Clinical practice guidelines for acute otitis media in children: a systematic review and appraisal of European national guidelines

Impact of Habitual Yogurt Intake in Mother-Child Dyads on Incidence of Childhood Otitis Media: The Japan Environment and Children's Study (JECS)

Otitis media, one of the most common childhood diseases, is characterized by inflammation or infection of the middle ear. Due to their ease of access, daily probiotics are recommended for the prevention of early childhood otitis media. This study aimed to assess the impact of probiotics on the incidence of otitis media using a dataset (n = 95,380) from the Japan Environment and Children's Study, a nationwide birth cohort study. After multiple imputations, the association between the incidence of otitis media in early childhood and the daily frequency of yogurt intake in children and mothers was examined using a generalized linear model after adjusting for several confounders. Repeated incidence of otitis media during the 2 years after birth was found in 14,874 participants (15.6%). Based on participants with the lowest frequency of yogurt intake ("almost never") as the reference group, risk ratios for otitis media incidence decreased with higher frequencies of yogurt intake in children at one year of age, but also independently in mothers during pregnancy. The lowest risk ratio (95% confidence interval) for otitis media incidence at six months of age was observed with the most frequent yogurt intake (once/day or more) (0.54 [0.46-0.63]). Additionally, although a similar association was observed in the subgroup of those with cleft lip and/or palate (CL/P), a high-risk group for severe recurrent otitis media, no statistical significance was observed. Thus, increased regular yogurt intake in both children and mothers was associated with a decrease of otitis media during early childhood.

Specific and Nonspecific Effects of Influenza Vaccines

With the introduction of the influenza vaccine in the official immunization schedule of most countries, several data regarding the efficacy, tolerability, and safety of influenza immunization were collected worldwide. Interestingly, together with the confirmation that influenza vaccines are effective in reducing the incidence of influenza virus infection and the incidence and severity of influenza disease, epidemiological data have indicated that influenza immunization could be useful for controlling antimicrobial resistance (AMR) development. Knowledge of the reliability of these findings seems essential for precise quantification of the clinical relevance of influenza immunization. If definitively confirmed, these findings can have a relevant impact on influenza vaccine development and use. Moreover, they can be used to convince even the most recalcitrant health authorities of the need to extend influenza immunization to the entire population. In this narrative review, present knowledge regarding these particular aspects of influenza immunization is discussed. Literature analysis showed that the specific effects of influenza immunization are great enough per se to recommend systematic annual immunization of younger children, old people, and all individuals with severe chronic underlying diseases. Moreover, influenza immunization can significantly contribute to limiting the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. The problem of the possible nonspecific effects of influenza vaccines remains unsolved. The definition of their role as inducers of trained immunity seems essential not only to evaluate how much they play a role in the prevention of infectious diseases but also to evaluate whether they can be used to prevent and treat clinical conditions in which chronic inflammation and autoimmunity play a fundamental pathogenetic role.

Comparative efficacy and optimal duration of first-line antibiotic regimens for acute otitis media in children and adolescents: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of 89 randomized clinical trials

INTRODUCTION

Antibiotic use for acute otitis media (AOM) is one of the major sources of antimicrobial resistance. However, the effective minimal antibiotic duration for AOM remains unclear. Moreover, guidelines often recommend broad ranges (5-10 days) of antibiotic use, yet the clinical impact of such a wide window has not been assessed.

METHODS

We systematically searched PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library from database inception to 6 October 2021. Network meta-analysis was conducted on randomized controlled trials that assessed antibiotic treatment for AOM in children (PROSPERO CRD42020196107).

RESULTS

For amoxicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanate, 7-day regimens were noninferior to 10-day regimens in clinical responses [amoxicillin: risk ratio (RR) 0.919 (95% CI 0.820-1.031), amoxicillin-clavulanate: RR 1.108 (0.957-1.282)], except for ≤ 2 years. For the third-generation cephalosporins, 7-day and 10-day regimens had similar clinical responses compared to placebo [7-day: RR 1.420 (1.190-1.694), 10-day: RR 1.238 (1.125-1.362) compared to placebo]. However, 5-day regimens of amoxicillin-clavulanate and third-generation cephalosporins were inferior to 10-day regimens. Compared to amoxicillin, a shorter treatment duration was tolerable with amoxicillin-clavulanate.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicated that 10 days of antibiotic use may be unnecessarily long, while the treatment duration should be longer than 5 days. Otherwise, 5-day regimens would be sufficient for a modest treatment goal. Our findings revealed that the current wide range of recommended antibiotic durations may have influenced the clinical outcome of AOM, and a narrower antibiotic duration window should be re-established.

Comparison of amoxicillin administered twice and three times daily in children with acute otitis media

To compare the effectiveness of amoxicillin administered in regimens of two or three daily doses in children with acute otitis media (AOM). As a secondary aim, we measured and compared treatment adherence between the two groups.A prospective observational study was conducted in the emergency department of a children's hospital.We recruited a total of 353 patients having a median age of 1.58 years. Twice-daily dosing was prescribed to 58%, while 42% received three doses per day. The clinical course of AOM was favourable in 92% of the patients who received two doses of amoxicillin and in 95% of those who received three doses (p = 0.25). Four patients (1%) had persistent symptoms beyond day 7. None developed intracranial complications. In the group receiving three doses daily, 31% reported difficulties with the dosing schedule, and 9.6% faced challenges when administering the medication at the specified volume, compared with 5.8% and 25% of those who received the two-dose regimen, respectively.  Conclusion: Twice-daily amoxicillin has similar efficacy to a three-dose daily regimen and can offer advantages for caregivers in terms of administration schedule. What is Known: • Amoxicillin given in two daily doses is as effective as a three doses regimen in the treatment of acute otitis media in children. • The lower the number of daily doses, the higher the adherence to a drug treatment. What is New: • Administration of amoxicillin in twice-daily doses may improve adherence, as it is less frequently associated with family-perceived problems with dosing schedules.

Antibiotic Resistance of Haemophilus influenzae in Nasopharyngeal Carriage of Children with Acute Otitis Media and in Middle Ear Fluid from Otorrhea

Haemophilus influenzae (Hi) is one of the leading bacteria implicated in childhood acute otitis media (AOM). Recent concerns have been raised about the emergence of Hi-resistant strains. We aimed to analyze the evolution of β-lactam resistance to Hi among strains isolated from nasopharyngeal carriage in children with AOM and in mild ear fluid (MEF) after the spontaneous perforation of the tympanic membrane (SPTM) in France. In this national ambulatory-based cohort study over 16 years, we analyzed the rate of Hi nasopharyngeal carriage and the proportion of β-lactam-resistant Hi strains over time using a segmented linear regression model. Among the 13,865 children (median [IQR] age, 12.7 [9.3-17.3] months; 7400 [53.4%] male) with AOM included from November 2006 to July 2022, Hi was isolated in 7311 (52.7%) children by nasopharyngeal sampling. The proportion of β-lactamase-producing and β-lactamase-negative, ampicillin-resistant (BLNAR) Hi strains in nasopharyngeal carriage remained stable during the study period. Among the 783 children (median [IQR] age, 20 [12.3-37.8] months; 409 [52.2%] male) with SPTM included from October 2015 to July 2022, Hi was isolated in 177 (22.6%) cases by MEF sampling. The proportions of β-lactamase-producing and BLNAR Hi strains did not significantly differ between nasopharyngeal (17.6% and 8.8%, respectively) and MEF (12.6% and 7.4%) samples. Accordingly, amoxicillin remains a valid recommendation as the first-line drug for AOM in France.

The principles of curative antibiotic treatments

Knowledge of infectious diseases and their treatments is constantly evolving. New infectious agents are regularly discovered, due mainly to improvement of identification techniques, especially the development of molecular biology and mass spectrometry. While changes in the epidemiology of infectious diseases are not always predictable or readily understood, several factors regularly enter into consideration, such as not only the natural history of diseases and the impact of vaccinations, but also the excessive and irrational use of antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is now recognized as one of the major challenges for humanity, especially since few new molecules have been put on the market in recent years. These molecules are reserved for serious infections caused by bacteria resistant to other antibiotics and should be prescribed only by infectious disease specialists trained in their use. Rationalization of antibiotic therapy is therefore one of the keys to reducing antibiotic resistance and the spread of resistant bacteria. In this guide, with regard to each clinical situation, the bacterial target(s) of antibiotic treatment, the preferred antibiotic choice, and the therapeutic alternatives will be specified. Comments on diagnosis and treatment of the infection will be added if necessary.

Reliability of nasopharyngeal PCR for the detection of otopathogens in children with uncomplicated acute otitis media compared to culture

Otopathogens in acute otitis media (AOM) have implications for care because the likelihood of resolution without antibiotics and optimal antibiotic agent varies by microorganism. We aimed to determine the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of nasopharyngeal (NP) qualitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for common bacterial otopathogens in children with AOM compared to NP culture. NP flocked swabs collected from enrolled children aged 6 to 35 months with uncomplicated AOM in Denver, CO were tested by culture and multiplex PCR. The sensitivity and negative predictive value of PCR using culture as a reference were high (H. influenzae 93.3%, 98.0%; S. pneumoniae 94.2%, 95.1%; M. catarrhalis 92.3%, 86.4%); whereas the specificity and positive predictive value were lower and varied by organism (54.2%-84.1%, 55.1%-69.2%, respectively). PCR detected 1.5 times more organisms than culture. NP PCR has a high predictive value for excluding otopathogens compared to culture and warrants exploration as a diagnostic tool.

Use of antibiotics contrary to guidelines for children's lower respiratory tract infections in different health care settings

This study aimed to evaluate antibiotic prescriptions for children with lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) in public and private primary care clinics and in a hospital's pediatric emergency department (PED) in 2012-2013 (pre-guideline) and in 2014-2015 (post-guideline). Special attention was paid to guideline compliance, especially regarding macrolide prescriptions, which the guidelines discourage. Retrospective data of 1431 children with LRTI in November-December 2012-2015 were collected from electronic registers and checked manually. Three diagnostic groups were analyzed: community-acquired pneumonia (CAP), wheezing bronchitis, and non-wheezing bronchitis. A comparison of the pre- and post-guideline periods revealed antibiotic prescription rates of 48.7% and 48.9% (p = 0.955) for all LRTIs, respectively, and 77.6% and 71.0% (p = 0.053) for non-wheezing bronchitis. The prescription rates for all LRTIs were 24.9% in PED and 45.9% in public (p < 0.001 vs. PED) and 75.4% in private clinics (p < 0.001 vs. PED and p < 0.001 vs. public clinics). During post-guideline periods, antibiotics were prescribed for CAP less often in private (56.3%) than in public clinics (84.6%; p = 0.037) or in PED (94.3%; p < 0.001 vs. private and p = 0.091 vs. public primary clinics). Macrolide prescriptions were highest in private clinics (42.8%), followed by public primary care clinics (28.5%; p < 0.05) and PED (0.8%; p < 0.05 vs. both public and private primary care). Amoxicillin was the predominant antibiotic in public primary care and PED and macrolides in private primary care.

CONCLUSION

 Antibiotic prescribing for children with LRTI differed significantly between healthcare providers. CAP was undertreated and bronchitis overtreated with antibiotics in primary care, especially in the private clinics.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Clinical Treatment Guidelines tend to have modest effect on physicians' antibiotic prescribing habits. • Pediatric viral LRTIs are widely treated with unnecessary antibiotics.

WHAT IS NEW

• Remarkable differences in antibiotic prescriptions in pediatric LRTIs between Finnish private and public providers were observed. • Overuse of macrolides was common especially in private clinics.

Otorrhea bacterial profile, epidemiology before widespread use of the third-generation pneumococcal conjugate vaccine in French children, a prospective study from 2015 to 2023

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to describe the bacterial profile of middle ear fluid from spontaneous perforation of the tympanic membrane (SPTM) prior to widespread utilization of third- generation pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From October 2015 to January 2023, children with SPTM were prospectively enrolled by pediatricians.

RESULTS

Among the 852 children with SPTM, 73.2% were less than 3 years old; more frequently than older children, they were and suffering from complex acute otitis media (AOM) (27.9%) and conjunctivitis (13.1%). In children under 3 years of age, NT Haemophilus influenzae (49.7%) was the main otopathogen isolated, particularly in those with complex AOM (57.1%). In children over 3 years of age, Group A Streptococcus accounted for 57%. In pneumococcal cases (25.1%), serotype 3 was the main serotype isolated (16.2%), followed by 23B (15.2%).

CONCLUSION

Our data from 2015 to 2023 represent a robust baseline preceding the widespread utilization of next-generation PCVs.

Future Perspectives in the Management of Otitis Media

Otitis media, which encompasses acute otitis media (AOM) and chronic otitis media (COM), is a prevalent and significant health issue affecting both children and adults [...].

Antibiotic Use for Common Infections in Pediatric Emergency Departments: A Narrative Review

Antibiotics are one of the most prescribed medications in pediatric emergency departments. Antimicrobial stewardship programs assist in the reduction of antibiotic use in pediatric patients. However, the establishment of antimicrobial stewardship programs in pediatric EDs remains challenging. Recent studies provide evidence that common infectious diseases treated in the pediatric ED, including acute otitis media, tonsillitis, community-acquired pneumonia, preseptal cellulitis, and urinary-tract infections, can be treated with shorter antibiotic courses. Moreover, there is still controversy regarding the actual need for antibiotic treatment and the optimal dosing scheme for each infection.

Short-term antibiotic therapy for the most common bacterial respiratory infections in infants and children

Overuse and misuse of antibiotics have strongly accelerated the progressive increase in bacterial antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The evidence that antimicrobial selective pressure was greater the longer the antibiotic therapy was continued has led some experts to reconsider duration of antibiotic therapy testing the use of short-term drug administration. If as effective as long-term therapy, short-term therapy could have been an easy measure to limit AMR emergence. In the present narrative review, whether present knowledge on short-term therapy of acute streptococcal pharyngitis (ASF), acute otitis media (AOM) and mild to moderate community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) allows systematic use of short-term therapy in infants and children with these diseases is discussed. Literature analysis showed that reducing the duration of antibiotic therapy for some of the most common pediatric respiratory infections could be a valid measure to contain the antibiotic abuse and the consequent impact on the emergence of AMR. Several data seem to indicate that this type of intervention is possible, as short-term therapy has been found as effective as the traditionally recommended long-term therapy in some cases of ASF, AOM and mild to moderate CAP. However, further studies are needed to better characterize infants and children who can have benefit with short-term antibiotic therapy in common bacterial respiratory infections.

New insights into the treatment of acute otitis media

INTRODUCTION

Acute otitis media (AOM) affects most (80%) children by 5 years of age and is the most common reason children are prescribed antibiotics. The epidemiology of AOM has changed considerably since the widespread use of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines, which has broad-reaching implications for management.

AREAS COVERED

In this narrative review, we cover the epidemiology of AOM, best practices for diagnosis and management, new diagnostic technology, effective stewardship interventions, and future directions of the field. Literature review was performed using PubMed and ClinicalTrials.gov.

EXPERT OPINION

Inaccurate diagnoses, unnecessary antibiotic use, and increasing antimicrobial resistance remain major challenges in AOM management. Fortunately, effective tools and interventions to improve diagnostic accuracy, de-implement unnecessary antibiotic use, and individualize care are on the horizon. Successful scaling of these tools and interventions will be critical to improving overall care for children.

Update of the consensus document on the aetiology, diagnosis and treatment of acute otitis media and sinusitis

Update of the consensus on acute otitis media (AOM) (2012) and sinusitis (2013) following the introduction of pneumococcal vaccines in the immunization schedule, and related changes, such as epidemiological variation, colonization by of nonvaccine serotypes and emerging antimicrobial resistances. A majority of studies show that the introduction of the pneumococcal 13-valent conjugate vaccine has been followed by a reduction in the nasopharyngeal carriage of pneumococcus, with an increase in the proportion of drug-resistant nonvaccine serotypes. The diagnosis of AOM is still clinical, although more stringent criteria are proposed, which are based on the visualization of abnormalities in the tympanic membrane and the findings of pneumatic otoscopy performed by trained clinicians. The routine diagnosis of sinusitis is also clinical, and the use of imaging is restricted to the assessment of complications. Analgesia with acetaminophen or ibuprofen is the cornerstone of AOM management; watchful waiting or delayed antibiotic prescription may be suitable strategies in select patients. The first-line antibiotic drug in children with AOM and sinusitis and moderate to severe disease is still high-dose amoxicillin, or amoxicillin-clavulanic acid in select cases. Short-course regimens lasting 5-7 days are recommended for patients with uncomplicated disease, no risk factors and a mild presentation. In allergic patients, the selection of the antibiotic agent must be individualized based on severity and whether or not the allergy is IgE-mediated. In recurrent AOM, the choice between watchful waiting, antibiotic prophylaxis or surgery must be individualized based on the clinical characteristics of the patient.

Watchful Waiting in Pediatric Acute Otitis Media: A Real Practice Approach or an Intangible Desideratum?

Acute otitis media (AOM) in children is one of the leading causes of health care visits and antibiotic prescriptions worldwide. The overall aim of the current study is twofold: 1. to analyze and discuss the antibiotic prescription patterns in AOM in children without complications or risk factors and 2. to assess to what extent the watchful-waiting approach is a real practice or a mere desideratum. We performed an electronic search in the PubMed and Embase databases from 2013 to 2023 to capture original research studies investigating antibiotic prescribing patterns for AOM in children. Among the 12 papers included in the analysis, the antibiotic prescription rate ranged from 44.8% to 98%. Our study reveals similarities regarding the use of amoxicillin as a first-line antibiotic in pediatric AOM, but also discrepancies in the watchful-waiting approach attitude and in the choice of second or third-line antimicrobial agents. The proportion of cases managed with the watchful-waiting approach ranged from 7.5% (Australia) to 55.2% (Finland). Denmark was the only country reporting penicillin V as a first-choice regimen for children with AOM, which fulfils the guidelines’ recommendations. The most unsatisfying rate of amoxicillin use was recorded in Japan, contrary to the recommendations of local guidelines. The use of quinolones was reported in two out of twelve studies, with the highest proportion in Japan, where tosufloxacin was used in 21.4% of the total number of cases. The duration of the antibiotic regimens was analyzed in three out of twelve papers. Since global antibiotic overuse contributes to the emergence of antibiotic resistant bacteria, new strategies are needed to increase the rate of watchful waiting and to promote the judicious use of antibiotics.

Acute otitis media symptoms and symptom scales in research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children

BACKGROUND

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children experience a high burden of otitis media. We collected data on symptoms associated with acute otitis media (AOM) in a clinical trial involving children receiving primary care at urban Aboriginal Medical Services. Two scales were employed to monitor symptoms over time: the AOM-Severity of Symptoms scale (AOM-SOS) and the AOM-Faces Scale (AOM-FS). This study took place at a mid-point of the un-blinded trial.

METHODS

We examined symptoms at enrolment and day 7, and compared the scales for trends, and bivariate correlation (Spearman's rho) over 14 days. Responsiveness of the scales to clinical change was determined by Friedman's test of trend in two subgroups stratified by day 7 AOM status. We interviewed parents/carers and research officers regarding their experience of the scales and analysed data thematically.

RESULTS

Data derived from 224 children (18 months to 16 years; median 3.6 years). Common symptoms associated with AOM at baseline were runny nose (40%), cough (38%) and irritability (36%). More than one third had no or minimal symptoms at baseline according to AOM-SOS (1-2/10) and AOM-FS scores (1-2/7). The scales performed similarly, and were moderately correlated, at all study points. Although scores decreased from day 0 to 14, trends and mean scores were the same whether AOM was persistent or resolved at day 7. Users preferred the simplicity of the AOM-FS but encountered challenges when interpreting it.

CONCLUSION

We found minimally symptomatic AOM was common among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in urban settings. The AOM-SOS and AOM-FS functioned similarly. However, it is likely the scales measured concurrent symptoms related to upper respiratory tract infections, given they did not differentiate children with persistent or resolved AOM based on stringent diagnostic criteria. This appears to limit the research and clinical value of the scales in monitoring AOM treatment among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children.

A Peculiar Case of Ossicular Chain Fixation and Enlarged Vestibular Aqueduct

We present the case of a patient treated as affected by conductive hearing loss due to recurrent otitis, then as a juvenile otosclerosis, who was finally diagnosed as affected by bilateral ossicular chain fixation and enlarged vestibular aqueduct by means of cone-beam CT.

Guidelines for the management of male urinary tract infections in primary care: a lack of international consensus-a systematic review of the literature

BACKGROUND

The management of adult male urinary tract infections (mUTIs) in primary care lacks international consensus. The main objective of this study was to describe the different guidelines for the diagnosis and management of mUTIs in primary care, to assess their methodological quality, and to describe their evidence-based strength of recommendation (SoR).

METHODS

An international systematic literature review of the electronic databases Medline (PubMed) and EMBASE, and gray-literature guideline-focused databases was performed in 2021. The Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation (AGREE II) assessment tool was used by 2 independent reviewers to appraise each guideline.

RESULTS

From 1,678 records identified, 1,558 were screened, 134 assessed for eligibility, and 29 updated guidelines met the inclusion criteria (13 from Medline, 0 from EMBASE, and 16 from gray literature). Quality assessment revealed 14 (48%) guidelines with high-quality methodology. A grading system methodology was used in 18 (62%) guidelines. Different classifications of mUTIs are described, underlining a lack of international consensus: an anatomic classification (cystitis, prostatitis, pyelonephritis) and a symptomatic classification (approach based on the intensity and tolerance of symptoms). The duration of antibiotic treatment for febrile mUTIs has been gradually reduced over the last 20 years from 28 days to 10-14 days of fluoroquinolones (FQ), which has become the international gold standard. Guidelines from Scandinavian countries propose short courses (3-5 days) of FQ-sparing treatments: pivmecillinam, nitrofurantoin, or trimethoprim. Guidelines from French-speaking countries use a watchful waiting approach and suggest treating mUTIs with FQ, regardless of fever.

CONCLUSIONS

This lack of scientific evidence leads to consensus and disagreement: 14 days of FQ for febrile mUTIs is accepted despite a high risk of antimicrobial resistance, but FQ-sparing treatment and/or short treatment for afebrile mUTIs is not. The definition of afebrile UTIs/cystitis is debated and influences the type and duration of antibiotic treatment recommended.

Incidence of acute otitis media from 2003 to 2019 in children ≤ 17 years in England

BACKGROUND

The 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) was introduced in 2006 and the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) in 2010 in the UK. PCVs are active immunization for the prevention of invasive disease, pneumonia and acute otitis media (AOM) caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae in children. The aim of this observational study was to estimate incidence rates (IRs) of AOM in children ≤17 years from 2003 to 2019 in England, before and after the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCVs).

METHODS

AOM episodes were identified using Read diagnosis codes in children aged ≤17 years in the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD) Gold database from 2003 to 2019. Annual IRs with 95% confidence intervals (CI) by age group were calculated as the number of episodes/person-years (PY) at risk. Interrupted time series analyses were conducted to estimate incidence rate ratios (IRR) across post-PCV7 (2007-2009), early post-PCV13 (2011-2014) and late post-PCV13 (2015-2019) periods compared to the pre-PCV7 period (2003-2005) using generalized linear models.

RESULTS

From 2003 to 2019, 274,008 all-cause AOM episodes were identified in 1,500,686 children. The overall AOM IR was 3690.9 (95% CI 3677.1-3704.8) per 100,000 PY. AOM IRs were highest in children aged < 5 years and decreased by age; < 2 years: 8286.7 (95% CI 8216.8-8357.1); 2-4 years: 7951.8 (95% CI 7902.5-8001.4); 5-17 years: 2184.4 (95% CI 2172.1-2196.8) (per 100,000 PY). Overall AOM IRs declined by 40.3% between the pre-PCV7 period and the late-PCV13 period from 4451.9 (95% CI 4418.1-4485.9) to 2658.5 (95% CI 2628.6-2688.7) per 100,000 PY, and across all age groups. IRRs indicated a significant decrease in AOM IRs in all the post-vaccination periods, compared to the pre-PCV7 period: post-PCV7 0.87 (95% CI 0.85-0.89), early post-PCV13 0.88 (95% CI 0.86-0.91), and late post-PCV13 0.75 (95% CI 0.73-0.78).

CONCLUSIONS

The AOM IRs declined during the 2003-2019 period; however, the clinical burden of AOM remains substantial among children ≤17 years in England.

The association between exposure to antibiotics in the first week of life and later otitis media: The INCA study

Otitis media (OM) is one of the most common diagnoses in preschool-age children. Its pathophysiology is poorly understood, but is associated with changes in the nasopharyngeal microbiome, immune system, and presence of allergies. These, in turn, can be affected by early-life antibiotic exposure. Therefore, this study aimed to determine if antibiotic treatment in the first week of life in children born at term was associated with acute otitis media (AOM) and otitis media with effusion (OME) in the first 4-6 years of life.

METHODS

A prospective birth cohort of 436 term-born infants was followed up at 4-6 years of age. Parents reported (recurrent) AOM and OME through online questionnaires, sent to parents of 418 eligible children. Doctors' diagnoses of AOM and OME were collected after additional informed consent. Multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to study the association between antibiotic exposure and AOM and OME.

RESULTS

Of the 436 infants, 151 infants received antibiotics in the first week of life. In total, 341 (82%) questionnaires were collected. The parental-reported prevalence was 45% (155/341) for AOM. Of these 155 children, 33 children also had OME (10% of the total cohort). Doctor's diagnoses were obtained from 308 (74%) children, of which 30% (91/308) had AOM. Of these 91 children, 12 children also had OME and 8 children had OME without a diagnosis of AOM (6% of the total obtained diagnoses). Antibiotic treatment in the first week of life was not significantly associated with parent-reported nor doctor-diagnosed (recurrent) AOM and OME in the first 4-6 years of life in the regression models.

CONCLUSION

Antibiotic treatment in the first week of life was not associated with AOM and OME in the first 4-6 years of life in this prospective cohort of Dutch infants. More insight into the pathophysiology of OM is warranted to determine whether antibiotic-induced microbiome changes play a role in the susceptibility to OM.

Information about the natural history of acute infections commonly seen in primary care: a systematic review of clinical practice guidelines

BACKGROUND

Many of the acute infections that are seen in primary care and sometimes managed with antibiotics are self-resolving and antibiotics may be unnecessary. Information about the natural history of these infections underpins antibiotic stewardship strategies such as delayed prescribing and shared decision making, yet whether it's reported in guidelines is unknown. We examined, in clinical guidelines, the reporting of natural history information and relevant antibiotic stewardship strategies for acute infections commonly seen in primary care.

METHODS

A systematic review of national and international guidelines (2010 onwards), available electronically, for managing acute infections (respiratory, urinary, or skin and soft tissue). We searched MEDLINE, CINAHL, EMBASE, TRIP, and GIN databases and websites of 22 guideline-publishing organisations.

RESULTS

We identified 82 guidelines, covering 114 eligible infections. Natural history information was reported in 49 (59.8%) of the guidelines and 66 (57.9%) of the reported conditions, most commonly for respiratory tract infections. Quantitative information about the expected infection duration was provided for 63.5% (n = 42) of the infections. Delayed antibiotic prescribing strategy was recommended for 34.2% (n = 39) of them and shared decision making for 21% (n = 24).

CONCLUSIONS

Just over half of the guidelines for acute infections that are commonly managed in primary care and sometimes with antibiotics contained natural history information. As many of these infections spontaneously improve, this is a missed opportunity to disseminate this information to clinicians, promote antibiotic stewardship, and facilitate conversations with patients and informed decision making. Systematic review registration CRD42021247048.

Impact of antibiotics on off-target infant gut microbiota and resistance genes in cohort studies

BACKGROUND

Young children are frequently exposed to antibiotics, with the potential for collateral consequences to the gut microbiome. The impact of antibiotic exposures to off-target microbes (i.e., bacteria not targeted by treatment) and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) is poorly understood.

METHODS

We used metagenomic sequencing data from paired stool samples collected prior to antibiotic exposure and at 1 year from over 200 infants and a difference-in-differences approach to assess the relationship between subsequent exposures and the abundance or compositional diversity of microbes and ARGs while adjusting for covariates.

RESULTS

By 1 year, the abundance of multiple species and ARGs differed by antibiotic exposure. Compared to infants never exposed to antibiotics, Bacteroides vulgatus relative abundance increased by 1.72% (95% CI: 0.19, 3.24) while Bacteroides fragilis decreased by 1.56% (95% CI: -4.32, 1.21). Bifidobacterium species also exhibited opposing trends. ARGs associated with exposure included class A beta-lactamase gene CfxA6. Among infants attending day care, Escherichia coli and ARG abundance were both positively associated with antibiotic use.

CONCLUSION

Novel findings, including the importance of day care attendance, were identified through considering microbiome data at baseline and post-intervention. Thus, our study design and approach have important implications for future studies evaluating the unintended impacts of antibiotics.

IMPACT

The impact of antibiotic exposure to off-target microbes and antibiotic resistance genes in the gut is poorly defined. We quantified these impacts in two cohort studies using a difference-in-differences approach. Novel to microbiome studies, we used pre/post-antibiotic data to emulate a randomized controlled trial. Compared to infants unexposed to antibiotics between baseline and 1 year, the relative abundance of multiple off-target species and antibiotic resistance genes was altered. Infants who attended day care and were exposed to antibiotics within the first year had a higher abundance of Escherichia coli and antibiotic resistance genes; a novel finding warranting further investigation.

Haemophilus influenzae drug resistance in France from 2017 to 2021: consideration for treatment of otitis media

OBJECTIVES

Haemophilus influenzae is a prevalent agent of respiratory infections, including acute otitis media (AOM), that lead to high antibiotic prescription and may contribute to the development of bacterial resistance to antibiotics. The objective of this work was to describe and analyse antibiotic resistance of H. influenzae from 2017 to 2021 in France.

METHODS

We characterized H. influenzae isolates transmitted to the French national reference centre for H. influenzae between 2017 and 2021. We included all the 608 non-invasive respiratory isolates. Resistance rates to the main antibiotics were described. The relationship between resistance rate, age, and sex of patients and germ serotype was investigated.

RESULTS

Isolates were mainly from alveolar lavage (29.3%), expectoration (22.9%), or sputum (15%). Resistance to amoxicillin (61.4%), amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (47.4%), and cefotaxime (39.3%) was high and correlated with the presence of β-lactamase and/or modifications of the ftsI gene encoding penicillin-binding protein 3. Resistance to sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim (33.2%) was more moderate. There were no significant differences according to serotype, age, or gender.

CONCLUSIONS

The benefit/risk balance of first choice use of amoxicillin and even of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid in AOM is questionable in view of the significant resistance to H. influenzae. The use of sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim could be an alternative but may still need further evaluation.

Outpatient Antibiotic Prescribing for 357,390 Children With Otitis Media

AIM

This study aimed to evaluate antibiotic prescriptions for children with otitis media (OM) in a large nationwide network of private clinics between 2014 and 2020. Special focus was paid to amoxicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanic acid prescriptions, which the national guidelines recommend for first-line drugs. We also focused on macrolides, which are commonly prescribed for respiratory tract infections in children but are not appropriate for OM cases.

METHODS

The data were obtained from the electronic health records of about 250,000 annual visits in <18 years old children. The collected variables were all diagnoses, age, visit year, doctor's specialty, and prescribed antibiotics. Children with OM and upper respiratory tract infections were included, but those with lower respiratory tract infections were excluded.

RESULTS

The number of children with OM was 357,390 (55.2% boys). Antibiotics were prescribed in 44.8% of cases, with the lowest proportion (44.1%) being in <2 years old children. The overall prescription rate decreased from 48.3% in 2014 to 41.4% in 2020. The rates were 19.3% and 18.1% for amoxicillin and 12.6% and 13.2% for amoxicillin-clavulanic acid, respectively. Macrolide prescriptions were reduced from 7.5% to 3.5%. Pediatricians prescribed antibiotics for 38.8%, general practitioners for 54.0% and ear, nose and throat physicians for 39.8% of children with OM.

CONCLUSION

The selection of antibiotics for OM, when prescribed, was according to the recommendations (amoxicillin or amoxicillin-clavulanic acid) in 80.1% of pediatricians, 67.0% of general practitioners and 55.1% of ear, nose and throat physicians.

What does microbiology have to do with the Hearing for Learning Initiative (HfLI)?

Where would we be without microbiology in tackling the high prevalence of otitis media (OM; middle ear infection) and disabling hearing loss that disadvantage Australian First Nations children living in remote communities? Understanding the microbiology of OM in this population has been critical in directing innovative clinical trials research and developing appropriate evidence-based practice guidelines. While these processes are critical to reducing disadvantage associated with OM and disabling hearing loss, a remaining seemingly insurmountable gap has remained, threatening progress in improving the lives of children with ear and hearing problems. That gap is created by the crisis in primary health care workforce in remote communities. Short stay health professionals and fly-in fly-out specialist services are under-resourced to manage the complex needs of the community, including prevention and treatment of otitis media and hearing loss rehabilitation. Hence the rationale for the Hearing for Learning Initiative – a workforce enhancement model to improve sustainability, cultural appropriateness, and effectiveness of evidence-based ear and hearing health care for young children in remote settings. This paper summarises the role of microbiology in the pathway to the Hearing for Learning Initiative.

Current outcomes of myringoplasty in a European referral children's hospital

OBJECTIVES

Myringoplasty is a frequently performed procedure in children, with a heterogeneous failure rate. Our study aimed to evaluate the outcome of myringoplasty in a pediatric hospital and to identify which are risk factors for reperforation or poor hearing improvement after surgery.

METHODS

Preoperative and intraoperative variables between pediatric patients who had undergone myringoplasty with an intact tympanic membrane at follow-up and the cases with reperforation were compared. The same factors were investigated as potential predictors of audiological success. Pre and postoperative PTA and ABG were compared in the whole population, in structural success and failure groups and closure of ABG was calculated and used to compare the audiological outcomes between the two groups.

RESULTS

Parameters that affected the postoperative integrity of TM were age, the time between diagnosis and surgery, the intraoperative status of the middle ear, and secondhand smoke exposure. Early perforations occurred mostly after surgeries performed by trainees, while late perforations were more frequently in autumn. Myringoplasty, regardless of the structural outcome, can improve the ABG and PTA. No preoperative and intraoperative parameters affected the audiological outcome.

CONCLUSION

Pediatric myringoplasty is a safe and successful procedure that can improve hearing, regardless of the structural outcome. In light of our results, parameters to consider before surgery are age, the time between diagnosis and surgery, the intraoperative status of the middle ear, and secondhand smoke exposure.

Acute Otitis Media in Children—Challenges of Antibiotic Resistance in the Post-Vaccination Era

Acute otitis media (AOM) is a leading cause of antibiotic prescriptions in children worldwide, even in the era of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines. We aimed to assess the bacterial spectrum of AOM in children and to investigate the antimicrobial resistance profile in culture-positive cases. We performed a retrospective, tympanocentesis-based analysis of antimicrobial resistance patterns in children with AOM hospitalized in “St Mary” Emergency Hospital for Children Iasi, Romania, between January 2013 and December 2021. A total of 147 samples have been assessed, 97 (65.98%) of which had positive cultures, with Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae as the most common microorganisms. A worrying proportion, 82.85% (58/70), of the Streptococcus pneumoniae strains were multidrug-resistant. The World Health Organization included Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae on the medium priority group due to penicillin non-susceptibility and ampicillin-resistant strains, respectively. Consequently, strategies to address the threats of antimicrobial resistance are needed to reduce the potential negative effects on hospitalization costs.

Watchful Waiting for Acute Otitis Media

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Updated guidelines continue to support watchful waiting as an option for uncomplicated acute otitis media (AOM) and provide explicit diagnostic criteria. To determine treatment prevalence and associated determinants of watchful waiting for AOM in commercially insured pediatric patients.

METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study using IBM Marketscan Commercial Claims Databases (2005 to 2019) of patients 1 to 12 years old with AOM, without otitis-related complications within 6 months prior, with no tympanostomy tubes, and no other infections around index diagnosis of AOM. We examined monthly antibiotic treatment prevalence (defined as pharmacy dispensing within 3 days of AOM diagnosis) and used multivariable logistic regression models to examine determinants of watchful waiting.

RESULTS

Among 2 176 617 AOM episodes, 77.8% were treated within 3 days. Whereas some clinical characteristics were moderate determinants for watchful waiting, clinician antibiotic prescribing volume and specialty were strong determinants. Low-volume antibiotic prescribers (≥80% of AOM episodes managed with watchful waiting) had 11.61 (95% confidence interval 10.66-12.64) higher odds of using watchful waiting for the index AOM episode than high-volume antibiotic prescribers (≥80% treated). Otolaryngologists were more likely to adopt watchful waiting (odds ratio 5.45, 95% CI 5.21-5.70) than pediatricians, whereas other specialties deferred more commonly to antibiotics.

CONCLUSIONS

Adoption of watchful waiting for management of uncomplicated, nonrecurrent AOM was limited and stagnant across the study period and driven by clinician rather than patient factors. Future work should assess motivators for prescribing and evaluate patient outcomes among clinicians who generally prefer versus reject watchful waiting approaches to guide clinical decision-making.

Inborn Errors of Immunity among Egyptian Children with Recurrent Acute Otitis Media

Objective Our objective was to investigate the relative frequency and pattern of inborn errors of immunity (IEIs) among Egyptian children with recurrent acute otitis media (rAOM).

Methods This was a cross-sectional study that included children from the age of 6 months to 16 years with rAOM. Those with structural, functional, and environmental risk factors were excluded. Enrolled children underwent thorough clinical, otorhinolaryngological, and immunological evaluation, including hematological counting, quantitative immunoglobulins assay, lymphocytic flow cytometric immunophenotyping, CH50, and phagocytic function tests.

Results The study included 69 children with rAOM (44 boys and 25 girls; median age 30 months). IEIs were identified in 14 children, including transient hypogammaglobulinemia (three cases), selective IgA deficiency (three cases), agammaglobulinemia (two cases), common variable immunodeficiency (two cases), and one case for each of congenital neutropenia, Chediak–Higashi syndrome, hyper IgM syndrome, and Griscelli syndrome. Parental consanguinity and history of unexplained/infection-related siblings' deaths were significantly associated with IEIs (p = 0.018 and 0.003, respectively). AOM and related complications were more frequent among IEI cases (p = 0.018 and 0.032, respectively). IEI cases had lower levels of hemoglobin (10.7 ± 2.80 vs. 12.3 ± 1.64 g/dL; p = 0.002), IgG (203 [78–1,370] vs. 708 [42.3–1,509] mg/dL; p = 0.000), and IgA (24.3 [3–310] vs. 80 [15.6–305] mg/dL; p = 0.009) compared with non-IEI cases.

Conclusion The current study identified IEIs in one-fifth of children with rAOM, most of which were predominately antibody deficiencies. An immunological workup for rAOM is particularly important in the presence of certain indicators for IEIs, provided that other more common risk factors are excluded.

Antibiotic stewardship programmes had a low impact on prescribing for acute respiratory tract infections in children

Aim

This mini review summarises the available data on antibiotic stewardship programmes (ASP) for acute respiratory tract infections (ARTI) in paediatric outpatients, particularly the implementation and impact of programmes.

Methods

PubMed was searched from 1 January 2012 to 31 December 2021 for papers with abstracts that used the terms respiratory tract infection, antibiotic, child and guideline. We then saw how many of these included the individual terms impact, implementation or stewardship. After exclusions, we included 10 papers that were published in English on children treated as outpatients for ARTIs. All of these included data on implementing and assessing the impact of ASPs.

Results

The primary care data were mainly from the United States. The ASP programmes did not influence antibiotic prescription rates, but broad‐spectrum antibiotics decreased by 43–48%. The emergency department data were mainly from France and the antibiotic prescription rate decreased by 31–35% and the rate for broad‐spectrum antibiotics by 63–71%. A nationwide register‐based study from France confirmed these results.

Conclusion

ASPs had a low impact on overall antibiotic prescription rates and a modest impact on prescribing broad‐spectrum antibiotics. The implementation of ASP protocols needs further development, and more research is necessary on barriers to complying with ASPs.

Incidence of acute otitis media in children < 16 years old in Germany during 2014-2019

BACKGROUND

Acute otitis media (AOM) remains a common infection in children despite the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines. This study estimated AOM incidence rates (IRs) over time in children < 16 years old in Germany following PCV13 introduction.

METHODS

AOM episodes were identified in the InGef healthcare claims database from 2014-2019 in children aged < 16 years. Each AOM episode was classified as either simple or recurrent. Recurrent AOM was defined as 3 or more episodes identified within a 6-month period; or 4 or more episodes within a 12-month period with at least one episode in the prior 6 months. AOM-related surgical procedures within 12 months and complications within 21 days of an AOM episode were also identified. Annual IRs were calculated as number of episodes/child-years (CY) at risk. 95% Confidence intervals (95%CI) were calculated using the Wilson method. The Mann-Kendall test was used to assess trends over time.

RESULTS

Between 2014 and 2019, the study population comprised 916,805 children with 327,726 AOM episodes, of which 15% (49,011) of all episodes were identified as recurrent AOM and 85% (278,715) as simple AOM. There were significant declines in AOM (p = 0.003) in the study population overall and in all age groups over the study period; from 101 (95%CI 101-102)/1000 CY to 79 (95%CI 78-80)/1000 CY in the total study population, from 209 (95%CI 206-212)/1000 CY to 147 (95%CI 145-150)/1000 CY in < 2-year-olds, from 239 (95%CI 237-242) to 179 (95%CI 177-182)/1000 CY in 2-4-year-olds, and from 50 (95%CI 49-50) to 38 (95%CI 37-39)/1000 CY in 5-15-year-olds. No significant trends were identified for AOM-related surgical procedures over the study period; however, AOM-related complications overall increased (p = 0.003).

CONCLUSION

Between 2014 and 2019, AOM incidence overall declined in children aged 0-15 years in Germany. Over the study period, the incidence of complicated AOM cases increased, however the incidence of AOM-related surgical procedures remained constant. Despite the impact of PCV13, the burden associated with AOM in Germany remains substantial.

New Approaches and Technologies to Improve Accuracy of Acute Otitis Media Diagnosis

Several studies have shown that in recent years incidence of acute otitis media (AOM) has declined worldwide. However, related medical, social, and economic problems for patients, their families, and society remain very high. Better knowledge of potential risk factors for AOM development and more effective preventive interventions, particularly in AOM-prone children, can further reduce disease incidence. However, a more accurate AOM diagnosis seems essential to achieve this goal. Diagnostic uncertainty is common, and to avoid risks related to a disease caused mainly by bacteria, several children without AOM are treated with antibiotics and followed as true AOM cases. The main objective of this manuscript is to discuss the most common difficulties that presently limit accurate AOM diagnosis and the new approaches and technologies that have been proposed to improve disease detection. We showed that misdiagnosis can be dangerous or lead to relevant therapeutic mistakes. The need to improve AOM diagnosis has allowed the identification of a long list of technologies to visualize and evaluate the tympanic membrane and to assess middle-ear effusion. Most of the new instruments, including light field otoscopy, optical coherence tomography, low-coherence interferometry, and Raman spectroscopy, are far from being introduced in clinical practice. Video-otoscopy can be effective, especially when it is used in association with telemedicine, parents' cooperation, and artificial intelligence. Introduction of otologic telemedicine and use of artificial intelligence among pediatricians and ENT specialists must be strongly promoted in order to reduce mistakes in AOM diagnosis.

Topical or oral antibiotics for children with acute otitis media presenting with ear discharge: study protocol of a randomised controlled non-inferiority trial

BACKGROUND

Around 15%-20% of children with acute otitis media present with ear discharge due to a spontaneous tear or perforation of the eardrum (AOMd). Current guidance recommends clinicians to consider oral antibiotics as first-line treatment in this condition. The opening in the eardrum however should allow topical antibiotics to enter the middle ear directly. Local administration of antibiotics does not expose children to systemic side effects and may put less selective resistance pressure on bacteria. Evidence on the effectiveness of this approach in children with AOMd is lacking.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A primary care-based, open, individually randomised, controlled, non-inferiority trial. The trial aims to recruit 350 children aged 6 months to 12 years with AOMd and ear pain and/or fever. Participants will be randomised to 7 days of hydrocortisone-bacitracin-colistin eardrops five drops three times daily or amoxicillin oral suspension 50 mg/kg body weight per day, divided over three doses. Parents will keep a daily diary of AOM symptoms, adverse events and complications for 2 weeks. In addition, they will record AOM recurrences, healthcare utilisation and societal costs for 3 months. The primary outcome is the proportion of children without ear pain and fever at day 3. Secondary outcomes include ear pain and fever intensity/severity; days with ear discharge; eardrum perforation at 2 weeks; adverse events during first 2 weeks; costs; and cost effectiveness at 2 weeks and 3 months. The primary analyses will be intention-to-treat and per-protocol analyses will be conducted as well.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The medical research ethics committee Utrecht, The Netherlands has given ethical approval (17-400/G-M). Parents/guardians of participants will provide written informed consent. Study results will be submitted for publication in peer-reviewed medical journals and presented at relevant (inter)national scientific meetings.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

The Netherlands National Trial Register; NTR6723. Date of registration: 27 November 2017.

Treatment failure in pediatric acute otitis media: How do you define?

INTRODUCTION

Reaching the point of treatment failure in the management of pediatric acute otitis media (AOM) is decision-changing, and is often associated with switching to a broader coverage antibiotic with/without middle ear surgical drainage. Yet, still there is no consensus on the definition of what is treatment failure, which may lead to confusion for clinical decision-making purposes. We sought to review the heterogeneity of treatment failure definitions in AOM.

METHODS

We searched for relevant English language manuscripts using the following key-words: ['otitis media' (OM) or (AOM)] AND ['treatment failure' or 'failure' or 'response failure' or 'response'] AND 'human' in various electronic databases from 1/1/2005 through 10/31/2020.

RESULTS

In the 60 retrieved papers, treatment failure was considered only when antibiotics had been prescribed beforehand, but not when watchful waiting had been adopted. We categorized the manuscripts into 5 major treatment failure definition subgroups, which occasionally overlapped: unimprovement or worsening of symptoms or signs of failure in otoscopy (n = 36), specialist(s) referral or hospital admission (n = 12), changing or adding antibiotic treatment (n = 22), failure to eradicate causative bacteria (n = 7) and failure as perceived by parents (n = 4).

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest a broader definition of AOM treatment failure including physical examination findings and degree of initial treatment response, which will enable an unbiased, uniform comparison of treatments for pediatric AOM.

Recurrent acute otitis media: a survey of current management in England

OBJECTIVE

Recurrent acute otitis media is common in children. The preferred treatment measures for recurrent acute otitis media have a mixed evidence base. This study sought to assess baseline practice across ENT departments in England.

METHODS

A national telephone survey of healthcare staff was conducted. Every ENT centre in England was contacted. A telephone script was used to ask about antibiotic and grommet use and duration in recurrent acute otitis media cases.

RESULTS

Ninety-six centres (74 per cent) provided complete information. Recurrent acute otitis media treatment across England by ENT departments varied. The antibiotic first- and second-line prophylaxis offered varies, with trimethoprim used in 33 centres and 29 centres not offering any antibiotics. The timing or choice about when to use grommets also varies, but 87 centres (91 per cent) offer grommet surgery at one stage.

CONCLUSION

The treatments received by children in England for recurrent acute otitis media vary by centre; collaborative research in this area is advised.

Antibiotic prescription policy for acute otitis media: do we follow the guidelines?

BACKGROUND

Acute otitis media (AOM) is a common cause for antibiotic prescription. Most guidelines endorse abstaining from immediate antibiotic treatment ('watchful waiting', WW) in mild-moderate episodes. We studied adherence rates to the latest AOM guidelines (2013), in terms of antibiotic type and prescription options.

METHODS

In this population-based study, AOM episodes were identified in Clalit Health Services-insured children aged 0-10 years between 2011 and 2018, using a data-sharing platform. After identifying the index, prescription and issuing dates for antibiotics for each AOM episode, treatment was categorized as immediate (≤2 days after diagnosis) or WW (antibiotic not prescribed/issued; prescribed ≤2 days after diagnosis but issued on Days 2-7; or prescribed/issued on Days 2-7). Guideline adherence was measured according to age.

RESULTS

Of the 491 106 episodes, 361 518 (73.6%) were treated with antibiotics. Following the 2013 guidelines, the ratio of episodes in children aged ≤6 months that were adherent (immediate treatment) was higher (OR = 1.22; 95% CI 1.15-1.29; P < 0.001), whereas the adherent episode ratio for children aged 6-24 months and 2-10 years (WW) was lower (OR = 0.87; 95% CI 0.85-0.88 and OR = 0.94; 95% CI 0.92-0.96, respectively; P < 0.001). Antibiotic prescription rates after 2013 for children aged ≤6 months were not different (OR = 1.03; 95% CI 0.96-1.1; P = 0.4), but were higher in children aged 6-24 months and 2-10 years (OR = 1.07; 95% CI 1.05-1.09; P < 0.001 and OR = 1.02; 95% CI 1.01-1.04; P = 0.015, respectively). Amoxicillin was the most common antibiotic, administered in 75.6% of episodes. Azithromycin was most commonly associated with treatment failure (6.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Improved adherence to the 2013 guidelines was observed only in children aged ≤6 months and over-treatment with antibiotics was still high.

Pain Relief by Analgesic Eardrops: Paradigm Shift in the Treatment of Acute Otitis Media?

Acute otitis media is a common middle ear infection in children with the predominant symptoms of hearing impairment and pain. If antibiotics are given, they need time to have an effect on the inflammation, so the focus is on pain control. For pain management local anesthetics have the advantage of lesser systemic side effects but are still subject to scrutiny. In this review the literature between 2000 and 2020 was systematically searched for investigating studies and recommendation in guidelines against the background of the mode of action. 11 clinical studies, 2 guidelines and 5 reports resp. reviews could be identified. Contraindications and side effects were not found in these studies. The analgesic ear drops showed in placebo-controlled studies a relatively short duration of action when applied once but rapid onset of action. There is evidence that analgesic ear drops could provide a first-line analgesia in otitis media without systemic adverse effects such as gastrointestinal disturbance and nausea and could support an antibiotic-saving wait-and-see attitude. The review shows a change in attitude towards the recommendation to include local anesthetics ear drops in otitis media but still there is a lack in treatment protocols which go beyond a single administration. The results do not yet show a significant paradigm shift. The reviews revealed indications that a more adapted galenic preparation could give more effectiveness. Pharmaceutical research in this field should be intensified to exploit the analgesic potential of local anesthetic ear drops in acute otitis media.

Comparing Watchful Waiting Approach vs. Antibiotic Therapy in Children with Nonsevere Acute Otitis Media: A Randomized Clinical Trial

Objective

To compare both approaches for the treatment of nonsevere acute otitis media (AOM) in Iran.

Methods

This randomized clinical trial was performed at a pediatric infectious diseases clinic in Buali tertiary hospital in Sari, north of Iran, from 2016 to 2018. All participants in this study were previously healthy children with AOM diagnosis, who were 6 months to 6 years old. The patients were randomly assigned into two groups: the intervention (80 mg/kg/day amoxicillin for 7-10 days) and the control group (watchful waiting approach). AOM recovery and adverse drug reactions were evaluated after 72 hours, and the patients were followed for the frequency of AOM and middle ear effusion 1 and 3 months' postintervention.

Results

A total of 396 children have participated in this study. AOM recovery was significantly different in the two groups (73% vs. 44% in the intervention and control groups, respectively). Recurrence of AOM and middle ear effusion (MEE) persistence, one month following the intervention, have not shown any significant differences between the two groups. However, the AOM recurrence between 1 and 3 months was more frequent in the control group. The frequency of diarrhea was also higher in the intervention group compared to the control but no significant difference was found between the two groups regarding vomiting and skin rash.

Conclusion

The faster recovery from AOM is achieved when an antibiotic treatment regimen is applied, although the risk of potential side effects should be considered.

Reducing antibiotic prescriptions in children is not associated with higher rate of complications

Acute otitis media (AOM) and sore throat are common reasons for antibiotic prescription in children. Starting from 2007, evidence-based guidelines and other multifaceted improvement activities (ProBA project) were implemented in Emilia-Romagna, a northern Italian region. Antibiotic prescription rate in the region decreased with time (37% relative reduction from 2005 to 2019). Within the ProBA project, this retrospective observational study, including all hospitals of the region, aims to assess if lower rate of antibiotic prescription was associated with an increased rate of acute mastoiditis and acute rheumatic fever (ARF). Hospital admission rates for acute mastoiditis and ARF from 2005 to 2019 were calculated using ICD-9 codes. Hospital intervention rates for myringotomy, incision of mastoid, and mastoidectomy were also assessed. A comparison with antibiotic prescription rate in the pediatric population was performed. Data were gathered using administrative databases and trends were calculated using Poisson regression. During the study period, rate of mastoiditis and similar diagnosis declined from 54.1 to 33.6 per 100.000 (β coefficient = - 0.047, p value < 0.001) and rate of surgical treatment from 134.6 to 89.6 per 100.000 (β coefficient = - 0.036, p value < 0.001), whereas rate of ARF remained stable at around 4.4-4.8 per 100.000 (β coefficient = - 0.009, p value = 0.472).Conclusion: ProBA project implementation-recommending 5 days of amoxicillin for AOM when needed and 6 days of amoxicillin when streptococcal pharyngitis is detected-was associated with a reduced antibiotic use without an increase of complications. What is Known: • Acute otitis media (AOM) and streptococcal pharyngitis are common pediatric infections and frequent cause of antibiotics prescription. • Fear of rare complications like mastoiditis and acute rheumatic fever can hinder health professionals' compliance with evidence-based guideline. What is New: • Guidelines recommending a short course of antibiotics for AOM and streptococcal pharyngitis are associated with reduced antibiotic prescriptions and no increase of complications. • Analysis based on administrative databases is useful for monitoring projects and supporting health professionals in complying with guidelines.

From Evidence to Clinical Guidelines in Antibiotic Treatment in Acute Otitis Media in Children

Acute otitis media (AOM) in children represents a public health concern, being one of the leading causes of health care visits and antibiotic prescriptions worldwide. The overall aim of this paper is to unravel the major current insights into the antibiotic treatment of AOM in children. Our approach is three-fold: 1. a preclinical evaluation of antibiotics in animal models of AOM stressing on the advantages of different species when testing for different schemes of antibiotics; 2. an overview on the new antimicrobial agents whose efficacy has been demonstrated in refractory cases of AOM in children; and 3. an analysis of the different guidelines stressing on the differences and similarities between the various schemes of antibiotic treatment. The preferred therapeutic agents remain amoxicillin and the amoxicillin-clavulanate combination for AOM caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, whereas oral cephalosporin is preferred in AOM due to Moraxella catarrhalis and Haemophilus influenzae. As for the second and third line antimicrobial treatments, there is a wide variety of suggested antibiotic classes with variations in duration and posology. The decision to prescribe antimicrobial treatment as a first-line choice is based on the severity of the symptoms in 16 of the guidelines included in this review.