A novel mammalian protein kinase gene (mak) is highly expressed in testicular germ cells at and after meiosis

Mechanisms of Regulation in Intraflagellar Transport

Cilia are eukaryotic organelles essential for movement, signaling or sensing. Primary cilia act as antennae to sense a cell's environment and are involved in a wide range of signaling pathways essential for development. Motile cilia drive cell locomotion or liquid flow around the cell. Proper functioning of both types of cilia requires a highly orchestrated bi-directional transport system, intraflagellar transport (IFT), which is driven by motor proteins, kinesin-2 and IFT dynein. In this review, we explore how IFT is regulated in cilia, focusing from three different perspectives on the issue. First, we reflect on how the motor track, the microtubule-based axoneme, affects IFT. Second, we focus on the motor proteins, considering the role motor action, cooperation and motor-train interaction plays in the regulation of IFT. Third, we discuss the role of kinases in the regulation of the motor proteins. Our goal is to provide mechanistic insights in IFT regulation in cilia and to suggest directions of future research.

Functional Alterations in Ciliogenesis-Associated Kinase 1 (CILK1) that Result from Mutations Linked to Juvenile Myoclonic Epilepsy

Ciliopathies are a group of human genetic disorders associated with mutations that give rise to the dysfunction of primary cilia. Ciliogenesis-associated kinase 1 (CILK1), formerly known as intestinal cell kinase (ICK), is a conserved serine and threonine kinase that restricts primary (non-motile) cilia formation and length. Mutations in CILK1 are associated with ciliopathies and are also linked to juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME). However, the effects of the JME-related mutations in CILK1 on kinase activity and CILK1 function are unknown. Here, we report that JME pathogenic mutations in the CILK1 N-terminal kinase domain abolish kinase activity, evidenced by the loss of phosphorylation of kinesin family member 3A (KIF3A) at Thr672, while JME mutations in the C-terminal non-catalytic domain (CTD) have little effect on KIF3A phosphorylation. Although CILK1 variants in the CTD retain catalytic activity, they nonetheless lose the ability to restrict cilia length and also gain function in promoting ciliogenesis. We show that wild type CILK1 predominantly localizes to the base of the primary cilium; in contrast, JME variants of CILK1 are distributed along the entire axoneme of the primary cilium. These results demonstrate that JME pathogenic mutations perturb CILK1 function and intracellular localization. These CILK1 variants affect the primary cilium, independent of CILK1 phosphorylation of KIF3A. Our findings suggest that CILK1 mutations linked to JME result in alterations of primary cilia formation and homeostasis.

Ciliogenesis associated kinase 1: targets and functions in various organ systems

Ciliogenesis associated kinase 1 (CILK1) was previously known as intestinal cell kinase because it was cloned from that origin. However, CILK1 is now recognized as a widely expressed and highly conserved serine/threonine protein kinase. Mutations in the human CILK1 gene have been associated with ciliopathies, a group of human genetic disorders with defects in the primary cilium. In mice, both Cilk1 knock-out and Cilk1 knock-in mutations have recapitulated human ciliopathies. Thus, CILK1 has a fundamental role in the function of the cilium. Several candidate substrates have been proposed for CILK1 and the challenge is to relate these to the mutant phenotypes. In this review, we summarize what is known about CILK1 functions and targets, and discuss gaps in current knowledge that motivate further experimentation to fully understand the role of CILK1 in organ development in humans.

Assembling the jigsaw puzzle: CBX2 isoform 2 and its targets in disorders/differences of sex development

BACKGROUND

One of the defining moments of human life occurs early during embryonic development, when individuals sexually differentiate into either male or female. Perturbation of this process can lead to disorders/differences of sex development (DSD). Chromobox protein homolog 2 (CBX2) has two distinct isoforms, CBX2.1 and CBX2.2: the role of CBX2.1 in DSD has been previously established, yet to date the function of the smaller isoform CBX2.2 remains unknown.

METHODS

The genomic DNA of two 46,XY DSD patients was analysed using whole exome sequencing. Furthermore, protein/DNA interaction studies were performed using DNA adenine methyltransferase identification (DamID) to identify putative binding partners of CBX2. Finally, in vitro functional studies were used to elucidate the effect of wild-type and variant CBX2.2 on selected downstream targets.

RESULTS

Here, we describe two patients with features of DSD i.e. atypical external genitalia, perineal hypospadias and no palpable gonads, each patient carrying a distinct CBX2.2 variant, p.Cys132Arg (c.394T>C) and p.Cys154fs (c.460delT). We show that both CBX2.2 variants fail to regulate the expression of genes essential for sexual development, leading to a severe 46,XY DSD defect, likely because of a defective expression of EMX2 in the developing gonad.

CONCLUSION

Our study indicates a distinct function of the shorter form of CBX2 and by identifying several of its unique targets, can advance our understanding of DSD pathogenesis and ultimately DSD diagnosis and management.

Two specific mutations are prevalent causes of recessive retinitis pigmentosa in North American patients of Jewish ancestry

PURPOSE

Retinitis pigmentosa is a Mendelian disease with a very elevated genetic heterogeneity. Most mutations are responsible for less than 1% of cases, making molecular diagnosis a multigene screening procedure. In this study, we assessed whether direct testing of specific alleles could be a valuable screening approach in cases characterized by prevalent founder mutations.

METHODS

We screened 275 North American patients with recessive/isolate retinitis pigmentosa for two mutations: an Alu insertion in the MAK gene and the p.Lys42Glu missense in the DHDDS gene. All patients were unrelated; 35 reported Jewish ancestry and the remainder reported mixed ethnicity.

RESULTS

We identified the MAK and DHDDS mutations homozygously in only 2.1% and 0.8%, respectively, of patients of mixed ethnicity, but in 25.7% and 8.6%, respectively, of cases reporting Jewish ancestry. Haplotype analyses revealed that inheritance of the MAK mutation was attributable to a founder effect.

CONCLUSION

In contrast to most mutations associated with retinitis pigmentosa-which are, in general, extremely rare-the two alleles investigated here cause disease in approximately one-third of North American patients reporting Jewish ancestry. Therefore, their screening constitutes an alternative procedure to large-scale tests for patients belonging to this ethnic group, especially in time-sensitive situations.

Distinct expression patterns of ICK/MAK/MOK protein kinases in the intestine implicate functional diversity

ICK/MRK (intestinal cell kinase/MAK-related kinase), MAK (male germ cell-associated kinase), and MOK (MAPK/MAK/MRK-overlapping kinase) are closely related serine/threonine protein kinases in the protein kinome. The biological functions and regulatory mechanisms of the ICK/MAK/MOK family are still largely elusive. Despite significant similarities in their catalytic domains, they diverge markedly in the sequence and structural organization of their C-terminal non-catalytic domains, raising the question as to whether they have distinct, overlapping, or redundant biological functions. In order to gain insights into their biological activities and lay a fundamental groundwork for functional studies, we investigated the spatio-temporal distribution patterns and the expression dynamics of ICK/MAK/MOK protein kinases in the intestine. We found that ICK/MAK/MOK proteins display divergent expression patterns along the duodenum-to-colon axis and during postnatal murine development. Furthermore, they are differentially partitioned between intestinal epithelium and mesenchyme. A significant increase in the protein level of ICK, but not MAK, was induced in human primary colon cancer specimens. ICK protein level was up-regulated whereas MOK protein level was down-regulated in mouse intestinal adenomas as compared with their adjacent normal intestinal mucosa. These data suggest distinct roles for ICK/MAK/MOK protein kinases in the regulation of intestinal neoplasia. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that the expressions of ICK/MAK/MOK proteins in the intestinal tract can be differentially and dynamically regulated, implicating a significant functional diversity within this group of protein kinases.

Characterization and expression of the gene encoding En-MAPK1, an intestinal cell kinase (ICK)-like kinase activated by the autocrine pheromone-signaling loop in the Polar Ciliate, Euplotes nobilii

In the protozoan ciliate Euplotes, a transduction pathway resulting in a mitogenic cell growth response is activated by autocrine receptor binding of cell type-specific, water-borne signaling protein pheromones. In Euplotes raikovi, a marine species of temperate waters, this transduction pathway was previously shown to involve the phosphorylation of a nuclear protein kinase structurally similar to the intestinal-cell and male germ cell-associated kinases described in mammals. In E. nobilii, which is phylogenetically closely related to E. raikovi but inhabits Antarctic and Arctic waters, we have now characterized a gene encoding a structurally homologous kinase. The expression of this gene requires +1 translational frameshifting and a process of intron splicing for the production of the active protein, designated En-MAPK1, which contains amino acid substitutions of potential significance for cold-adaptation.

Male germ cell-associated kinase is overexpressed in prostate cancer cells and causes mitotic defects via deregulation of APC/CCDH1

Male germ cell-associated kinase (MAK), a direct transcriptional target of androgen receptor (AR), is a co-activator of AR. In this study, we determined the activating mechanism of MAK and identified a previously unknown AR-independent role of MAK in mitosis. We found that MAK kinase activity requires dual phosphorylation of the conserved TDY motif and that the phosphorylation is dynamic during cell cycle. MAK associates with CDH1 (FZR1, fizzy/cell division cycle 20 related 1) and phosphorylates CDH1 at sites phosphorylated by cyclin-dependent kinases. When MAK is overexpressed, the binding of CDH1 to anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome decreased, resulting in an attenuation of anaphase-promoting complex/C ubiquitin ligase activity and the consequential stabilization of the CDH1 targets such as Aurora kinase A and Polo-like kinase 1. As such, overexpression of MAK leads to mitotic defects such as centrosome amplification and lagging chromosomes. Our immunohistochemistry result showed that MAK is overexpressed in prostate tumor tissues, suggesting a role of MAK in prostate carcinogenesis. Taken with our previous results, our data implicate MAK in both AR activation and chromosomal instability, acting in both early and late prostate cancer development.

The Sum1/Ndt80 transcriptional switch and commitment to meiosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Cells encounter numerous signals during the development of an organism that induce division, differentiation, and apoptosis. These signals need to be present for defined intervals in order to induce stable changes in the cellular phenotype. The point after which an inducing signal is no longer needed for completion of a differentiation program can be termed the "commitment point." Meiotic development in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (sporulation) provides a model system to study commitment. Similar to differentiation programs in multicellular organisms, the sporulation program in yeast is regulated by a transcriptional cascade that produces early, middle, and late sets of sporulation-specific transcripts. Although critical meiosis-specific events occur as early genes are expressed, commitment does not take place until middle genes are induced. Middle promoters are activated by the Ndt80 transcription factor, which is produced and activated shortly before most middle genes are expressed. In this article, I discuss the connection between Ndt80 and meiotic commitment. A transcriptional regulatory pathway makes NDT80 transcription contingent on the prior expression of early genes. Once Ndt80 is produced, the recombination (pachytene) checkpoint prevents activation of the Ndt80 protein. Upon activation, Ndt80 triggers a positive autoregulatory loop that leads to the induction of genes that promote exit from prophase, the meiotic divisions, and spore formation. The pathway is controlled by multiple feed-forward loops that give switch-like properties to the commitment transition. The conservation of regulatory components of the meiotic commitment pathway and the recently reported ability of Ndt80 to increase replicative life span are discussed.

Intestinal cell kinase (ICK) promotes activation of mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) through phosphorylation of Raptor Thr-908

Intestinal cell kinase (ICK), named after its cloning origin, the intestine, is actually a ubiquitously expressed and highly conserved serine/threonine protein kinase. Recently we reported that ICK supports cell proliferation and G(1) cell cycle progression. ICK deficiency significantly disrupted the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling events. However, the biological substrates that mediate the downstream signaling effects of ICK in proliferation and the molecular mechanisms by which ICK interacts with mTORC1 are not well defined. Our prior studies also provided biochemical evidence that ICK interacts with the mTOR/Raptor complex in cells and phosphorylates Raptor in vitro. In this report, we investigated whether and how ICK targets Raptor to regulate the activity of mTORC1. Using the ICK substrate consensus sequence [R-P-X-S/T-P/A/T/S], we identified a putative phosphorylation site, RPGT908T, for ICK in human Raptor. By mass spectrometry and a phospho-specific antibody, we showed that Raptor Thr-908 is a novel in vivo phosphorylation site. ICK is able to phosphorylate Raptor Thr-908 both in vitro and in vivo and when Raptor exists in protein complexes with or without mTOR. Although expression of the Raptor T908A mutant did not affect the mTORC1 integrity, it markedly impaired the mTORC1 activation by insulin or by overexpression of the small GTP-binding protein RheB under nutrient starvation. Our findings demonstrate an important role for ICK in modulating the activity of mTORC1 through phosphorylation of Raptor Thr-908 and thus implicate a potential signaling mechanism by which ICK regulates cell proliferation and division.

Exome sequencing and analysis of induced pluripotent stem cells identify the cilia-related gene male germ cell-associated kinase (MAK) as a cause of retinitis pigmentosa

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a genetically heterogeneous heritable disease characterized by apoptotic death of photoreceptor cells. We used exome sequencing to identify a homozygous Alu insertion in exon 9 of male germ cell-associated kinase (MAK) as the cause of disease in an isolated individual with RP. Screening of 1,798 unrelated RP patients identified 20 additional probands homozygous for this insertion (1.2%). All 21 affected probands are of Jewish ancestry. MAK encodes a kinase involved in the regulation of photoreceptor-connecting cilium length. Immunohistochemistry of human donor tissue revealed that MAK is expressed in the inner segments, cell bodies, and axons of rod and cone photoreceptors. Several isoforms of MAK that result from alternative splicing were identified. Induced pluripotent stem cells were derived from the skin of the proband and a patient with non-MAK-associated RP (RP control). In the RP control individual, we found that a transcript lacking exon 9 was predominant in undifferentiated cells, whereas a transcript bearing exon 9 and a previously unrecognized exon 12 predominated in cells that were differentiated into retinal precursors. However, in the proband with the Alu insertion, the developmental switch to the MAK transcript bearing exons 9 and 12 did not occur. In addition to showing the use of induced pluripotent stem cells to efficiently evaluate the pathogenicity of specific mutations in relatively inaccessible tissues like retina, this study reveals algorithmic and molecular obstacles to the discovery of pathogenic insertions and suggests specific changes in strategy that can be implemented to more fully harness the power of sequencing technologies.

Negative regulation of ciliary length by ciliary male germ cell-associated kinase (Mak) is required for retinal photoreceptor survival

Cilia function as cell sensors in many organs, and their disorders are referred to as "ciliopathies." Although ciliary components and transport machinery have been well studied, regulatory mechanisms of ciliary formation and maintenance are poorly understood. Here we show that male germ cell-associated kinase (Mak) regulates retinal photoreceptor ciliary length and subcompartmentalization. Mak was localized both in the connecting cilia and outer-segment axonemes of photoreceptor cells. In the Mak-null retina, photoreceptors exhibit elongated cilia and progressive degeneration. We observed accumulation of intraflagellar transport 88 (IFT88) and IFT57, expansion of kinesin family member 3A (Kif3a), and acetylated α-tubulin signals in the Mak-null photoreceptor cilia. We found abnormal rhodopsin accumulation in the Mak-null photoreceptor cell bodies at postnatal day 14. In addition, overexpression of retinitis pigmentosa 1 (RP1), a microtubule-associated protein localized in outer-segment axonemes, induced ciliary elongation, and Mak coexpression rescued excessive ciliary elongation by RP1. The RP1 N-terminal portion induces ciliary elongation and increased intensity of acetylated α-tubulin labeling in the cells and is phosphorylated by Mak. These results suggest that Mak is essential for the regulation of ciliary length and is required for the long-term survival of photoreceptors.

Ime1 and Ime2 are required for pseudohyphal growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae on nonfermentable carbon sources

Pseudohyphal growth and meiosis are two differentiation responses to nitrogen starvation of diploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nitrogen starvation in the presence of fermentable carbon sources is thought to induce pseudohyphal growth, whereas nitrogen and sugar starvation induces meiosis. In contrast to the genetic background routinely used to study pseudohyphal growth (Σ1278b), nonfermentable carbon sources stimulate pseudohyphal growth in the efficiently sporulating strain SK1. Pseudohyphal SK1 cells can exit pseudohyphal growth to complete meiosis. Two stimulators of meiosis, Ime1 and Ime2, are required for pseudohyphal growth of SK1 cells in the presence of nonfermentable carbon sources. Epistasis analysis suggests that Ime1 and Ime2 act in the same order in pseudohyphal growth as in meiosis. The different behaviors of strains SK1 and Σ1278b are in part attributable to differences in cyclic AMP (cAMP) signaling. In contrast to Σ1278b cells, hyperactivation of cAMP signaling using constitutively active Ras2(G19V) inhibited pseudohyphal growth in SK1 cells. Our data identify the SK1 genetic background as an alternative genetic background for the study of pseudohyphal growth and suggest an overlap between signaling pathways controlling pseudohyphal growth and meiosis. Based on these findings, we propose to include exit from pseudohyphal growth and entry into meiosis in the life cycle of S. cerevisiae.

The Ras/cAMP pathway and the CDK-like kinase Ime2 regulate the MAPK Smk1 and spore morphogenesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Meiotic development (sporulation) in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is induced by nutritional deprivation. Smk1 is a meiosis-specific MAP kinase homolog that controls spore morphogenesis after the meiotic divisions have taken place. In this study, recessive mutants that suppress the sporulation defect of a smk1-2 temperature-sensitive hypomorph were isolated. The suppressors are partial function alleles of CDC25 and CYR1, which encode the Ras GDP/GTP exchange factor and adenyl cyclase, respectively, and MDS3, which encodes a kelch-domain protein previously implicated in Ras/cAMP signaling. Deletion of PMD1, which encodes a Mds3 paralog, also suppressed the smk1-2 phenotype, and a mds3-Delta pmd1-Delta double mutant was a more potent suppressor than either single mutant. The mds3-Delta, pmd1-Delta, and mds3-Delta pmd1-Delta mutants also exhibited mitotic Ras/cAMP phenotypes in the same rank order. The effect of Ras/cAMP pathway mutations on the smk1-2 phenotype required the presence of low levels of glucose. Ime2 is a meiosis-specific CDK-like kinase that is inhibited by low levels of glucose via its carboxy-terminal regulatory domain. IME2-DeltaC241, which removes the carboxy-terminal domain of Ime2, exacerbated the smk1-2 spore formation phenotype and prevented cyr1 mutations from suppressing smk1-2. Inhibition of Ime2 in meiotic cells shortly after Smk1 is expressed revealed that Ime2 promotes phosphorylation of Smk1's activation loop. These findings demonstrate that nutrients can negatively regulate Smk1 through the Ras/cAMP pathway and that Ime2 is a key activator of Smk1 signaling.

Identification of ciliary and ciliopathy genes in Caenorhabditis elegans through comparative genomics

Comparative genomic analysis of three nematode species identifies 93 genes that encode putative components of the ciliated neurons in C. elegans and are subject to the same regulatory control.

Background

The recent availability of genome sequences of multiple related Caenorhabditis species has made it possible to identify, using comparative genomics, similarly transcribed genes in Caenorhabditis elegans and its sister species. Taking this approach, we have identified numerous novel ciliary genes in C. elegans, some of which may be orthologs of unidentified human ciliopathy genes.

Results

By screening for genes possessing canonical X-box sequences in promoters of three Caenorhabditis species, namely C. elegans, C. briggsae and C. remanei, we identified 93 genes (including known X-box regulated genes) that encode putative components of ciliated neurons in C. elegans and are subject to the same regulatory control. For many of these genes, restricted anatomical expression in ciliated cells was confirmed, and control of transcription by the ciliogenic DAF-19 RFX transcription factor was demonstrated by comparative transcriptional profiling of different tissue types and of daf-19(+) and daf-19(-) animals. Finally, we demonstrate that the dye-filling defect of dyf-5(mn400) animals, which is indicative of compromised exposure of cilia to the environment, is caused by a nonsense mutation in the serine/threonine protein kinase gene M04C9.5.

Conclusion

Our comparative genomics-based predictions may be useful for identifying genes involved in human ciliopathies, including Bardet-Biedl Syndrome (BBS), since the C. elegans orthologs of known human BBS genes contain X-box motifs and are required for normal dye filling in C. elegans ciliated neurons.

Functional characterization of human PFTK1 as a cyclin-dependent kinase

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are crucial regulators of the eukaryotic cell cycle whose activities are controlled by associated cyclins. PFTK1 shares limited homology to CDKs, but its ability to associate with any cyclins and its biological functions remain largely unknown. Here, we report the functional characterization of human PFTK1 as a CDK. PFTK1 specifically interacted with cyclin D3 (CCND3) and formed a ternary complex with the cell cycle inhibitor p21(Cip1) in mammalian cells. We demonstrated that the kinase activity of PFTK1 depended on CCND3 and was negatively regulated by p21(Cip1). Moreover, we identified the tumor suppressor Rb as a potential downstream substrate for the PFTK1/CCND3 complex. Importantly, knocking down PFTK1 expression by using siRNA caused cell cycle arrest at G(1), whereas ectopic expression of PFTK1 promoted cell proliferation. Taken together, our data strongly suggest that PFTK1 acts as a CDK that regulates cell cycle progression and cell proliferation.

Mutation of the MAP kinase DYF-5 affects docking and undocking of kinesin-2 motors and reduces their speed in the cilia of Caenorhabditis elegans

In the cilia of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, anterograde intraflagellar transport (IFT) is mediated by two kinesin-2 complexes, kinesin II and OSM-3 kinesin. These complexes function together in the cilia middle segments, whereas OSM-3 alone mediates transport in the distal segments. Not much is known about the mechanisms that compartmentalize the kinesin-2 complexes or how transport by both kinesins is coordinated. Here, we identify DYF-5, a conserved MAP kinase that plays a role in these processes. Fluorescence microscopy and EM revealed that the cilia of dyf-5 loss-of-function (lf) animals are elongated and are not properly aligned into the amphid channel. Some cilia do enter the amphid channel, but the distal ends of these cilia show accumulation of proteins. Consistent with these observations, we found that six IFT proteins accumulate in the cilia of dyf-5(lf) mutants. In addition, using genetic analyses and live imaging to measure the motility of IFT proteins, we show that dyf-5 is required to restrict kinesin II to the cilia middle segments. Finally, we show that, in dyf-5(lf) mutants, OSM-3 moves at a reduced speed and is not attached to IFT particles. We propose that DYF-5 plays a role in the undocking of kinesin II from IFT particles and in the docking of OSM-3 onto IFT particles.

Identification of yin-yang regulators and a phosphorylation consensus for male germ cell-associated kinase (MAK)-related kinase

MAK (male germ cell-associated protein kinase) and MRK/ICK (MAK-related kinase/intestinal cell kinase) are human homologs of Ime2p in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and of Mde3 and Pit1 in Schizosaccharomyces pombe and are similar to human cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 (ERK2). MAK and MRK require dual phosphorylation in a TDY motif catalyzed by an unidentified human threonine kinase and tyrosine autophosphorylation. Herein, we establish that human CDK-related kinase CCRK (cell cycle-related kinase) is an activating T157 kinase for MRK, whereas active CDK7/cyclin H/MAT1 complexes phosphorylate CDK2 but not MRK. Protein phosphatase 5 (PP5) interacts with MRK in a complex and dephosphorylates MRK at T157 in vitro and in situ. Thus, CCRK and PP5 are yin-yang regulators of T157 phosphorylation. To determine a substrate consensus, we screened a combinatorial peptide library with active MRK. MRK preferentially phosphorylates R-P-X-S/T-P sites, with the preference for arginine at position -3 (P-3) being more stringent than for prolines at P-2 and P+1. Using the consensus, we identified a putative phosphorylation site (RPLT(1080)S) for MRK in human Scythe, an antiapoptotic protein that interacts with MRK. MRK phosphorylates Scythe at T1080 in vitro as determined by site-directed mutagenesis and mass spectrometry, supporting the consensus and suggesting Scythe as a physiological substrate for MRK.

Activation of a nuclear Cdc2-related kinase within a mitogen-activated protein kinase-like TDY motif by autophosphorylation and cyclin-dependent protein kinase-activating kinase

Male germ cell-associated kinase (MAK) and intestinal cell kinase (ICK) are nuclear Cdc2-related kinases with nearly identical N-terminal catalytic domains and more divergent C-terminal noncatalytic domains. The catalytic domain is also related to mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and contains a corresponding TDY motif. Nuclear localization of ICK requires subdomain XI and interactions of the conserved Arg-272, but not kinase activity or, surprisingly, any of the noncatalytic domain. Further, nuclear localization of ICK is required for its activation. ICK is activated by dual phosphorylation of the TDY motif. Phosphorylation of Tyr-159 in the TDY motif requires ICK autokinase activity but confers only basal kinase activity. Full activation requires additional phosphorylation of Thr-157 in the TDY motif. Coexpression of ICK with constitutively active MEK1 or MEK5 fails to increase ICK phosphorylation or activity, suggesting that MEKs are not involved. ICK and MAK are related to Ime2p in budding yeast, and cyclin-dependent protein kinase-activating kinase Cak1p has been placed genetically upstream of Ime2p. Recombinant Cak1p phosphorylates Thr-157 in the TDY motif of recombinant ICK and activates its activity in vitro. Coexpression of ICK with wild-type CAK1 but not kinase-inactive CAK1 in cells also increases ICK phosphorylation and activity. Our studies establish ICK as the prototype for a new group of MAPK-like kinases requiring dual phosphorylation at TDY motifs.

A testicular germ cell-associated serine-threonine kinase, MAK, is dispensable for sperm formation

A member of the mitogen-activated protein kinase superfamily, MAK, has been proposed to have an important role in spermatogenesis, since Mak gene expression is highly restricted to testicular germ cells. To assess the biological function of MAK, we have established MAK-deficient (Mak(-/-)) mice. Mak(-/-) mice developed normally, and no gross abnormalities were observed. Spermatogenesis of the Mak(-/-) mice was also intact, and most of the mice were fertile. However, Mak(-/-) male-derived litter sizes and their sperm motility in vitro were mildly reduced. These data show that function of MAK is not essential for spermatogenesis and male fertility.

Identification of the autophosphorylation sites and characterization of their effects in the protein kinase DYRK1A

Protein kinases of the DYRK ('dual-specificity tyrosine-regulated kinase') family are characterized by a conserved Tyr-Xaa-Tyr motif (Tyr-319-Tyr-321) in a position exactly corresponding to the activation motif of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) family (Thr-Xaa-Tyr). In a molecular model of the catalytic domain of DYRK1A, the orientation of phosphorylated Tyr-321 is strikingly similar to that of Tyr-185 in the known structure of the activated MAP kinase, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 2. Consistent with our model, substitution of Tyr-321 but not of Tyr-319 by phenylalanine markedly reduced the enzymic activity of recombinant DYRK1A expressed in either Escherichia coli or mammalian cells. Direct identification of phosphorylated residues by tandem MS confirmed that Tyr-321, but not Tyr-319, was phosphorylated. When expressed in COS-7 cells, DYRK1A was found to be fully phosphorylated on Tyr-321. A catalytically inactive mutant of DYRK1A contained no detectable phosphotyrosine, indicating that Tyr-321 is autophosphorylated by DYRK1A. MS identified Tyr-111 and Ser-97 as additional autophosphorylation sites in the non-catalytic N-terminal domain of bacterially expressed DYRK1A. Enzymic activity was not affected in the DYRK1A-Y111F mutant. The present experimental data and the molecular model indicate that the activity of DYRK1A is dependent on the autophosphorylation of a conserved tyrosine residue in the activation loop.

A tyrosine kinase profile of prostate carcinoma

Tyrosine kinases play central roles in the growth and differentiation of normal and tumor cells. In this study, we have analyzed the general tyrosine kinase expression profile of a prostate carcinoma (PCA) xenograft, CWR22. We describe here an improved reverse transcriptase-PCR approach that permits identification of nearly 40 different kinases in a single screening; several of these kinases are newly cloned kinases and some are novel. According to this, there are 11 receptor kinases, 9 nonreceptor kinases, and at least 7 dual kinases expressed in the xenograft tissue. The receptor kinases include erbB2, erbB3, Ret, platelet-derived growth factor receptor, sky, nyk, eph, htk, sek (eph), ddr, and tkt. The nonreceptor kinases are lck, yes, abl, arg, JakI, tyk2, and etk/bmx. Most of the dual kinases are in the mitogen-activating protein (MAP) kinase-kinase (MKK) family, which includes MKK3, MKK4, MEK5, and a novel one. As a complementary approach, we also analyzed by specific reverse transcriptase-PCR primers the expression profile of erbB/epidermal growth factor receptor family receptors in a variety of PCA specimens, cell lines, and benign prostatic hyperplasia. We found that erbB1, -2, and -3 are often coexpressed in prostate tissues, but not in erbB4. The information established here should provide a base line to study the possible growth and oncogenic signals of PCA.

Efficient generation of recombinant adenoviruses using adenovirus DNA-terminal protein complex and a cosmid bearing the full-length virus genome

An efficient method of constructing recombinant adenoviruses (Ads) has been established. The expression unit to be introduced into recombinant Ad was first inserted into the unique Swa I site of the full-length Ad genome cloned in a cassette cosmid. The cassette bearing the expression unit was then cotransfected into human embryonic kidney 293 cells together with the Ad DNA-terminal protein complex digested at several sites with Eco T22I or Ase I/EcoRI. The use of the parent Ad DNA-terminal protein complex instead of the deproteinized Ad genome DNA allowed very efficient recovery of the desired recombinant Ad, and the above restriction digestion drastically reduced regeneration of the parent virus. Several hundred virus clones were readily obtained in each experiment, and about 70% of the clones were the desired recombinant viruses. Furthermore, because the cassette contained the full-length Ad genome, any position of the genome could be easily modified to develop a new vector design. We established construction systems for two types of Ad vectors, the E1-substitution type and the E4-insertion type. This method may greatly facilitate the application of recombinant Ads and should be useful for further improvement of Ad vectors.

A bipartite operator interacts with a heat shock element to mediate early meiotic induction of Saccharomyces cerevisiae HSP82

Although key genetic regulators of early meiotic transcription in Saccharomyces cerevisiae have been well characterized, the activation of meiotic genes is still poorly understood in terms of cis-acting DNA elements and their associated factors. I report here that induction of HSP82 is regulated by the early meiotic IME1-IME2 transcriptional cascade. Vegetative repression and meiotic induction depend on interactions of the promoter-proximal heat shock element (HSE) with a nearby bipartite repression element, composed of the ubiquitous early meiotic motif, URS1 (upstream repression sequence 1), and a novel ancillary repression element. The ancillary repression element is required for efficient vegetative repression, is spatially separable from URS1, and continues to facilitate repression during sporulation. In contrast, URS1 also functions as a vegetative repression element but is converted early in meiosis into an HSE-dependent activation element. An early step in this transformation may be the antagonism of URS1-mediated repression by IME1. The HSE also nonspecifically supports a second major mode of meiotic activation that does not require URS1 but does require expression of IME2 and concurrent starvation. Interestingly, increased rather than decreased URS1-mediated vegetative transcription can be artificially achieved by introducing rare point mutations into URS1 or by deleting the UME6 gene. These lesions offer insight into mechanisms of URS-dependent repression and activation. Experiments suggest that URS1-bound factors functionally modulate heat shock factor during vegetative transcription and early meiotic induction but not during heat shock. The loss of repression and activation observed when the IME2 activation element, T4C, is substituted for the HSE suggests specific requirements for URS1-upstream activation sequence interactions.

PkpA, a novel Phycomyces blakesleeanus serine/threonine protein kinase

This work reports the cloning and sequencing of pkpA, a gene of the filamentous fungus Phycomyces blakesleeanus, whose expression seems to be coupled to vegetative growth. This gene encodes a putative serine/threonine-specific protein kinase, whose sequence is related to that of the yeast protein STE20, involved in pheromone-response pathways, and to a number of MAPK kinase proteins. However, detailed analysis of the kinase sequence suggests that PkpA is a novel serine/threonine protein kinase that probably participates as an intermediate in an intracellular system controlling nuclear proliferation in P. blakesleeanus.

Testis-specific mak protein kinase is expressed specifically in the meiotic phase in spermatogenesis and is associated with a 210-kilodalton cellular phosphoprotein

The mak gene encodes a new protein kinase distantly related to cdc2 kinase, and its transcripts are expressed exclusively in testicular germ cells at and after meiosis (H. Matsushime, A. Jinno, N. Takagi, and M. Shibuya, Mol. Cell. Biol. 10:2261-2268, 1990). In this study, we prepared a series of antibodies against synthetic peptides and fusion products of the mak gene and characterized the subcellular localization, protein kinase activity, and association with other cellular proteins of Mak. Mak products were identified as 66- and 60-kDa proteins that specifically appeared in rat testes after puberty. Testicular germ cell fractionation revealed that Mak products were most abundant in the fraction of the late pachytene stage and that their levels were dramatically decreased in postmeiotic haploid cells. Mak products were localized mostly in the cytoplasm as a soluble form. [35S]methionine labelling demonstrated that Mak products were associated with a 210-kDa cellular protein; in an in vitro kinase assay with immunoprecipitates of Mak products, the 210-kDa cellular protein was efficiently phosphorylated on serine and threonine residues. Furthermore, in a testicular cell culture system with 32Pi, the 210-kDa molecule associated with Mak was phosphorylated in vivo on serine and threonine residues. These results strongly suggest that the Mak complex may play a role in meiosis during spermatogenesis and that a phosphorylated 210-kDa protein is one of the physiological substrates for this protein kinase.

Testis-specific mak protein kinase is expressed specifically in the meiotic phase in spermatogenesis and is associated with a 210-kilodalton cellular phosphoprotein

The mak gene encodes a new protein kinase distantly related to cdc2 kinase, and its transcripts are expressed exclusively in testicular germ cells at and after meiosis (H. Matsushime, A. Jinno, N. Takagi, and M. Shibuya, Mol. Cell. Biol. 10:2261-2268, 1990). In this study, we prepared a series of antibodies against synthetic peptides and fusion products of the mak gene and characterized the subcellular localization, protein kinase activity, and association with other cellular proteins of Mak. Mak products were identified as 66- and 60-kDa proteins that specifically appeared in rat testes after puberty. Testicular germ cell fractionation revealed that Mak products were most abundant in the fraction of the late pachytene stage and that their levels were dramatically decreased in postmeiotic haploid cells. Mak products were localized mostly in the cytoplasm as a soluble form. [35S]methionine labelling demonstrated that Mak products were associated with a 210-kDa cellular protein; in an in vitro kinase assay with immunoprecipitates of Mak products, the 210-kDa cellular protein was efficiently phosphorylated on serine and threonine residues. Furthermore, in a testicular cell culture system with 32Pi, the 210-kDa molecule associated with Mak was phosphorylated in vivo on serine and threonine residues. These results strongly suggest that the Mak complex may play a role in meiosis during spermatogenesis and that a phosphorylated 210-kDa protein is one of the physiological substrates for this protein kinase.

Cloning and antisense oligodeoxynucleotide inhibition of a human homolog of cdc2 required in hematopoiesis

Mechanisms triggering the commitment of pluripotent bone marrow stem cells to differentiated lineages such as mononuclear macrophages or multinucleated megakaryocytes are still unknown, although several lines of evidence suggested correlation between cholinergic signaling and hematopoietic differentiation. We now present cloning of a cDNA coding for CHED (cholinesterase-related cell division controller), a human homolog of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe cell division cycle 2 (cdc2)-like kinases, universal controllers of the mitotic cell cycle. Library screening, RNA blot hybridization, and direct PCR amplification of cDNA reverse-transcribed from cellular mRNA revealed that CHED mRNA is expressed in multiple tissues, including bone marrow. The CHED protein includes the consensus ATP binding and phosphorylation domains characteristic of kinases, displays 34-42% identically aligned amino acid residues with other cdc2-related kinases, and is considerably longer at its amino and carboxyl termini. An antisense oligodeoxynucleotide designed to interrupt CHED's expression (AS-CHED) significantly reduced the ratio between CHED mRNA and actin mRNA within 1 hr of its addition to cultures, a reduction that persisted for 4 days. AS-CHED treatment selectively inhibited megakaryocyte development in murine bone marrow cultures but did not prevent other hematopoietic pathways, as evidenced by increasing numbers of mononuclear cells. An oligodeoxynucleotide blocking production of the acetylcholine-hydrolyzing enzyme, butyrylcholinesterase, displayed a similar inhibition of megakaryocytopoiesis. In contrast, an oligodeoxynucleotide blocking production of the human 2Hs cdc2 homolog interfered with production of the human 2Hs cdc2 homolog interfered with cellular proliferation without altering the cell-type composition of these cultures. Therefore, these findings strengthen the link between cholinergic signaling and cell division control in hematopoiesis and implicate both CHED and cholinesterases in this differentiation process.

A relative of the catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase in Aplysia spermatozoa

Transcripts encoding CAPL-B, an apparent member of the cyclic-nucleotide-regulated kinase subfamily in Aplysia californica, are found exclusively in the ovotestis and are concentrated in meiotic and postmeiotic spermatogenic cells. The CAPL-B polypeptide is present in mature spermatozoa, suggesting that the kinase plays a part in regulating events associated with fertilization.

A relative of the catalytic subunit of cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase in Aplysia spermatozoa

Transcripts encoding CAPL-B, an apparent member of the cyclic-nucleotide-regulated kinase subfamily in Aplysia californica, are found exclusively in the ovotestis and are concentrated in meiotic and postmeiotic spermatogenic cells. The CAPL-B polypeptide is present in mature spermatozoa, suggesting that the kinase plays a part in regulating events associated with fertilization.

A point mutation at tyrosine-809 in the human colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor impairs mitogenesis without abrogating tyrosine kinase activity, association with phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, or induction of c-fos and junB genes

Substitution of phenylalanine for tyrosine-809 in the human colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF-1R) inhibited its ability to transduce ligand-dependent mitogenic signals in mouse NIH 3T3 cells. When combined with an "activating" mutation at codon 301 that induces constitutive CSF-1R tyrosine kinase activity, the codon 809 mutation suppressed ligand-independent cell transformation. Comparative mapping of tryptic phosphopeptides from mutant and wild-type CSF-1R indicated that tyrosine-809 is a site of ligand-dependent receptor phosphorylation in vivo. The mutant receptor was active as a tyrosine kinase in vitro and in vivo, underwent CSF-1-dependent association with a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, and induced expression of the protooncogenes c-fos and junB, underscoring its ability to trigger some of the known cellular responses to CSF-1. The mutant receptor is likely to be impaired in its ability to interact with critical cellular effectors whose activity is required for mitogenesis.