis have been described to be responsible of most cases of bovine tuberculosis. Although M. tuberculosis, M. africanum and non-complex mycobacteria were isolated from cattle. In Morocco, so far, no molecular studies were conducted to characterize the strains responsible of BTB. The present study aims to characterize M. bovis in Morocco. The present study was conducted in slaughterhouses in Rabat and El Jadida. Samples were collected from 327 slaughtered animals with visible lesions suggesting BTB.

RESULTS

A total of 225 isolates yielded cultures, 95% (n = 215) of them were acid-fast (AF). Sixty eight per cent of the AF positive samples were confirmed as tuberculous mycobacteria (n = 147), 99% of these (n = 146) having RD9 and among the latter, 98% (n = 143) positive while 2% (n = 3) negative for RD4 A total of 134 samples were analyzed by spoligotyping of which 14 were in cluster and with 41 different spoligotypes, ten of them were new patterns (23%). The most prevalent spoligotypes were SB0121, SB0265, and SB0120, and were already identified in many other countries, such as Algeria, Spain, Tunisia, the United States and Argentina.

CONCLUSION

The shared borders between Algeria and Morocco, in addition to the previous importation of cattle from Europe and the US could explain the similarities found in M. bovis spoligotypes. On the other hand, the desert of Morocco could be considered as an efficient barrier preventing the introduction of BTB to Morocco from West Central and East Africa. Our findings suggest a low level endemic transmission of BTB similar to other African countries. However, more research is needed for further knowledge about the transmission patterns of BTB in Morocco.

Molecular epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis in Cameroon

We describe the largest molecular epidemiological study of Bovine Tuberculosis (bTB) in a sub-Saharan African country with higher spatial resolution providing new insights into bTB. Four hundred and ninety-nine samples were collected for culture from 201 and 179 cattle with and without bTB-like lesions respectively out of 2,346 cattle slaughtered at Bamenda, Ngaoundere, Garoua and Maroua abattoirs between 2012–2013. Two hundred and fifty-five M. bovis were isolated, identified and genotyped using deletion analysis, Hain® Genotype MTBC, spoligotyping and MIRU-VNTR. African 1 was the dominant M. bovis clonal complex, with 97 unique genotypes including 19 novel spoligotypes representing the highest M. bovis genetic diversity observed in Africa to date. SB0944 and SB0953 dominated (63%) the observed spoligotypes. A third of animals with multiple lesions had multiple strain infections. Higher diversity but little evidence of recent transmission of M. bovis was more common in Adamawa compared to the North-West Region. The Adamawa was characterised by a high frequency of singletons possibly due to constant additions from an active livestock movement network compared to the North-West Region where a local expansion was more evident. The latter combined with population-based inferences suggest an unstable and stable bTB-endemic status in the North-West and Adamawa Regions respectively.

Isolation and Potential for Transmission of Mycobacterium bovis at Human-livestock-wildlife Interface of the Serengeti Ecosystem, Northern Tanzania

Mycobacterium bovis, the causative agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB), is a multihost pathogen of public health and veterinary importance. We characterized the M. bovis isolated at the human-livestock-wildlife interface of the Serengeti ecosystem to determine the epidemiology and risk of cross-species transmission between interacting hosts species. DNA was extracted from mycobacterial cultures obtained from sputum samples of 472 tuberculosis (TB) suspected patients and tissue samples from 606 livestock and wild animal species. M. bovis isolates were characterized using spoligotyping and Mycobacterial Interspersed Repetitive Units-Variable Tandem Repeats (MIRU-VNTR) on 24 loci. Only 5 M. bovis were isolated from the cultured samples. Spoligotyping results revealed that three M. bovis isolates from two buffaloes (Syncerus caffer) and 1 African civet (Civettictis civetta) belonged to SB0133 spoligotype. The two novel strains (AR1 and AR2) assigned as spoligotype SB2290 and SB2289, respectively, were identified from indigenous cattle (Bos indicus). No M. bovis was detected from patients with clinical signs consistent with TB. Of the 606 animal tissue specimens and sputa of 472 TB-suspected patients 43 (7.09%) and 12 (2.9%), respectively, yielded non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM), of which 20 isolates were M. intracellulare. No M. avium was identified. M. bovis isolates from wildlife had 45.2% and 96.8% spoligotype pattern agreement with AR1 and AR2 strains, respectively. This finding indicates that bTB infections in wild animals and cattle were epidemiologically related. Of the 24 MIRU-VNTR loci, QUB 11b showed the highest discrimination among the M. bovis strains. The novel strains obtained in this study have not been previously reported in the area, but no clear evidence for recent cross-species transmission of M. bovis was found between human, livestock and wild animals.

The Evolution of Strain Typing in the Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex

Tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious disease with a complex epidemiology. Therefore, molecular typing (genotyping) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) strains is of primary importance to effectively guide outbreak investigations, define transmission dynamics and assist global epidemiological surveillance of the disease. Large-scale genotyping is also needed to get better insights into the biological diversity and the evolution of the pathogen. Thanks to its shorter turnaround and simple numerical nomenclature system, mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit-variable-number tandem repeat (MIRU-VNTR) typing, based on 24 standardized plus 4 hypervariable loci, optionally combined with spoligotyping, has replaced IS6110 DNA fingerprinting over the last decade as a gold standard among classical strain typing methods for many applications. With the continuous progress and decreasing costs of next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, typing based on whole genome sequencing (WGS) is now increasingly performed for near complete exploitation of the available genetic information. However, some important challenges remain such as the lack of standardization of WGS analysis pipelines, the need of databases for sharing WGS data at a global level, and a better understanding of the relevant genomic distances for defining clusters of recent TB transmission in different epidemiological contexts. This chapter provides an overview of the evolution of genotyping methods over the last three decades, which culminated with the development of WGS-based methods. It addresses the relative advantages and limitations of these techniques, indicates current challenges and potential directions for facilitating standardization of WGS-based typing, and provides suggestions on what method to use depending on the specific research question.

Molecular Epidemiology of Mycobacterium bovis in Humans and Cattle

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB), caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis), is a serious re-emerging disease in both animals and humans. The evolution of the Multi- and Extensively drug-resistant M. bovis strains (MDR-TB and XDR-TB) represents a global threat to public health. Worldwide, the disease is responsible for great economic losses in the veterinary field, serious threat to the ecosystem, and about 3.1% of human TB cases, up to 16% in Tanzania. Only thorough investigation to understand the pathogen's epidemiology can help in controlling the disease and minimizing its threat. For this purpose, various tools have been developed for use in advanced molecular epidemiological studies of bTB, either alone or in combination with standard conventional epidemiological approaches. These techniques enable the analysis of the intra- and inter-species transmission dynamics of bTB. The delivered data can reveal detailed insights into the source of infection, correlations among human and bovine isolates, strain diversity and evolution, spread, geographical localization, host preference, tracing of certain virulence factors such as antibiotic resistance genes, and finally the risk factors for the maintenance and spread of M. bovis. They also allow for the determination of epidemic and endemic strains. This, in turn, has a significant diagnostic impact and helps in vaccine development for bTB eradication programs. The present review discusses many topics including the aetiology, epidemiology and importance of M. bovis, the prevalence of bTB in humans and animals in various countries, the molecular epidemiology of M. bovis, and finally applied molecular epidemiological techniques.

Mycobacterial Pathogenomics and Evolution

Most mycobacterial species are harmless saprophytes, often found in aquatic environments. A few species seem to have evolved from this pool of environmental mycobacteria into major human pathogens, such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the agent of tuberculosis, Mycobacterium leprae, the leprosy bacillus, and Mycobacterium ulcerans, the agent of Buruli ulcer. While the pathogenicity of M. ulcerans relates to the acquisition of a large plasmid encoding a polyketide-derived toxin, the molecular mechanisms by which M. leprae or M. tuberculosis have evolved to cause disease are complex and involve the interaction between the pathogen and the host. Here we focus on M. tuberculosis and closely related mycobacteria and discuss insights gained from recent genomic and functional studies. Comparison of M. tuberculosis genome data with sequences from nontuberculous mycobacteria, such as Mycobacterium marinum or Mycobacterium kansasii, provides a perception of the more distant evolution of M. tuberculosis, while the recently accomplished genome sequences of multiple tubercle bacilli with smooth colony morphology, named Mycobacterium canettii, have allowed the ancestral gene pool of tubercle bacilli to be estimated. The resulting findings are instrumental for our understanding of the pathogenomic evolution of tuberculosis-causing mycobacteria. Comparison of virulent and attenuated members of the M. tuberculosis complex has further contributed to identification of a specific secretion pathway, named ESX or Type VII secretion. The molecular machines involved are key elements for mycobacterial pathogenicity, strongly influencing the ability of M. tuberculosis to cope with the immune defense mounted by the host.

Genetic evolution of Mycobacterium bovis causing tuberculosis in livestock and wildlife in France since 1978

To study the dynamics of bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in France, 4,654 M. bovis strains isolated mainly from livestock and wildlife since 1978 were characterized by spoligotyping and MLVA based on MIRU-VNTR. In our study spoligotyping allowed the discrimination of 176 types although 3 spoligotypes are predominant and account for more than half of the total strain population: SB0120 (26%), SB0134 (11%) and SB0121 (6%). In addition, 11% of the isolates, principally from Southern France, showing close spoligotypes and MIRU-VNTR types have been gathered in a family designated as the "F4-family". MLVA typing allowed extensive discrimination, particularly for strains with predominant spoligotypes, with a total of 498 genotypes, several of which were highly regionalized. The similarity of the strains' genetic relationships based on spoligotyping and MIRU-VNTR markers supports the co-existence of different clonal populations within the French M. bovis population. A genetic evolution of the strains was observed both geographically and in time. Indeed, as a result of the reduction of bTB due to the national control campaigns, a large reduction of the strains' genetic variability took place in the last ten years. However, in the regions were bTB is highly prevalent at present, cases in both livestock and in wildlife are due to the spread of unique local genotype profiles. Our results show that the highly discriminating genotyping tools used in this study for molecular studies of bTB are useful for addressing pending questions, which would lead to a better insight into the epidemiology of the disease, and for finding proper solutions for its sustainable control in France.

Mycobacterium bovis in Burkina Faso: epidemiologic and genetic links between human and cattle isolates

BACKGROUND

In sub-Saharan Africa, bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is a potential hazard for animals and humans health. The goal of this study was to improve our understanding of bTB epidemiology in Burkina Faso and especially Mycobacterium bovis transmission within and between the bovine and human populations.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Twenty six M. bovis strains were isolated from 101 cattle carcasses with suspected bTB lesions during routine meat inspections at the Bobo Dioulasso and Ouagadougou slaughterhouses. In addition, 7 M. bovis strains were isolated from 576 patients with pulmonary tuberculosis. Spoligotyping, RDAf1 deletion and MIRU-VNTR typing were used for strains genotyping. The isolation of M. bovis strains was confirmed by spoligotyping and 12 spoligotype signatures were detected. Together, the spoligotyping and MIRU-VNTR data allowed grouping the 33 M. bovis isolates in seven clusters including isolates exclusively from cattle (5) or humans (1) or from both (1). Moreover, these data (genetic analyses and phenetic tree) showed that the M. bovis isolates belonged to the African 1 (Af1) clonal complex (81.8%) and the putative African 5 (Af5) clonal complex (18.2%), in agreement with the results of RDAf1 deletion typing.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

This is the first detailed molecular characterization of M. bovis strains from humans and cattle in Burkina Faso. The distribution of the two Af1 and putative Af5 clonal complexes is comparable to what has been reported in neighbouring countries. Furthermore, the strain genetic profiles suggest that M. bovis circulates across the borders and that the Burkina Faso strains originate from different countries, but have a country-specific evolution. The genetic characterization suggests that, currently, M. bovis transmission occurs mainly between cattle, occasionally between cattle and humans and potentially between humans. This study emphasizes the bTB risk in cattle but also in humans and the difficulty to set up proper disease control strategies in Burkina Faso.

Isolation and characterization of non tuberculous mycobacteria from humans and animals in Namwala District of Zambia

BACKGROUND

The genus Mycobacterium contains more than 100 species, most of which are classified as non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). In Zambia, the NTM are slowly becoming recognized as pathogens of major public health significance with the advent of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). This study aimed at reporting the isolated NTM and ascertains their zoonotic potential and diagnostic significance in Zambia.

METHOD

A total of 100 sputum samples were collected from three health facilities from suspected pulmonary tuberculosis human patients. In addition, 67 lymph node tissue samples from cattle and 14 from Kafue lechwe (Kobus leche kafuensis) showing tuberculosis-like lesions were collected. The samples were appropriately decontaminated and cultured on Middlebrook 7H10 and Stone brink. The isolates were then identified accordingly using the 16S ribosomal RNA analysis method.

RESULTS

A total of 8 NTM were isolated from human sputum, 12 from cattle and 1 from the Kafue lechwe. The identified NTM included M. intracellulae, M. abscess, M. chimaera, M. bolleti, M. fortuitum and M. stomatopae sp. Nov.

CONCLUSION

The isolation of NTM from humans and animals at the interface in Namwala district has highlighted the clinical significance and diagnostic challenge. The epidemiological investigation of NTM in the study area is therefore recommended. This should include sampling from environmental sources such as water and soil.

Characterization of Mycobacterium bovis from Humans and Cattle in Namwala District, Zambia

Tuberculosis remains a major public health problem in Zambia. While human to human transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is of major importance in driving the tuberculosis epidemic, the impact of Mycobacterium bovis transmission from infected cattle is largely unknown. This cross-sectional study aimed at molecular characterization of M. bovis in humans and cattle. A total of 100 human sputum samples and 67 bovine tissues were collected and analyzed for the presence of mycobacteria. Of 65 human samples that harbored acid fast bacteria (AFB), 55 isolates were obtained of which 34 were identified as M. tuberculosis and 2 as M. bovis. AFB-positive bovine samples (n = 67) yielded 47 mycobacterial isolates among which 25 were identified as M. bovis and no M. tuberculosis was found. Among the M. bovis isolates, spoligotyping revealed a high homogeneity in genotypes circulating in Namwala district. Human and cattle isolates shared identical MIRU-VNTR genotypes, suggesting that transmission between the two hosts may occur. Therefore, this study has documented zoonotic TB in human patients in Namwala district of Zambia. However, further molecular epidemiological studies in the study area are recommended.

Overview and phylogeny of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex organisms: implications for diagnostics and legislation of bovine tuberculosis

Members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) cause a serious disease with similar pathology, tuberculosis; in this review, bovine tuberculosis will be considered as disease caused by any member of the MTBC in bovids. Bovine tuberculosis is responsible for significant economic loss due to costly eradication programs and trade limitations and poses a threat to both endangered and protected species as well as to public health. We here give an overview on all members of the MTBC, focusing on their isolation from different animal hosts. We also review the recent advances made in elucidating the evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships of members of the MTBC. Because the nomenclature of the MTBC is controversial, its members have been considered species, subspecies or ecotypes, this review discusses the possible implications for diagnostics and the legal consequences of naming of new species.