Characterization of aarA, a pleiotrophic negative regulator of the 2'-N-acetyltransferase in Providencia stuartii

Rhomboid proteases: key players at the cell surface within haloarchaea

Introduction

Rhomboid proteases are intramembrane serine proteases that play a key role in regulating membrane proteins across all domains of life. However, their function in archaea remains poorly understood. The model halophilic archaeon Haloferax volcanii encodes two rhomboid homologs, rho1 (HVO_1474) and rho2 (HVO_0727). Previous studies indicated that the deletion of rho2 resulted in mild alterations in motility, adhesion, biofilm formation, and cell morphology, suggesting potential functional compensation by rho1.

Materials and methods

To investigate the role of these proteases, we generated single (Δrho1) and double (Δrho1 Δrho2) deletion mutants. Phenotypic characterization included viability assays, motility tests, adhesion and biofilm formation studies, as well as morphological analysis using microscopy. Functional overlap between rho1 and rho2 was evaluated through genetic complementation/overexpression experiments in which each gene was expressed in trans in the mutant backgrounds.

Results

Both Δrho1 and Δrho1 Δrho2 mutants were viable, indicating that these genes are not essential in H. volcanii. The Δrho1 mutant exhibited increased motility, enhanced biofilm formation, reduced adhesion to glass surfaces, and significant morphological alterations, particularly in trace element-deficient conditions. The double mutant (Δrho1 Δrho2) showed increased adhesion to surfaces, mild motility reduction, and fewer morphological abnormalities compared to Δrho1. Complementation assays revealed that both rho1 and rho2 could restore motility in Δrho2 and adhesion in Δrho1. However, only rho1 was able to complement the morphological defects, suggesting a degree of functional divergence between these homologs.

Discussion

This work highlights the role of rhomboid proteases in regulating critical cell surface processes in H. volcanii, including biofilm formation, surface adhesion, and cell shape determination. The ability of rho1 and rho2 to compensate for each other in certain functions while maintaining distinct roles underscores a complex regulatory interplay. Future research will focus on identifying natural substrates and elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying rhomboid protease function in haloarchaea.

Functional Implications of Domain Organization Within Prokaryotic Rhomboid Proteases

Intramembrane proteases are membrane embedded enzymes that cleave transmembrane substrates. This interesting class of enzyme and its water mediated substrate cleavage mechanism occurring within the hydrophobic lipid bilayer has drawn the attention of researchers. Rhomboids are a family of ubiquitous serine intramembrane proteases. Bacterial forms of rhomboid proteases are mainly composed of six transmembrane helices that are preceded by a soluble N-terminal domain. Several crystal structures of the membrane domain of the E. coli rhomboid protease ecGlpG have been solved. Independently, the ecGlpG N-terminal cytoplasmic domain structure was solved using both NMR and protein crystallography. Despite these structures, we still do not know the structure of the full-length protein, nor do we know the functional role of these domains in the cell. This chapter will review the structural and functional roles of the different domains associated with prokaryotic rhomboid proteases. Lastly, we will address questions remaining in the field.

Role of rhomboid proteases in bacteria

The first member of the rhomboid family of intramembrane serine proteases in bacteria was discovered almost 20years ago. It is now known that rhomboid proteins are widely distributed in bacteria, with some bacteria containing multiple rhomboids. At the present time, only a single rhomboid-dependent function in bacteria has been identified, which is the cleavage of TatA in Providencia stuartii. Mutational analysis has shown that loss of the GlpG rhomboid in Escherichia coli alters cefotaxime resistance, loss of the YqgP (GluP) rhomboid in Bacillus subtilis alters cell division and glucose uptake, and loss of the MSMEG_5036 and MSMEG_4904 genes in Mycobacterium smegmatis results in altered colony morphology, biofilm formation and antibiotic susceptibilities. However, the cellular substrates for these proteins have not been identified. In addition, analysis of the rhombosortases, together with their possible Gly-Gly CTERM substrates, may shed new light on the role of these proteases in bacteria. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Intramembrane Proteases.

Activity-based probes for rhomboid proteases discovered in a mass spectrometry-based assay

Rhomboid proteases are evolutionary conserved intramembrane serine proteases. Because of their emerging role in many important biological pathways, rhomboids are potential drug targets. Unfortunately, few chemical tools are available for their study. Here, we describe a mass spectrometry-based assay to measure rhomboid substrate cleavage and inhibition. We have identified isocoumarin inhibitors and developed activity-based probes for rhomboid proteases. The probes can distinguish between active and inactive rhomboids due to covalent, reversible binding of the active-site serine and stable modification of a histidine residue. Finally, the structure of an isocoumarin-based inhibitor with Escherichia coli rhomboid GlpG uncovers an unusual mode of binding at the active site and suggests that the interactions between the 3-substituent on the isocoumarin inhibitor and hydrophobic residues on the protease reflect S' subsite binding. Overall, these probes represent valuable tools for rhomboid study, and the structural insights may facilitate future inhibitor design.

Rhomboid proteases in plants - still in square one?

Rhomboids are ubiquitous intramembrane serine proteases the sequences of which are found in nearly all sequenced genomes, including those of plants. They were molecularly characterized in a number of organisms, and were found to play a role in a variety of biological functions including signaling, development, apoptosis, mitochondrial integrity, parasite invasion and more. Although rhomboid sequences are found in plants, very little is known about their function. Here, we present the current knowledge in the rhomboids field in general, and in plant rhomboids in particular. In addition, we discuss possible physiological roles of different plant rhomboids.

The rhomboid protease family: a decade of progress on function and mechanism

Summary

Rhomboid proteases are the largest family of enzymes that hydrolyze peptide bonds within the cell membrane. Although discovered to be serine proteases only a decade ago, rhomboid proteases are already considered to be the best understood intramembrane proteases. The presence of rhomboid proteins in all domains of life emphasizes their importance but makes their evolutionary history difficult to chart with confidence. Phylogenetics nevertheless offers three guiding principles for interpreting rhomboid function. The near ubiquity of rhomboid proteases across evolution suggests broad, organizational roles that are not directly essential for cell survival. Functions have been deciphered in only about a dozen organisms and fall into four general categories: initiating cell signaling in animals, facilitating bacterial quorum sensing, regulating mitochondrial homeostasis, and dismantling adhesion complexes of parasitic protozoa. Although in no organism has the full complement of rhomboid function yet been elucidated, links to devastating human disease are emerging rapidly, including to Parkinson's disease, type II diabetes, cancer, and bacterial and malaria infection. Rhomboid proteases are unlike most proteolytic enzymes, because they are membrane-immersed; understanding how the membrane immersion affects their function remains a key challenge.

Rhomboid homologs in mycobacteria: insights from phylogeny and genomic analysis

BACKGROUND

Rhomboids are ubiquitous proteins with diverse functions in all life kingdoms, and are emerging as important factors in the biology of some pathogenic apicomplexa and Providencia stuartii. Although prokaryotic genomes contain one rhomboid, actinobacteria can have two or more copies whose sequences have not been analyzed for the presence putative rhomboid catalytic signatures. We report detailed phylogenetic and genomic analyses devoted to prokaryotic rhomboids of an important genus, Mycobacterium.

RESULTS

Many mycobacterial genomes contained two phylogenetically distinct active rhomboids orthologous to Rv0110 (rhomboid protease 1) and Rv1337 (rhomboid protease 2) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv, which were acquired independently. There was a genome-wide conservation and organization of the orthologs of Rv1337 arranged in proximity with glutamate racemase (mur1), while the orthologs of Rv0110 appeared evolutionary unstable and were lost in Mycobacterium leprae and the Mycobacterium avium complex. The orthologs of Rv0110 clustered with eukaryotic rhomboids and contained eukaryotic motifs, suggesting a possible common lineage. A novel nonsense mutation at the Trp73 codon split the rhomboid of Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis into two hypothetical proteins (MAP2425c and MAP2426c) that are identical to MAV_1554 of Mycobacterium avium. Mycobacterial rhomboids contain putative rhomboid catalytic signatures, with the protease active site stabilized by Phenylalanine. The topology and transmembrane helices of the Rv0110 orthologs were similar to those of eukaryotic secretase rhomboids, while those of Rv1337 orthologs were unique. Transcription assays indicated that both mycobacterial rhomboids are possibly expressed.

CONCLUSIONS

Mycobacterial rhomboids are active rhomboid proteases with different evolutionary history. The Rv0110 (rhomboid protease 1) orthologs represent prokaryotic rhomboids whose progenitor may be the ancestors of eukaryotic rhomboids. The Rv1337 (rhomboid protease 2) orthologs appear more stable and are conserved nearly in all mycobacteria, possibly alluding to their importance in mycobacteria. MAP2425c and MAP2426c provide the first evidence for a split homologous rhomboid, contrasting whole orthologs of genetically related species. Although valuable insights to the roles of rhomboids are provided, the data herein only lays a foundation for future investigations for the roles of rhomboids in mycobacteria.

Sequence-specific intramembrane proteolysis: identification of a recognition motif in rhomboid substrates

Members of the widespread rhomboid family of intramembrane proteases cleave transmembrane domain (TMD) proteins to regulate processes as diverse as EGF receptor signaling, mitochondrial dynamics, and invasion by apicomplexan parasites. However, lack of information about their substrates means that the biological role of most rhomboids remains obscure. Knowledge of how rhomboids recognize their substrates would illuminate their mechanism and might also allow substrate prediction. Previous work has suggested that rhomboid substrates are specified by helical instability in their TMD. Here we demonstrate that rhomboids instead primarily recognize a specific sequence surrounding the cleavage site. This recognition motif is necessary for substrate cleavage, it determines the cleavage site, and it is more strictly required than TM helix-destabilizing residues. Our work demonstrates that intramembrane proteases can be sequence specific and that genome-wide substrate prediction based on their recognition motifs is feasible.

Making the cut: central roles of intramembrane proteolysis in pathogenic microorganisms

Proteolysis in cellular membranes to liberate effector domains from their transmembrane anchors is a well-studied regulatory mechanism in animal biology and disease. By contrast, the function of intramembrane proteases in unicellular organisms has received little attention. Recent progress has now established that intramembrane proteases execute pivotal roles in a range of pathogens, from regulating Mycobacterium tuberculosis envelope composition, cholera toxin production, bacterial adherence and conjugation, to malaria parasite invasion, fungal virulence, immune evasion by parasitic amoebae and hepatitis C virus assembly. These advances raise the exciting possibility that intramembrane proteases may serve as targets for combating a wide range of infectious diseases. This Review focuses on summarizing the advances, evaluating the limitations and highlighting the promise of this newly emerging field.

Diffusible signals and interspecies communication in bacteria

Many bacteria use cell-cell communication mediated by diffusible signal molecules to monitor their population density or confinement to niches and to modulate their behaviour in response to these aspects of their environment. Work on signalling systems within individual species has formed a platform for studies of interspecies interactions that can occur within polymicrobial communities in nature. In addition to signalling between organisms that synthesize the same or related signal molecules, it is becoming evident that bacteria can sense signal molecules that they do not synthesize, thereby eavesdropping on signalling by other organisms in their immediate environment. Furthermore, molecules such as antibiotics that are considered not to be signals for the producing species can have effects on gene expression in other bacteria that indicate a signalling function. Interspecies signalling can lead to alteration in factors contributing to the virulence or persistence of bacterial pathogens as well as influencing the development of beneficial microbial communities. Here we review our current understanding of interspecies signalling in bacteria and the signals involved, what is known of the underlying signal transduction mechanisms and their influences on bacterial behaviour.

Rhomboid protease AarA mediates quorum-sensing in Providencia stuartii by activating TatA of the twin-arginine translocase

The Providencia stuartii AarA protein is a member of the rhomboid family of intramembrane serine proteases and is required for the production of an unknown quorum-sensing molecule. In a screen to identify rhomboid-encoding genes from Proteus mirabilis, tatA was identified as a multicopy suppressor and restored extracellular signal production as well as complementing all other phenotypes of a Prov. stuartii aarA mutant. TatA is a component of the twin-arginine translocase (Tat) protein secretion pathway and likely forms a secretion pore. By contrast, the native tatA gene of Prov. stuartii in multicopy did not suppress an aarA mutation. We find that TatA in Prov. stuartii has a short N-terminal extension that was atypical of TatA proteins from most other bacteria. This extension was proteolytically removed by AarA both in vivo and in vitro. A Prov. stuartii TatA protein missing the first 7 aa restored the ability to rescue the aarA-dependent phenotypes. To verify that loss of the Tat system was responsible for the various phenotypes exhibited by an aarA mutant, a tatC-null allele was constructed. The tatC mutant exhibited the same phenotypes as an aarA mutant and was epistatic to aarA. These data provide a molecular explanation for the requirement of AarA in quorum-sensing and uncover a function for the Tat protein export system in the production of secreted signaling molecules. Finally, TatA represents a validated natural substrate for a prokaryotic rhomboid protease.

Solution Structure and Dynamics of the N-terminal Cytosolic Domain of Rhomboid Intramembrane Protease from Pseudomonas aeruginosa: Insights into a Functional Role in Intramembrane Proteolysis

Rhomboids are ubiquitous integral membrane proteases that release cellular signals from membrane-bound substrates through a general signal transduction mechanism known as regulated intramembrane proteolysis (RIP). We present the NMR structure of the cytosolic N-terminal domain (NRho) of P. aeruginosa Rhomboid. NRho consists of a novel alpha/beta fold and represents the first detailed structural insight into this class of intramembrane proteases. We find evidence that NRho is capable of strong and specific association with detergent micelles that mimic the membrane/water interface. Relaxation measurements on NRho reveal structural fluctuations on the microseconds-milliseconds timescale in regions including and contiguous to those implicated in membrane interaction. This structural plasticity may facilitate the ability of NRho to recognize and associate with membranes. We suggest that NRho plays a role in scissile peptide bond selectivity by optimally positioning the Rhomboid active site relative to the membrane plane.

Rhomboid proteins: conserved membrane proteases with divergent biological functions

The rhomboid gene was discovered in Drosophila, where it encodes a seven transmembrane protein that is the signal-generating component of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor signaling during development. Although metazoan developmental regulators are rarely conserved outside the animal kingdom, rhomboid proteins are conserved in all kingdoms of life, but the significance of this remains unclear. Recent biochemical reconstitution and high-resolution crystal structures have provided proof that rhomboid proteins function as novel intramembrane proteases, with a serine protease-like catalytic apparatus embedded within the membrane bilayer, buried in a hydrophilic cavity formed by a protein ring. A thorough consideration of all known examples of rhomboid function suggests that, despite biochemical similarity in mechanism and specificity, rhomboid proteins function in diverse processes including quorum sensing in bacteria, mitochondrial membrane fusion, apoptosis, and stem cell differentiation in eukaryotes; rhomboid proteins are also now starting to be linked to human disease, including early-onset blindness, diabetes, and parasitic diseases. Regulating cell signaling is at the heart of rhomboid protein function in many, but not all, of these processes. Further study of these novel enzymes promises to reveal the evolutionary path of rhomboid protein function, which could provide insights into the forces that drive the molecular evolution of regulatory mechanisms.

Functional characterization of Escherichia coli GlpG and additional rhomboid proteins using an aarA mutant of Providencia stuartii

The Providencia stuartii AarA protein is a member of the rhomboid family of intramembrane serine proteases and required for the production of an extracellular signaling molecule that regulates cellular functions including peptidoglycan acetylation, methionine transport, and cysteine biosynthesis. Additional aarA-dependent phenotypes include (i) loss of an extracellular yellow pigment, (ii) inability to grow on MacConkey agar, and (iii) abnormal cell division. Since these phenotypes are easily assayed, the P. stuartii aarA mutant serves as a useful host system to investigate rhomboid function. The Escherichia coli GlpG protein was shown to be functionally similar to AarA and rescued the above aarA-dependent phenotypes in P. stuartii. GlpG proteins containing single alanine substitutions at the highly conserved catalytic triad of asparagine (N154A), serine (S201A), or histidine (H254A) residues were nonfunctional. The P. stuartii aarA mutant was also used as a biosensor to demonstrate that proteins from a variety of diverse sources exhibited rhomboid activity. In an effort to further investigate the role of a rhomboid protein in cell physiology, a glpG mutant of E. coli was constructed. In phenotype microarray experiments, the glpG mutant exhibited a slight increase in resistance to the beta-lactam antibiotic cefotaxime.

Expression of a novel gene, gluP, is essential for normal Bacillus subtilis cell division and contributes to glucose export

BACKGROUND

The Bacillus subtilis glucokinase operon was predicted to be comprised of the genes, yqgP (now named gluP), yqgQ, and glcK. We have previously established a role for glcK in glucose metabolism. In the absence of enzymes that phosphorylate glucose, such as GlcK and/or enzyme IIGlc, accumulated cytoplasmic glucose can be transported out of the cell. Genes within the glucokinase operon were not previously known to play a role in glucose transport. Here we describe the expression of gluP and its function in glucose transport.

RESULTS

We found that transcription of the glucokinase operon was regulated, putatively, by two promoters: sigmaA and sigmaH. Putative sigmaA and sigmaH-recognition sites were located upstream of and within gluP, respectively. Transcriptional glucokinase operon--lacZ fusions and Northern blotting were used to analyze the expression of gluP. GluP was predicted to be an integral membrane protein. Moreover, the prediction of GluP structure revealed interesting signatures: a rhomboid domain and two tetracopeptide repeat (TPR) motifs. Microscopic analysis showed that GluP minus cells were unable to divide completely, resulting in a filamentous phenotype. The cells were grown in either rich or minimal medium. We found GluP may be involved in glucose transport. [14C]-glucose uptake by the GluP minus strain was slightly less than in the wild type. On the other hand, trehalose-derived glucose in the growth medium of the GluP minus strain was detected in very low amounts. Experimental controls comprised of single or multiple genes mutations within the glucose transporting phosphotransferase system.

CONCLUSIONS

gluP seems to be regulated only by a putative sigmaA-dependent promoter. The glucose uptake and export assays suggest that GluP is important for glucose export and may act as an exporter. This also supports the role of the glucokinase operon in glucose utilization.

The rhomboids: a nearly ubiquitous family of intramembrane serine proteases that probably evolved by multiple ancient horizontal gene transfers

BACKGROUND

The rhomboid family of polytopic membrane proteins shows a level of evolutionary conservation unique among membrane proteins. They are present in nearly all the sequenced genomes of archaea, bacteria and eukaryotes, with the exception of several species with small genomes. On the basis of experimental studies with the developmental regulator rhomboid from Drosophila and the AarA protein from the bacterium Providencia stuartii, the rhomboids are thought to be intramembrane serine proteases whose signaling function is conserved in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.

RESULTS

Phylogenetic tree analysis carried out using several independent methods for tree constructions and the corresponding statistical tests suggests that, despite its broad distribution in all three superkingdoms, the rhomboid family was not present in the last universal common ancestor of extant life forms. Instead, we propose that rhomboids evolved in bacteria and have been acquired by archaea and eukaryotes through several independent horizontal gene transfers. In eukaryotes, two distinct, ancient acquisitions apparently gave rise to the two major subfamilies, typified by rhomboid and PARL (presenilins-associated rhomboid-like protein), respectively. Subsequent evolution of the rhomboid family in eukaryotes proceeded by multiple duplications and functional diversification through the addition of extra transmembrane helices and other domains in different orientations relative to the conserved core that harbors the protease activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the near-universal presence of the rhomboid family in bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes appears to suggest that this protein is part of the heritage of the last universal common ancestor, phylogenetic tree analysis indicates a likely bacterial origin with subsequent dissemination by horizontal gene transfer. This emphasizes the importance of explicit phylogenetic analysis for the reconstruction of ancestral life forms. A hypothetical scenario for the origin of intracellular membrane proteases from membrane transporters is proposed.

Overexpression and characterization of the chromosomal aminoglycoside 2'-N-acetyltransferase of Providencia stuartii

The gene coding for aminoglycoside 2'-N-acetyltransferase Ia [AAC(2')-Ia] from Providencia stuartii was amplified by PCR and cloned. The resulting construct, pACKF2, was transferred into Escherichia coli for overexpression of AAC(2')-Ia as a fusion protein with an N-terminal hexa-His tag. The fusion protein was isolated and purified by affinity chromatography on Ni(2+)-nitrilotriacetic acid agarose and gel permeation chromatography on Superdex 75. Comparison of the specific activity of this enzyme with that of its enterokinase-digested derivative lacking the His tag indicated that the presence of the extra N-terminal peptide does not affect activity. The temperature and pH optima for activity of both forms of the 2'-N-acetyltransferase were 20 degrees C and pH 6.0, respectively, while the enzymes were most stable at 15 degrees C and pH 8.1. The Michaelis-Menten kinetic parameters for AAC(2')-Ia at 20 degrees C and pH 6.0 were determined using a series of aminoglycoside antibiotics possessing a 2'-amino group and a concentration of acetyl coenzyme A fixed at 10 times its K(m) value of 8.75 microM. Under these conditions, gentamicin was determined to be the best substrate for the enzyme in terms of both K(m) and k(cat)/K(m) values, whereas neomycin was the poorest. Comparison of the kinetic parameters obtained with the different aminoglycosides indicated that their hexopyranosyl residues provided the most important binding sites for AAC(2')-Ia activity, while the enzyme exhibits greater tolerance further from these sites. No correlation was found between these kinetic parameters and MICs determined for P. stuartii PR50 expressing the 2'-N-acetyltransferase, suggesting that its true in vivo function is not as a resistance factor.

Role of SspA in the density-dependent expression of the transcriptional activator AarP in Providencia stuartii

The AarP protein in Providencia stuartii encodes a small transcriptional activator which activates the chromosomal aminoglycoside acetyltransferase aac(2')-Ia gene. In addition, AarP activates genes involved in a multiple antibiotic resistance (Mar) phenotype. Expression of an aarP-lacZ fusion increased in a density-dependent manner and reached peak levels at stationary phase. The expression of an aarP-lacZ fusion could be prematurely activated in cells at early to mid-exponential phase by the addition of spent culture supernatants from stationary phase cultures or by ethyl acetate extracts of these supernatants. Nutrient starvation had a negligible effect on aarP expression. In a search for mutations that block aarP activation at stationary phase, a mini-Tn5Cm insertion has been identified within a gene whose product was 77% identical to SspA, a regulatory protein involved in stationary phase gene expression and virulence. An unmarked sspA null allele (sspA2) was created by allelic replacement to further examine the role of sspA in P. stuartii. The sspA2 allele resulted in substantial decrease in aarP mRNA accumulation at various phases of growth. Furthermore, in an sspA mutant background, the aarP-lacZ fusion was no longer activated by an extracellular signal.

The role of O-acetylation in the metabolism of peptidoglycan in Providencia stuartii

The gentamicin 2'-N-acetyltransferase [EC 2.3.1.59; AAC(2')-Ia] of Providencia stuartii was shown to contribute to the O-acetylation of peptidoglycan and mutants that either under- or overexpress the aac(2')-Ia gene was characterized phenotypically to possess either lower or higher levels of peptidoglycan O-acetylation, respectively, compared to the wild-type. These mutants were subjected to scanning electron microscopy. P. stuartii PR100, with 42-44% peptidoglycan O-acetylation compared to 54% for the wild-type, appeared as irregular rods. In direct contrast, strains PR50.LM3 and PR51, with increased levels of peptidoglycan O-acetylation (63 and 65%, respectively), appeared as coccobacilli or chain formers, respectively. Zymogram analysis of the autolysins produced by another member of the closely related Proteeae group of bacteria, Proteus mirabilis, indicated the presence of three classes of enzymes: one that acts preferentially on native, O-acetylated peptidoglycan, a second that hydrolyses non-O-acetylated peptidoglycan, and a third that is not distinguished by the two forms of substrate. On the basis of the apparent morphological changes directly related to levels of O-acetylation combined with the presence of different classes of autolysins, a model is proposed that invokes the role of this modification in the control of autolysins for the maintenance of the structure of the peptidoglycan sacculus.

Identification and characterization of the point mutation which affects the transcription level of the chromosomal 3-N-acetyltransferase gene of Streptomyces griseus SS-1198

We determined the molecular basis for the enhanced expression of the aac(3)-Xa gene encoding an aminoglycoside 3-N-acetyltransferase in Streptomyces griseus. A C-->T substitution was identified at the putative promoter of the mutant gene. RNA analyses demonstrated that the substitution caused a marked increase in the production of the gene-specific transcripts. Therefore, it seemed very likely that the aac(3)-Xa gene was activated by the substitution resulting in the emergence of a stronger promoter.

Providencia stuartii genes activated by cell-to-cell signaling and identification of a gene required for production or activity of an extracellular factor

By utilizing reporter transposons, five Providencia stuartii genes that are activated by the accumulation of self-produced extracellular signals have been identified. These genes have been designated cma for conditioned medium activated. The presence of conditioned medium from stationary-phase cultures grown in rich media resulted in the premature activation of each gene in cells at early log phase, with activation values ranging from 6- to 26-fold. Preparation of conditioned medium from an M9 salts medium and fractionation by gel filtration chromatography resulted in fractions within the included volume which activated three of the cma fusions. In addition, depending on the reporter fusion, peak activity was found in different fractions. The partially purified factors activated in a dose-dependent manner. Characterization of the factors activating the cma fusions indicated that they were stable to heat, alkali, and acid. Furthermore, for each cma fusion, factor activity was not reproduced by the addition of homoserine lactone, homocysteine thiolactone, pyruvate, Casamino Acids, or alpha-ketoglutarate. The identities of three cma genes have been determined and revealed physiological roles in amino acid biosynthesis and nutrient import. To begin to address the pathways for production of or response to the extracellular factors, we have identified a locus, aarA, that is required for the activation of four cma fusions. The AarA product was required for factor activity in extracellular supernatants, indicating a possible role in biosynthesis or export.

Activation of the 2'-N-acetyltransferase gene [aac(2')-Ia] in Providencia stuartii by an interaction of AarP with the promoter region

The aac(2')-Ia gene in Providencia stuartii encodes a 2'-N-acetyltransferase capable of acetylating both peptidoglycan and certain aminoglycoside antibiotics. Regulation of the aac(2')-Ia gene is influenced in a positive manner by the product of the aarP gene, which encodes a small transcriptional activator of the AraC (XylS) family. In this study, we demonstrate the sequence requirements at the aac(2')-Ia promoter for AarP binding and activation.

A regulatory cascade involving AarG, a putative sensor kinase, controls the expression of the 2'-N-acetyltransferase and an intrinsic multiple antibiotic resistance (Mar) response in Providencia stuartii

A recessive mutation, aarG1, has been identified that resulted in an 18-fold increase in the expression of beta-galactosidase from an aac(2')-lacZ fusion. Transcriptional fusions and Northern blot analysis demonstrated that the aarG1 allele also resulted in a large increase in the expression of aarP, a gene encoding a transcriptional activator of aac(2')-Ia. The effects of aarG1 on aac(2')-Ia expression were mediated by aarP-dependent and -independent mechanisms. The aarG1 allele also resulted in a multiple antibiotic resistance (Mar) phenotype, which included increased chloramphenicol, tetracycline and fluoroquinolone resistance. This Mar phenotype also resulted from aarP-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Sequence analysis of the aarG locus revealed the presence of two open reading frames, designated aarR and aarG, organized in tandem. The putative AarR protein displayed 75% amino acid identity to the response regulator PhoP, and the AarG protein displayed 57% amino acid identity to the sensor kinase PhoQ. The aarG1 mutation, a C to T substitution, resulted in a threonine to isoleucine substitution at position 279 (T279I) in the putative sensor kinase. The AarG product was functionally similar to PhoQ, as it was able to restore wild-type levels of maganin resistance to a Salmonella typhimurium phoQ mutant. However, expression of the aarP and aac(2')-Ia genes was not significantly affected by the levels of Mg2+ or Ca2+, suggesting that aarG senses a signal other than divalent cations.

Mutations in aarE, the ubiA homolog of Providencia stuartii, result in high-level aminoglycoside resistance and reduced expression of the chromosomal aminoglycoside 2'-N-acetyltransferase

The aarE1 allele was identified on the basis of the resulting phenotype of increased aminoglycoside resistance. The aarE1 mutation also resulted in a small-colony phenotype and decreased levels of aac(2')-Ia mRNA. The deduced AarE gene product displayed 61% amino acid identity to the Escherichia coli UbiA protein, an octaprenyltransferase required for the second step of ubiquinone biosynthesis. Complementation experiments in both Providencia stuartii and E. coli demonstrated that aarE and ubiA are functionally equivalent.

Identification and characterization of aarF, a locus required for production of ubiquinone in Providencia stuartii and Escherichia coli and for expression of 2'-N-acetyltransferase in P. stuartii

Providencia stuartii contains a chromosomal 2'-N-acetyltransferase [AAC(2')-Ia] involved in the O acetylation of peptidoglycan. The AAC(2')-Ia enzyme is also capable of acetylating and inactivating certain aminoglycosides and confers high-level resistance to these antibiotics when overexpressed. We report the identification of a locus in P. stuartii, designated aarF, that is required for the expression of AAC(2')-Ia. Northern (RNA) analysis demonstrated that aac(2')-Ia mRNA levels were dramatically decreased in a P. stuartii strain carrying an aarF::Cm disruption. The aarF::Cm disruption also resulted in a deficiency in the respiratory cofactor ubiquinone. The aarF locus encoded a protein that had a predicted molecular mass of 62,559 Da and that exhibited extensive amino acid similarity to the products of two adjacent open reading frames of unknown function (YigQ and YigR), located at 86 min on the Escherichia coli chromosome. An E. coli yigR::Kan mutant was also deficient in ubiquinone content. Complementation studies demonstrated that the aarF and the E. coli yigQR loci were functionally equivalent. The aarF or yigQR genes were unable to complement ubiD and ubiE mutations that are also present at 86 min on the E. coli chromosome. This result indicates that aarF (yigQR) represents a novel locus for ubiquinone production and reveals a previously unreported connection between ubiquinone biosynthesis and the regulation of gene expression.

An extracellular factor regulating expression of the chromosomal aminoglycoside 2'-N-acetyltransferase of Providencia stuartii

The chromosomal aac(2')-Ia gene in Providencia stuartii encodes a housekeeping 2'-N-acetyltransferase [AAC(2')-Ia] involved in the acetylation of peptidoglycan. In addition, the AAC(2')-Ia enzyme also acetylates and confers resistance to the clinically important aminoglycoside antibiotics gentamicin, tobramycin, and netilmicin. Expression of the aac(2')-Ia gene was found to be strongly influenced by cell density, with a sharp decrease in aac(2')-Ia mRNA accumulation as cells approached stationary phase. This decrease was mediated by the accumulation of an extracellular factor, designated AR (for acetyltransferase repressing)-factor. AR-factor was produced in both minimal and rich media and acted in a manner that was strongly dose dependent. The activity of AR-factor was also pH dependent, with optimal activity at pH 8.0 and above. Biochemical characterization of conditioned media from P. stuartii has shown that AR-factor is between 500 and 1,000 Da in molecular size and is heat stable. In addition, AR-factor was inactivated by a variety of proteases, suggesting that it may be a small peptide.

Characterization of gentamicin 2'-N-acetyltransferase from Providencia stuartii: its use of peptidoglycan metabolites for acetylation of both aminoglycosides and peptidoglycan

The relationship between the acetylation of peptidoglycan and that of aminoglycosides in Providencia stuartii has been investigated both in vivo and in vitro. Adaptation of the assay for peptidoglycan N-->O-acetyltransferase permitted an investigation of the use of peptidoglycan as a source of acetate for the N acetylation of aminoglycosides by gentamicin N-acetyltransferase [EC 2.3.1.59; AAC(2')]. The peptidoglycan from cells of P. stuartii PR50 was prelabelled with 3H by growth in the presence of N-[acetyl-3H]glucosamine. Under these conditions, [3H]acetate was confirmed to be transferred to the C-6 position of peptidoglycan-bound N-acetylmuramyl residues. Isolated cells were subsequently incubated in the presence of various concentrations of gentamicin and tobramycin (0 to 5x MIC). Analysis of various cellular fractions from isolated cells and spent culture medium by the aminoglycoside-binding phosphocellulose paper assay revealed increasing levels of radioactivity associated with the filters used for whole-cell sonicates of cells treated with gentamicin up to 2 x MIC. Beyond this concentration, a decrease in radioactivity was observed, consistent with the onset of cell lysis. Similar results were obtained with tobramycin, but the increasing trend was less obvious. The transfer of radiolabel to either aminoglycoside was not observed with P. stuartii PR100, a strain that is devoid of AAC(2')-Ia. A high-performance anion-exchange chromatography-based method was established to further characterize the AAC(2')-Ia-catalyzed acetylation of aminoglycosides. The high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-based method resolved a tobramycin preparation into two peaks, both of which were collected and confirmed by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance to be the antibiotic. Authentic standards of 2'-N-acetyltobramycin were prepared and were well separated from the parent antibiotic when subjected to the HPLC analysis. By applying this technique, the transfer of radiolabelled acetate from the cell wall polymer peptidoglycan to tobramycin was confirmed. In addition, isolated and purified AAC(2')-Ia was shown to catalyze in vitro the transfer of acetate from acetyl-coenzyme A, soluble fragments of peptidoglycan, and N-acetylglucosamine to tobramycin. These data further support the proposal that AAC(2')-Ia from P. stuartii may have a physiological role in its secondary metabolism and that its activity on aminoglycosides is simply fortuitous.

aarC, an essential gene involved in density-dependent regulation of the 2'-N-acetyltransferase in Providencia stuartii

The 2'-N-acetyltransferase [AAC(2')-Ia] in Providencia stuartii has a dual function where it is involved in the acetylation of peptidoglycan and certain aminoglycosides. A search for negative regulators of the aac(2')-Ia gene has resulted in the identification of aarC. A missense allele (aarC1) resulted in an 8.9-fold increase in beta-galactosidase accumulation from an aac(2')-lacZ transcriptional fusion. Northern blot analysis demonstrated an increase in aac(2')-Ia mRNA accumulation that was specific to cells at high density. In addition, the aarC1 allele also resulted in a substantial increase in the expression of aarP, a transcriptional activator of the aac(2')-Ia gene. The wild-type aarC gene was isolated by complementation and encodes a predicted protein of 365 amino acids with a molecular mass of 39,815 Da. The predicted AarC protein exhibited 88% amino acid homology to the previously identified GcpE protein of Escherichia coli and 86% homology to a gene product from Haemophilus influenzae. The E. coli gcpE gene was able to functionally complement the aarC1 allele in P. stuartii. The aarC1 allele was identified as a T to G transversion that resulted in a valine to glycine substitution at position 136 in the AarC protein. The aarC gene appears to be essential for cell viability as construction of a disrupted copy (aarC::lacZ) was possible only in cells that carried an episomal copy of aarC or gcpE.

The prevalence of gentamicin 2'-N-acetyltransferase in the Proteeae and its role in the O-acetylation of peptidoglycan

The prevalence of aac(2')-Ia, a gene coding for gentamicin 2'-N-acetyltransferase in Providencia stuartii, among species of the Proteeae was investigated to determine if it is a common resistance factor and whether the correlation observed in P. stuartii between its expression and the levels of peptidoglycan O-acetylation represents a general feature of bacteria producing this form of modified peptidoglycan. An evaluation of the MICs of gentamicin for each of the species of the Proteeae did not reveal any apparent relationship between resistance and the degree of O-acetylation of peptidoglycan. The entire aac(2')-Ia gene was used as a probe in Southern hybridization experiments against genomic DNA from each species of the Proteeae. A sequence with strong homology to aac(2')-Ia was present only in Proteus penneri while weak hybridization was also observed to the restriction digested DNA from Providencia rettgeri. Other bacteria that O-acetylate peptidoglycan were also screened with this probe and a homologous DNA sequence was only found in Neisseria subflava. These data suggest that AAC(2')-Ia may contribute to the O-acetylation of peptidoglycan in P. stuartii, but a more specific enzyme must also be produced for this function.

Characterization of the chromosomal aminoglycoside 2'-N-acetyltransferase gene from Mycobacterium fortuitum

A novel gene encoding an aminoglycoside 2'-N-acetyltransferase (AAC) was cloned from Mycobacterium fortuitum. DNA sequencing results identified an open reading frame that we have called aac(2')-Ib encoding a putative protein with a predicted molecular mass of 24,800 Da. The deduced AAC(2')-Ib protein showed homology to the AAC(2')-Ia from Providencia stuartii. This is the second member of a subfamily of AAC(2')-I enzymes to be identified. No homology was found with other acetyltransferases, including all of the AAC(3) and AAC(6') proteins. The aac(2')-Ib gene cloned in a mycobacterial plasmid and introduced in Mycobacterium smegmatis conferred resistance to gentamicin, tobramycin, dibekacin, netilmicin, and 6'-N-ethylnetilmicin. DNA hybridization with an intragenic probe of aac(2')-Ib showed that this gene was present in all 34 strains of M. fortuitum tested. The universal presence of the aac(2')-Ib gene in M. fortuitum was not correlated with any aminoglycoside resistance phenotype, suggesting that this gene may play a role in the secondary metabolism of the bacterium.

Sequence analysis of eukaryotic developmental proteins: ancient and novel domains

Most of the genes involved in the development of multicellular eukaryotes encode large, multidomain proteins. To decipher the major trends in the evolution of these proteins and make functional predictions for uncharacterized domains, we applied a strategy of sequence database search that includes construction of specialized data sets and iterative subsequence masking. This computational approach allowed us to detect previously unnoticed but potentially important sequence similarities. Developmental gene products are enriched in predicted nonglobular regions as compared to unbiased sets of eukaryotic and bacterial proteins. Developmental genes that act intracellularly, primarily at the level of transcription regulation, typically code for proteins containing highly conserved DNA-binding domains, most of which appear to have evolved before the radiation of bacteria and eukaryotes. We identified bacterial homologues, namely a protein family that includes the Escherichia coli universal stress protein UspA, for the MADS-box transcription regulators previously described only in eukaryotes. We also show that the FUS6 family of eukaryotic proteins contains a putative DNA-binding domain related to bacterial helix-turn-helix transcription regulators. Developmental proteins that act extracellularly are less conserved and often do not have bacterial homologues. Nevertheless, several provocative similarities between different groups of such proteins were detected.

Contribution of gentamicin 2'-N-acetyltransferase to the O acetylation of peptidoglycan in Providencia stuartii

A collection of Providencia stuartii mutants which either underexpress or overexpress aac(2')-Ia, the chromosomal gene coding for gentamicin 2'-N-acetyltransferase (EC 2.3.1.59), have been characterized phenotypically as possessing either lower or higher levels of peptidoglycan O acetylation, respectively, than the wild type. These mutants were subjected to both negative-staining and thin-section electron microscopy. P. stuartii PR100, with 42% O acetylation of peptidoglycan compared with 52% O acetylation in the wild type, appeared as irregular rods. In direct contrast, P. stuartii strains PR50.LM3 and PR51, with increased levels of peptidoglycan O acetylation (65 and 63%, respectively), appeared as coccobacilli and chain formers, respectively. Membrane blebbing was also observed with the chain-forming strain PR51. Thin sectioning of this mutant indicated that it was capable of proper constriction and separation. P. stuartii PM1, when grown to mid-exponential phase, did not have altered peptidoglycan O-acetylation levels, and cellular morphology remained similar to that of wild-type strains. However, continued growth into stationary phase resulted in a 15% increase in peptidoglycan O acetylation concomitant with a change of some cells from a rod-shaped to a coccobacillus-shaped morphology. The fact that these apparent morphological changes were directly related to levels of O acetylation support the view that this modification plays a role in the maintenance of peptidoglycan structure, presumably through the control of autolytic activity.

Identification and analysis of aarP, a transcriptional activator of the 2'-N-acetyltransferase in Providencia stuartii

The aarP gene has been identified in a search for activators of the 2-N-acetyltransferase [encoded by aac(2')-Ia] in Providencia stuartii. Introduction of aarP into P. stuartii on a multicopy plasmid resulted in a 9.9-fold increase in the accumulation of beta-galactosidase from an aac(2')-lacZ fusion. Northern (RNA) blot analysis demonstrated that this increased aac(2')-Ia expression occurred at the level of mRNA accumulation. The deduced AarP protein was 15,898 Da in size and exhibited significant homology to a number of transcriptional activators in the AraC/XyIS family, including TetD,Rob, MarA, and SoxS. The similarity of AarP to the MarA and SoxS proteins prompted an investigation to determine whether AarP is involved in activation of genes in either the multiple antibiotic resistance (Mar) phenotype or redox stress (SoxRS) system. Introduction of aarP on a multicopy plasmid into either P. stuartii or Escherichia coli conferred a Mar phenotype with higher levels of resistance to tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and ciprofloxacin. Multiple copies of aarP in E. coli also resulted in activation of the endonuclease IV gene (nfo), a gene in the SoxRS regulon of E. coli. The function of aarP in its single-copy state was addressed by using allelic replacement to construct an aarP::Cm disruption, which resulted in a fivefold reduction in the accumulation of aac(2')-Ia mRNA. Analysis of aarP regulation showed that aarP mRNA accumulation was slightly increased by exposure to tetracycline and dramatically increased in cells containing the aarB3 (aar3) mutation, which was previously shown to increase transcription of the aac(2')-Ia gene. (P.N. Rather, E. Oroz, K.J. Shaw, R. Hare, and G. Miller, J. Bacteriol. 175:6492-6498).