Effects of overexpression of Pkn2, a transmembrane protein serine/threonine kinase, on development of Myxococcus xanthus

A novel bacterial signalling system with a combination of a Ser/Thr kinase cascade and a His/Asp two-component system

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes have long been thought to use very different types of kinases (the His kinases of the 'bacterial' two-component systems versus the 'eukaryotic' Ser/Thr/Tyr kinases) to carry out signal transduction. This paradigm no longer holds true, because both systems are now found together in an increasing number of prokaryotic organisms and 'two-component' His kinase are present in eukaryotes. Pioneering work on bacterial protein serine threonine kinases (PSTKs) has been performed in Myxococcus xanthus, a soil bacterium with a complex life cycle that possesses orthologues of signalling-related kinases 'typical' of both the prokaryotic and the eukaryotic kingdoms. In the work reported in this volume of Molecular Microbiology, Nariya and Inouye describe a PSTK cascade that modulates the biochemical activity of MrpC, a CRP-like transcriptional regulator for essential developmental signalling pathways in M. xanthus whose transcription is under the control of a two-component system. This is the first report of both a functional PSTK cascade in bacteria and the use of both PSTK and two-component systems to control a single complex bacterial signalling event.

Diversity in domain architectures of Ser/Thr kinases and their homologues in prokaryotes

Background

Ser/Thr/Tyr kinases (STYKs) commonly found in eukaryotes have been recently reported in many bacterial species. Recent studies elucidating their cellular functions have established their roles in bacterial growth and development. However functions of a large number of bacterial STYKs still remain elusive. The organisation of domains in a large dataset of bacterial STYKs has been investigated here in order to recognise variety in domain combinations which determine functions of bacterial STYKs.

Results

Using sensitive sequence and profile search methods, domain organisation of over 600 STYKs from 125 prokaryotic genomes have been examined. Kinase catalytic domains of STYKs tethered to a wide range of enzymatic domains such as phosphatases, HSP70, peptidyl prolyl isomerases, pectin esterases and glycoproteases have been identified. Such distinct preferences for domain combinations are not known to be present in either the Histidine kinase or the eukaryotic STYK families. Domain organisation of STYKs specific to certain groups of bacteria has also been noted in the current anlaysis. For example, Hydrophobin like domains in Mycobacterial STYK and penicillin binding domains in few STYKs of Gram-positive organisms and FHA domains in cyanobacterial STYKs. Homologues of characterised substrates of prokaryotic STYKs have also been identified.

Conclusion

The domains and domain architectures of most of the bacterial STYKs identified are very different from the known domain organisation in STYKs of eukaryotes. This observation highlights distinct biological roles of bacterial STYKs compared to eukaryotic STYKs. Bacterial STYKs reveal high diversity in domain organisation. Some of the modular organisations conserved across diverse bacterial species suggests their central role in bacterial physiology. Unique domain architectures of few other groups of STYKs reveal recruitment of functions specific to the species.

Signaling in myxobacteria

Myxobacteria use soluble and cell-contact signals during their starvation-induced formation of fruiting bodies. These signals coordinate developmental gene expression with the cell movements that build fruiting bodies. Early in development, the quorum-sensing A-signal in Myxococcus xanthus helps to assess starvation and induce the first stage of aggregation. Later, the morphogenetic C-signal helps to pattern cell movement and shape the fruiting body. C-signal is a 17-kDa cell surface protein that signals by contact between the ends of two cells. The number of C-signal molecules per cell rises 100-fold from the beginning of fruiting body development to the end, when spores are formed. Traveling waves, streams, and sporulation have increasing thresholds for C-signal activity, and this progression ensures that spores form inside fruiting bodies.

TodK, a putative histidine protein kinase, regulates timing of fruiting body morphogenesis in Myxococcus xanthus

In response to starvation, Myxococcus xanthus initiates a developmental program that results in the formation of spore-filled multicellular fruiting bodies. Fruiting body formation depends on the temporal and spatial coordination of aggregation and sporulation. These two processes are induced by the cell surface-associated C signal, with aggregation being induced after 6 h and sporulation being induced once cells have completed the aggregation process. We report the identification of TodK, a putative histidine protein kinase of two-component regulatory systems that is important for the correct timing of aggregation and sporulation. Loss of TodK function results in early aggregation and early, as well as increased levels of, sporulation. Transcription of todK decreases 10-fold in response to starvation independently of the stringent response. Loss of TodK function specifically results in increased expression of a subset of C-signal-dependent genes. Accelerated development in a todK mutant depends on the known components in the C-signal transduction pathway. TodK is not important for synthesis of the C signal. From these results we suggest that TodK is part of a signal transduction system which converges on the C-signal transduction pathway to negatively regulate aggregation, sporulation, and the expression of a subset of C-signal-dependent genes. TodK and the SdeK histidine protein kinase, which is part of a signal transduction system that converges on the C-signal transduction pathway to stimulate aggregation, sporulation, and C-signal-dependent gene expression, act in independent genetic pathways. We suggest that the signal transduction pathways defined by TodK and SdeK act in concert with the C-signal transduction pathway to control the timing of aggregation and sporulation.

MetR and CRP bind to the Vibrio harveyi lux promoters and regulate luminescence

The induction of luminescence in Vibrio harveyi at the later stages of growth is controlled by a quorum-sensing mechanism in addition to nutritional signals. However, the mechanism of transmission of these signals directly to the lux promoters is unknown and only one regulatory protein, LuxR, has been shown to bind directly to lux promoter DNA. In this report, we have cloned and sequenced two genes, crp and metR, coding for the nutritional regulators, CRP (cAMP receptor protein) and MetR (a LysR homologue), involved in catabolite repression and methionine biosynthesis respectively. The metR gene was cloned based on a general strategy to detect lux DNA-binding proteins expressed from a genomic library, whereas the crp gene was cloned based on its complementation of an Escherichia coli crp mutant. Both CRP and MetR were shown to bind to lux promoter DNA, with CRP being dependent on the presence of cAMP. Expression studies indicated that the two regulators had opposite effects on luminescence: CRP was an activator and MetR a repressor. Disruption of crp decreased luminescence by about 1,000-fold showing that CRP is a major activator of luminescence the same as LuxR, whereas disruption of MetR resulted in activation of luminescence over 10-fold, confirming its function as a repressor. Comparison of the levels of the autoinducers involved in quorum sensing excreted by V. harveyi, and the crp and metR mutants, showed that autoinducer production was not significantly different, thus indicating that the nutritional signals do not affect luminescence by changing the levels of the signals required for quorum sensing. Indeed, the large effects of these nutritional sensors show that luminescence is controlled by multiple signals related to the environment and the cell density which must be integrated at the molecular level to control expression at the lux promoters.

Pph1 from Myxococcus xanthus is a protein phosphatase involved in vegetative growth and development

Myxococcus xanthus is a Gram-negative bacterium with a complex life cycle that includes vegetative swarming on rich medium and, upon starvation, aggregation to form fruiting bodies containing spores. Both of these behaviours require multiple Ser/Thr protein kinases. In this paper, we report the first Ser/Thr protein phosphatase gene, pph1, from M. xanthus. DNA sequence analysis of pph1 indicates that it encodes a protein of 254 residues (Mr = 28 308) with strong homology to eukaryotic PP2C phosphatases and that it belongs to a new group of bacterial protein phosphatases that are distinct from bacterial PP2C phosphatases such as RsbU, RsbX and SpoIIE. Recombinant His-tagged Pph1 was purified from Escherichia coli and shown to have Mn2+ or Mg2+ dependent, okadaic acid-resistant phosphatase activity on a synthetic phosphorylated peptide, RRA(pT)VA, indicating that Pph1 is a PP2C phosphatase. Pph1-expression was observed under both vegetative and developmental conditions, but peaked during early aggregation. A pph1 null mutant showed defects during late vegetative growth, swarming and glycerol spore formation. Under starvation-induced developmental conditions, the mutant showed reduced aggregation and failure to form fruiting bodies with viable spores. Using the yeast two-hybrid system, we have observed a strong interaction between Pph1 and the M. xanthus protein kinase Pkn5, a negative effector of development. These results suggest a functional link between a Pkn2-type protein kinase and a PP2C phosphatase.

Myxococcus xanthus mokA encodes a histidine kinase-response regulator hybrid sensor required for development and osmotic tolerance

A gene, mokA, encoding a protein with similarities to histidine kinase-response regulator hybrid sensor, was cloned from a Myxococcus xanthus genomic library. The predicted mokA gene product was found to contain three domains: an amino-terminal input domain, a central transmitter domain, and a carboxy-terminal receiver domain. mokA mutants placed under starvation conditions exhibited reduced sporulation. Mutation of mokA also caused marked growth retardation at high osmolarity. These results indicated that M. xanthus MokA is likely a transmembrane sensor that is required for development and osmotic tolerance. The putative function of MokA is similar to that of the hybrid histidine kinase, DokA, of the eukaryotic slime mold Dictyostelium discoideum.

Genes involved in the pathophysiology of perinatal asphyxia

Mechanisms in the pathogenesis of perinatal asphyxia (PA) at the gene level are only beginning to be elucidated, although gene hunting using differential display has revealed differences in gene expression between hypoxic and normoxic cells in vitro. As no information on gene expression was available from in vivo studies, we decided to use a non-invasive and clinically relevant animal model of PA for mRNA hunting applying the subtractive hybridization method. mRNAs from normoxic rat brain and brain of rat pups with 20 min of asphyxia were isolated and compared by this technique. The resulting subtracted mRNAs were converted to cDNA, sequenced and identified by gene bank data. A series of transcripts representing transcription factors, transporters, metabolic factors, were found to be up- or downregulated providing insight into mechanisms of PA, and on the other hand, genes with unknown functions could be given a preliminary role i.e. in PA. Results obtained with this powerful tool are now challenging quantitative determination of these genes and gene products at the protein and activity level to confirm their role in PA.

Signal transduction in bacteria: molecular mechanisms of stimulus-response coupling

In bacteria, adaptive responses to changing environmental conditions are mediated by signal transduction systems that involve modular protein domains. Despite great diversity in the integration of domains into different systems, studies of individual components have revealed molecular strategies that are widely applicable. Studies of receptors have advanced our understanding of how information is transmitted across membranes, the determination of three-dimensional structures of domains of histidine protein kinase domains and response regulator proteins has begun to reveal the molecular basis of signaling via two-component phosphoryltransfer pathways, and the description of 'eukaryotic-like' protein domains involved in bacterial signaling has emphasized the universality of intracellular signaling mechanisms.

The universal stress protein, UspA, of Escherichia coli is phosphorylated in response to stasis

Transcriptional induction of the uspA gene of Escherichia coli occurs whenever conditions cause growth arrest and cells deficient in UspA survive poorly in stationary phase. We demonstrate that the product of uspA is a serine and threonine phosphoprotein. In vivo, three isoforms of UspA were detected, two of which were phosphorylated as determined by alkaline phosphatase treatment; in vitro, phosphorylation with [gamma-32P]ATP yielded two radioactive UspA isoforms. The phosphorylated isoforms were barely visible in growing cells but one increased during starvation conditions causing growth arrest. This phosphorylation is dependent on the o591 gene, which encodes an autophosphorylating tyrosine phosphoprotein and which is involved in the synthesis or modification of six other proteins. In vitro, UspA undergoes a rapid and dynamic autophosphorylation, as shown by chase experiments with GTP or ATP as phosphate donors.