Influenza vaccine as a coronary intervention for prevention of myocardial infarction

The need for novel influenza vaccines in low- and middle-income countries: A narrative review

Influenza viruses cause 3-5 million severe cases and 300,000-600,000 deaths worldwide. Most of the disease burden is in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) owing to factors such as high population density, infrastructure challenges, poor quality healthcare, lack of consistent recommendations, less prioritization of all high-risk groups, and prevalent use of trivalent influenza vaccines. Although influenza vaccines are effective in reducing the annual influenza disease burden, existing vaccines have several limitations. In this narrative review, we address the unmet needs of existing influenza vaccines in LMICs in Africa, Asia Pacific, Latin America and the Middle East and discuss the characteristics of novel vaccines in clinical development. We also describe features of a successful vaccination program that LMICs could emulate to improve their current vaccination coverage and reduce the public health burden of influenza.

Influenza and Aging: Clinical Manifestations, Complications, and Treatment Approaches in Older Adults

Influenza, a highly contagious respiratory viral illness, poses significant global health risks, particularly affecting older and those with chronic health conditions. Influenza viruses, primarily types A and B, are responsible for seasonal human infections and exhibit a propensity for antigenic drift and shift, contributing to seasonal epidemics and pandemics. The severity of influenza varies, but severe cases often lead to pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, and multiorgan failure. Older adults, especially those over 65 years of age, face increased risks of immune senescence, chronic comorbidities, and decreased vaccine efficacy. Globally, influenza affects millions of people annually, with significant morbidity and mortality among older. Epidemiological patterns vary with climate, and risk factors include age, immunocompromised status, and preexisting chronic conditions. In older adults, influenza frequently results in hospitalization and death, which is exacerbated by immunosenescence and biological organ changes associated with aging. Clinical manifestations range from mild symptoms to severe complications such as viral pneumonia and multiorgan failure. Diagnosis often relies on antigen or molecular tests, with radiological examination aiding in severe cases. Treatment primarily involves antiviral agents, such as oseltamivir and peramivir, with the greatest benefit observed when initiated early. Management of severe cases may require hospitalization and supportive care, including addressing complications, such as secondary bacterial infections and cardiovascular events. This article highlights the need for improved vaccination strategies and novel treatments, including monoclonal antibodies and adoptive T cell therapies, to better manage severe influenza infections in vulnerable populations such as older.

Influenza vaccination in older adults and patients with chronic disorders: A position paper from the Portuguese Society of Pulmonology, the Portuguese Society of Cardiology, the Portuguese Society of Diabetology, the Portuguese Society of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, the Portuguese Society of Geriatrics and Gerontology, and the Study Group of Geriatrics of the Portuguese Society of Internal Medicine

Influenza affects millions of people worldwide each year and can lead to severe complications, hospitalizations, and even death, especially among vulnerable populations such as older adults and those with chronic medical conditions. Annual vaccination is considered the most effective measure for preventing influenza and its complications. Despite the widespread availability of influenza vaccines, however, vaccination coverage rates remain suboptimal in several countries. Based on the latest scientific evidence and expert opinions on influenza vaccination in older people and patients with chronic disease, the Portuguese Society of Pulmonology (SPP), the Portuguese Society of Diabetology (SPD), the Portuguese Society of Cardiology (SPC), the Portuguese Society of Geriatrics and Gerontology (SPGG), the Study Group of Geriatrics of the Portuguese Society of Internal Medicine (NEGERMI-SPMI), and the Portuguese Society of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology (SPDIMC) discussed best practices for promoting vaccination uptake and coverage and drew up several recommendations to mitigate the impact of influenza. These recommendations focus on the efficacy and safety of available vaccines; the impact of influenza vaccination on older adults; patients with chronic medical conditions, namely cardiac and respiratory conditions, diabetes, and immunosuppressive diseases; and health care professionals, optimal vaccination timing, and strategies to increase vaccination uptake and coverage. The resulting position paper highlights the critical role that vaccinations play in promoting public health, raising awareness, and encouraging more people to get vaccinated.

Respiratory Syncytial Virus Sequelae Among Adults in High-Income Countries: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) can cause severe respiratory infections in adults; however, information on associated sequelae is limited. This systematic literature review aimed to identify sequelae in adults within 1 year following RSV-related hospitalization or resolution of acute infection.

METHODS

Studies were identified from Embase, MEDLINE, LILACS, SciELO, and grey literature. Random-effects meta-analyses using restricted maximum likelihood were used to calculate the proportions and relative risks of sequelae in patients with RSV compared with controls (patients with RSV-negative influenza-like illness, influenza, and parainfluenza) per follow-up period, population, and treatment setting, where possible.

RESULTS

Twenty-one relevant studies covering the period from 1990 to 2019 were included. Among the general population, the most frequent clinical sequela was sustained function loss (33.5% [95% CI 27.6-39.9]). Decline in lung function and cardiovascular event or congestive heart failure were also identified. Utilization sequelae were readmission (highest at > 6 months after discharge) and placement in a skilled nursing facility. The only subpopulation with data regarding sequelae was transplant patients. Among lung transplant patients, the most frequently reported clinical sequelae were decline in lung function, followed by graft dysfunction and bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome. Pooled relative risks were calculated for the following sequela with controls (primarily influenza-positive patients): cardiovascular event (general population) and pulmonary impairment (hematogenic-transplant patients) both 1.4 (95% CI 1.0-2.0) and for readmission (general population) 1.2 (95% CI 1.1-1.3).

CONCLUSIONS

Although less data are available for RSV than for influenza or other lower respiratory tract infections, RSV infection among adults is associated with medically important sequelae, with a prevalence similar to other respiratory pathogens. RSV sequelae should be included in disease burden estimates.

Prevalence of influenza and other acute respiratory illnesses in patients with acute myocardial infarction in Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study

Background and Aims

Several studies imply that influenza and other respiratory illnesses could lead to acute myocardial infarction (AMI), but data from low-income countries are scarce. We investigated the prevalence of recent respiratory illnesses and confirmed influenza in AMI patients, while also exploring their relationship with infarction severity as defined by ST-elevation MI (STEMI) or high troponin levels.

Methods

This cross-sectional study, held at a Dhaka tertiary hospital from May 2017 to October 2018, involved AMI inpatients. The study examined self-reported clinical respiratory illnesses (CRI) in the week before AMI onset and confirmed influenza using baseline real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR).

Results

Of 744 patients, 11.3% reported a recent CRI, most prominently during the 2017 influenza season (35.7%). qRT-PCR testing found evidence of influenza in 1.5% of 546 patients, with all positives among STEMI cases. Frequencies of CRI were higher in patients with STEMI and in those with high troponin levels, although these relationships were not statistically significant after adjusting for other variables. The risk of STEMI was significantly greater during influenza seasons in the unadjusted analysis (relative risk: 1.09, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-1.18), however, this relationship was not significant in the adjusted analysis (adjusted relative risk: 1.03, 95% CI: 0.91-1.16).

Conclusion

In Bangladesh, many AMI patients had a recent respiratory illness history, with some showing evidence of influenza. However, these illnesses showed no significant relationship to AMI severity. Further research is needed to understand these relationships better and to investigate the potential benefits of infection control measures and influenza vaccinations in reducing AMI incidence.

Protecting the elderly from influenza in the context of immune system senescence. Elderly aged 65 and over are vulnerable to influenza and its associated complications.: Position paper by the Romanian Society of Gerontology and Geriatrics

Influenza affects millions globally each year, often causing severe complications, hospitalizations, and deaths, particularly among the elderly. As the global population ages, infections will pose a growing health risk. Annual vaccination remains the most effective way to prevent influenza and its complications. After the age of 65, people suffering from chronic diseases become the majority of this population category. All the data support that most of the population over 65 years old, whose immune system goes through immunosenescence, presents multimorbidity, requiring age-appropriate anti-influenza protection. The immune response to the traditional influenza vaccine has been proven to be lower in the elderly, highlighting the need for a more immunogenic vaccine specifically tailored to the elderly population group. Therefore, high-dose (HD) influenza vaccines have demonstrated their safety and are more effective in preventing influenza and its associated complications compared to standard-dose (SD) vaccines in the elderly in the context of immunosenescence. These recommendations focus on the safety, effectiveness, and efficacy of HD influenza vaccines, adapted to the elderly and available on the Romanian market, to increase the vaccination rate and, thus, protect against influenza infection and its complications. Therefore, strategies such as increased accessibility and free immunizations, as well as ensuring that flu vaccines for the elderly are prescribed without restrictions based on the number of comorbidities, should be used.

Viral cardiovascular surgical diseases: global burdens, challenges and opportunities

Globally, more than one billion people are vulnerable to neglected tropical diseases, many of which have viral origins and cardiovascular implications. Access to cardiovascular care is limited in countries where these conditions are endemic. Six billion people lack access to safe, timely and affordable cardiac surgical care, whereby over 100 countries and territories lack a single cardiac surgeon. Moreover, while clinically unique, the surgical consequences of neglected cardiovascular diseases with viral origins have been poorly described in the current literature. This review provides an overview of the global burden of viral cardiovascular disease, describes access to cardiac surgical care in regions where these conditions are endemic, and further highlights surgical consequences and considerations to manage patients requiring cardiac surgical care.

Out of focus but still relevant? Influenza-related resource utilization and vaccination coverage gaps in adults below 60 years of age with underlying conditions: an analysis of 2016-2024 real-world data in Germany

BACKGROUND

In 2003, the WHO aimed for a 75% or higher influenza vaccination rate among at-risk populations. However, this target was achieved in a few groups during selected seasons in some European countries, and never in Germany. Adults with underlying conditions (UCs) are a critical negleted group for influenza vaccination. This study aimed to identify data gaps in influenza burden and vaccination coverage among adults under 60 with UCs in Germany and bridge these gaps using real-world data.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We conducted systematic research and analyses using German administrative and claims databases from June 2016 to April 2024. We report on epidemiology, direct care costs, indirect costs from work incapacity, vaccination coverage rates, and describe data gaps.

RESULTS

Influenza data for high-risk populations are limited. Comprehensive data on influenza epidemiology and vaccination coverage rates (VCR) is available, though with a delay in data availability. Before and after the pandemic, individuals aged 50-59 had the highest rates of influenza-related hospitalization and ICU admission compared to younger age groups. Across all age groups and seasons, individuals with UC experienced higher rates of medically attended influenza cases, hospitalizations, and healthcare costs, with those aged 35-59 being particularly vulnerable. Vaccine coverage was higher in adults aged 35-59 compared to those aged 18-24, and in females compared to males.

LIMITATIONS

Discrepancies of vaccination status, limited data availability, and variations among the extent of UCs.

CONCLUSION

In Germany, recent policy measures have mainly targeted those aged 60 and above. While this elderly population experiences the highest disease-related impact, influenza can also lead to substantial healthcare resource utilization (HCRU) and costs in younger populations with chronic UCs; Facilitating vaccination access for this group, such as through pharmacies, is essential. Definition of quantifiable vaccination targets and measures to increase vaccination rates based on these targets are required.

Association of recent respiratory illness and influenza with acute myocardial infarction among the Bangladeshi population: A case-control study

Current evidence suggests that recent acute respiratory infections and seasonal influenza may precipitate acute myocardial infarction (AMI). This study examined the potential link between recent clinical respiratory illness (CRI) and influenza, and AMI in Bangladesh. Conducted during the 2018 influenza season at a Dhaka tertiary-level cardiovascular (CV) hospital, it included 150 AMI cases and two control groups: 44 hospitalized cardiac patients without AMI and 90 healthy individuals. Participants were matched by gender and age groups. The study focused on self-reported CRI and laboratory-confirmed influenza ascertained via quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) within the preceding week, analyzed using multivariable logistic regression. Results showed that cases reported CRI, significantly more frequently than healthy controls (27.3% vs. 13.3%, adjusted odds ratio (aOR): 2.21; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.05-4.06), although this was not significantly different from all controls (27.3% vs. 22.4%; aOR: 1.19; 95% CI: 0.65-2.18). Influenza rates were insignificantly higher among cases than controls. The study suggests that recent respiratory illnesses may precede AMI onset among Bangladeshi patients. Infection prevention and control practices, as well as the uptake of the influenza vaccine, may be advocated for patients at high risk of acute CV events.

Optimal timing of influenza vaccination among patients with acute myocardial infarction - Findings from the IAMI trial

Influenza vaccination reduces the risk of adverse cardiovascular events.The IAMI trial randomly assigned 2571 patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) to receive influenza vaccine or saline placebo during their index hospital admission. It was conducted at 30 centers in 8 countries from October 1, 2016 to March 1, 2020. In this post-hoc exploratory sub-study, we compare the trial outcomes in patients receiving early season vaccination (n = 1188) and late season vaccination (n = 1344).The primary endpoint wasthe composite of all-cause death, myocardial infarction (MI), or stent thrombosis at 12 months. Thecumulative incidence of the primary and key secondary endpoints by randomized treatment and early or late vaccination was estimated using the Kaplan-Meier method. In the early vaccinated group, the primary composite endpoint occurred in 36 participants (6.0%) assigned to influenza vaccine and 49 (8.4%) assigned to placebo (HR 0.69; 95% CI 0.45 to 1.07), compared to 31 participants (4.7%) assigned to influenza vaccine and 42 (6.2%) assigned to placebo (HR 0.74; 95% CI 0.47 to 1.18) in the late vaccinated group (P = 0.848 for interaction on HR scale at 1 year). We observed similar estimates for the key secondary endpoints of all-cause death and CV death. There was no statistically significant difference in vaccine effectiveness against adverse cardiovascular events by timing of vaccination. The effect of vaccination on all-cause death at one year was more pronounced in the group receiving early vaccination (HR 0.50; 95% CI, 0.29 to 0.86) compared late vaccination group (HR 0.75; 35% CI, 0.40 to 1.40) but there was no statistically significant difference between these groups (Interaction P = 0.335). In conclusion,there is insufficient evidence from the trial to establish whether there is a difference in efficacy between early and late vaccinationbut regardless of vaccination timing we strongly recommend influenza vaccination in all patients with cardiovascular diseases.

Effect of Annual Influenza Vaccination on the Risk of Lung Cancer Among Patients With Hypertension: A Population-Based Cohort Study in Taiwan

Objectives: Lung cancer is a main contributor to all newly diagnosed cancers worldwide. The chemoprotective effect of the influenza vaccine among patients with hypertension remains unclear. Methods: A total of 37,022 patients with hypertension were retrospectively enrolled from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database. These patients were further divided into a vaccinated group (n = 15,697) and an unvaccinated group (n = 21,325). Results: After adjusting for sex, age, comorbidities, medications, level of urbanization and monthly income, vaccinated patients had a significantly lower risk of lung cancer occurrence than unvaccinated patients (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR]: 0.56, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.47-0.67). A potential protective effect was observed for both sexes and in the elderly age group. With a greater total number of vaccinations, a potentially greater protective effect was observed (aHR: 0.75, 95% CI 0.60-0.95; aHR: 0.66, 95% CI: 0.53-0.82; aHR: 0.26, 95% CI: 0.19-0.36, after receiving 1, 2-3 and ≥4 vaccinations, respectively). Conclusion: Influenza vaccination was associated with a lower risk of lung cancer among patients with hypertension. The potentially chemoprotective effect appeared to be dose dependent.

The Impact of Adjuvanted Influenza Vaccine on Disease Severity in the US: A Stochastic Model

Influenza can exacerbate underlying medical conditions. In this study, we modelled the potential impact of an egg-based quadrivalent influenza vaccine (QIVe) or adjuvanted QIV (aQIV) on hospitalizations and mortality from influenza-related cardiovascular disease (CVD), respiratory, and other complications in adults ≥65 years of age in the US with underlying chronic conditions. We used a stochastic decision-tree model, with 1000 simulations varying input across predicted ranges. Due to the variable nature of influenza across seasons and differences in published estimates for input parameters, data are presented as 95% confidence intervals. Compared with no vaccination, use of aQIV would prevent 135,450-564,360 hospitalizations and 1612-29,226 deaths across outcomes evaluated. Overall, aQIV prevented 1071-18,388 more hospitalizations and 85-1944 more deaths than QIVe. By routine seasonal vaccination against influenza, a substantial number of severe influenza-associated complications and deaths, caused by direct influenza symptoms or by exacerbation of chronic conditions, can be prevented in high-risk adults ≥65 years of age in the US.

The burden of influenza and the role of influenza vaccination in adults aged 50-64 years: A summary of available evidence

Influenza is a vaccine-preventable disease and a global public health problem. Although most national influenza vaccination recommendations focus on subjects aged ≥65 years, an extensive burden of influenza has also been reported in those aged ≥50 years and is exacerbated by immune system aging. The main purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the burden of influenza and its potential prevention within the 50-64 age-group. These subjects account for a large proportion of the workforce, and play a central economic and social role. Individuals aged 50-64 years had a 3-times higher rate of hospitalization and a 9-fold higher mortality rate attributable to influenza than those aged 18-49-years, generating higher influenza-related hospitalization costs. Available data suggest that including healthy subjects aged 50-64 years in influenza vaccination recommendations would allow a broader population to be reached, reducing the economic and social burden of influenza.

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of health care workers in a cardiology department on influenza vaccination

BACKGROUND

Evidence has accrued that influenza vaccination may be effective in preventing myocardial infarction (MI). However, vaccination rates in both adults and health care workers (HCW) are low, and hospitalisation is often a missed opportunity for vaccination. We hypothesised that knowledge, attitude and practices of health care workers regarding vaccination impacts vaccine uptake in hospitals. The cardiac ward admits high-risk patients, many of whom are indicated for influenza vaccine, especially those caring for patients with acute MI.

AIM

To understand the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of HCW in cardiology ward within a tertiary institution, on influenza vaccination.

METHODS

We used focus group discussions with HCW caring for AMI patients in an acute cardiology ward, to explore the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of HCW regarding influenza vaccination for patients under their care. Discussions were recorded, transcribed, and thematically analysed using NVivo software. In addition, participants completed a survey on their knowledge and attitudes towards the uptake of influenza vaccination.

RESULTS

A lack of awareness regarding the associations between influenza, vaccination and cardiovascular health was identified amongst HCW. Participants did not routinely discuss the benefits of influenza vaccination or recommend influenza vaccinations to patients under their care; this may be due to a combination of a lack of awareness, not seeing it as part of their job and workload issues. We also highlighted difficulties in access to vaccination, and concerns of adverse reactions to the vaccine.

CONCLUSION

There is limited awareness among HCW of the role of influenza on cardiovascular health and the benefits of influenza vaccine in the prevention of cardiovascular events. Improved vaccination of at-risk patients in hospital may need active engagement of HCW. Improving the health literacy of HCW regarding the benefits of vaccination as a preventative strategy may result in better health care outcomes for cardiac patients.

The impact of COVID-19 and COVID vaccination on cardiovascular outcomes

COVID-19 is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease. COVID-19 vaccination may prevent this, but in some cases, COVID-19 vaccination may cause myocarditis or pericarditis. Patients with COVID-19 may present with non-specific symptoms that have a cardiac origin. This review examines the cardiovascular complications of COVID-19 infection and the impact of COVID-19 vaccination. COVID-19 cardiovascular complications include myocardial injury, pericarditis, coagulopathy, myocardial infarction, heart failure, arrhythmias, and persistent post-acute risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Diagnostic and referral pathways for non-specific symptoms, such as dyspnoea and fatigue, remain unclear. COVID-19 vaccination is cardioprotective overall but is associated with myopericarditis in young males, though at a lower rate than following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Increased awareness among primary care physicians of potential cardiovascular causes of non-specific post-COVID-19 symptoms, including in younger adults, such as fatigue, dyspnoea, and chest pain, is essential. We recommend full vaccination with scheduled booster doses, optimal management of cardiovascular risk factors, rapid treatment of COVID-19, and clear diagnostic, referral, and management pathways for patients presenting with non-specific symptoms to rule out cardiac complications.

2023 Guidelines of the Taiwan Society of Cardiology on the Diagnosis and Management of Chronic Coronary Syndrome

Coronary artery disease (CAD) covers a wide spectrum from persons who are asymptomatic to those presenting with acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and sudden cardiac death. Coronary atherosclerotic disease is a chronic, progressive process that leads to atherosclerotic plaque development and progression within the epicardial coronary arteries. Being a dynamic process, CAD generally presents with a prolonged stable phase, which may then suddenly become unstable and lead to an acute coronary event. Thus, the concept of "stable CAD" may be misleading, as the risk for acute events continues to exist, despite the use of pharmacological therapies and revascularization. Many advances in coronary care have been made, and guidelines from other international societies have been updated. The 2023 guidelines of the Taiwan Society of Cardiology for CAD introduce a new concept that categorizes the disease entity according to its clinical presentation into acute or chronic coronary syndromes (ACS and CCS, respectively). Previously defined as stable CAD, CCS include a heterogeneous population with or without chest pain, with or without prior ACS, and with or without previous coronary revascularization procedures. As cardiologists, we now face the complexity of CAD, which involves not only the epicardial but also the microcirculatory domains of the coronary circulation and the myocardium. New findings about the development and progression of coronary atherosclerosis have changed the clinical landscape. After a nearly 50-year ischemia-centric paradigm of coronary stenosis, growing evidence indicates that coronary atherosclerosis and its features are both diagnostic and therapeutic targets beyond obstructive CAD. Taken together, these factors have shifted the clinicians' focus from the functional evaluation of coronary ischemia to the anatomic burden of disease. Research over the past decades has strengthened the case for prevention and optimal medical therapy as central interventions in patients with CCS. Even though functional capacity has clear prognostic implications, it does not include the evaluation of non-obstructive lesions, plaque burden or additional risk-modifying factors beyond epicardial coronary stenosis-driven ischemia. The recommended first-line diagnostic tests for CCS now include coronary computed tomographic angiography, an increasingly used anatomic imaging modality capable of detecting not only obstructive but also non-obstructive coronary plaques that may be missed with stress testing. This non-invasive anatomical modality improves risk assessment and potentially allows for the appropriate allocation of preventive therapies. Initial invasive strategies cannot improve mortality or the risk of myocardial infarction. Emphasis should be placed on optimizing the control of risk factors through preventive measures, and invasive strategies should be reserved for highly selected patients with refractory symptoms, high ischemic burden, high-risk anatomies, and hemodynamically significant lesions. These guidelines provide current evidence-based diagnosis and treatment recommendations. However, the guidelines are not mandatory, and members of the Task Force fully realize that the treatment of CCS should be individualized to address each patient's circumstances. Ultimately, the decision of healthcare professionals is most important in clinical practice.

Influenza vaccination reduced myocardial infarctions in United Kingdom older adults: a prior event rate ratio study

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to estimate the real-world effectiveness of the influenza vaccine against myocardial infarction (MI) and influenza in the decade since adults aged ≥ 65 years were first recommended the vaccine.

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

We identified annual cohorts, 1997 to 2011, of adults aged ≥ 65 years, without previous influenza vaccination, from UK general practices, registered with the Clinical Practice Research Datalink. Using a quasi-experimental study design to control for confounding bias, we estimated influenza vaccine effectiveness on hospitalization for MI, influenza, and antibiotic prescriptions for lower respiratory tract infections.

RESULTS

Vaccination was moderately effective against influenza, the prior event rate ratio-adjusted hazard ratios ranging from 0.70 in 1999 to 0.99 in 2001. Prior event rate ratio-adjusted hazard ratios demonstrated a protective effect against MIs, varying between 0.40 in 2010 and 0.89 in 2001. Aggregated across the cohorts, influenza vaccination reduced the risk of MIs by 39% (95% confidence interval: 34%, 44%).

CONCLUSION

Effectiveness of the flu vaccine in preventing MIs in older UK adults is consistent with the limited evidence from clinical trials. Similar trends in effectiveness against influenza and against MIs suggest the risk of influenza mediates the effectiveness against MIs, although divergence in some years implies the mechanism may be complex.

Disparities in Influenza Vaccination Coverage and Associated Factors Among Adults with Cardiovascular Disease, United States, 2011-2020

INTRODUCTION

Influenza vaccination can reduce the incidence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in the US. However, differences in state-level trends in CVD and sociodemographic and health care characteristics of adults with CVD have not yet been studied.

METHODS

In this repeated cross-sectional study, we extracted 476,227 records of adults with a self-reported history of CVD from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System from January 2011 through December 2020. We calculated the prevalence and likelihood of annual influenza vaccination by sociodemographic characteristics, health care characteristics, and CVD risk factors. Additionally, we examined annual trends of influenza vaccination by geographic location.

RESULTS

The annual age-adjusted influenza vaccination rate among adults with CVD increased from 38.6% (2011) to 44.3% (2020), with an annual average percentage change of 1.1%. Adults who were aged 18 to 44 years, male, non-Hispanic Black/African American, or Hispanic, or had less than a high school diploma, annual household income less than $50,000, and no health insurance had a lower prevalence of vaccination. The odds of vaccination were lower among non-Hispanic Black/African American (adjusted odds ratio, 0.73; 95% CI, 0.70-0.77) and non-Hispanic American Indian/Alaska Native (adjusted odds ratio, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.75-0.98) compared with non-Hispanic White adults. Only 16 states achieved a vaccination rate of 50%; no state achieved the Healthy People 2020 goal of 70%. Nonmedical settings (supermarkets, drug stores) gained popularity (19.2% in 2011 to 28.5% in 2018) as a vaccination setting.

CONCLUSION

Influenza vaccination among adults with CVD improved marginally during the past decade but is far behind the targeted national goals. Addressing existing disparities requires attention to the role of social determinants of health in determining access to vaccination, particularly among young people, racial and ethnic minority populations, people who lack health insurance, and people with comorbidities.

Knowledge of Silesia adult inhabitants regarding preventive vaccinations effect on cardiovascular diseases

OBJECTIVES

Protective vaccinations are important in maintaining health and reducing suffering from infectious diseases. Also, vaccine-preventable infectious diseases are associated with the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases.

AIM

The study aimed to test adults' knowledge of the role of protective vaccinations in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases, and their opinions on the quantity of the information provided by doctors in this regard.

METHODS

A total of 700 adults participated in the study, most of whom were women (500; 71.43%). The study used an original questionnaire containing questions covering vaccinations and cardiovascular diseases, and the general characteristics of the participants. The inclusion criteria for the study were 18 years of age and written informed consent to participate in the study.

RESULTS

Over 60% of the participants did not know of, or denied the possibility of, developing cardiovascular diseases as a result of avoiding required preventive vaccinations. More than half of the participants stated that there is no need to recommend influenza vaccination to patients with cardiovascular diseases. Over 70% of participants stated that family doctors did not provide sufficient information about protective vaccinations.

CONCLUSION

In these adults, knowledge of the role of preventive vaccinations in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases was low, and the quantity of the information provided by doctors about preventive vaccinations were considered to be insufficient. Public awareness of the effects of avoiding preventive vaccinations should be raised especially among people with CVD.

Secular trends and determinants of influenza vaccination uptake among patients with cardiovascular disease in Korea: Analysis using a nationwide database

Background

Influenza vaccination reduces cardiovascular events in patients with cardiovascular disease (CVD). Identifying the factors that affect influenza vaccination uptake can help improve the prognosis in patients with CVD. This study aimed to evaluate the secular trends of influenza vaccination uptake and factors associated with lack of vaccination in individuals with CVD.

Materials and methods

We analyzed the annual trends and factors associated with influenza vaccination among 3,264 patients with CVD, included from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey which reflect the health and nutritional status of the nationwide population of Korea conducted between 2007/2008 and 2018/2019. We used a stratified, multistage sampling method.

Results

The influenza vaccination rate was greater in patients with CVD (53-74%) than in those without CVD (28-40%). Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that age <50 years [odds ratio (OR), 16.22; 95% confidence interval (CI), 7.72-34.07], 50-64 years (OR, 6.71; 95% CI, 4.37-10.28), male sex (OR, 1.45; 95% CI, 1.14-1.65), and asthma (OR, 0.45; 95% CI, 0.22-0.92) were independently associated with a lack of influenza vaccination. Among patients aged <65 years, smoking (OR, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.31-4.04), college graduation status (OR, 1.81; 95% CI, 1.16-2.82), and hypertension (OR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.51-0.95) were independently associated with influenza vaccination. For individuals aged 65years, there was no significant determinant of lack of vaccination.

Conclusion

In patients with CVD, a continuous increase in the secular trend of influenza vaccination was demonstrated in Korea. Young age, male sex, and non-asthma status were independently associated with lack of influenza vaccination uptake.

[Expert opinion on strategies to improve vaccination coverage against seasonal influenza]

Seasonal flu continues to be a major public health concern, and the influenza vaccine remains the most effective preventive measure. In Spain, vaccination coverage data from previous seasons show vaccination rates well below official targets; however, these figures improved significantly after the COVID-19 pandemic. Given the importance of achieving and maintaining high vaccination rates in order to avoid the clinical and economic impact of influenza, our multidisciplinary group of experts on vaccines analyzed the impact of low vaccination rates in Spain and drafted a series of measures to boost influenza vaccination coverage, particularly among priority groups.

Influenza Vaccination for Cardiovascular Prevention: Further Insights from the IAMI Trial and an Updated Meta-analysis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Influenza infection is a significant, well-established cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and CV mortality. Influenza vaccination has been shown to reduce major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and CV mortality. Therefore, major society guidelines have given a strong recommendation for its use in patients with established CVD or high risk for CVD. Nevertheless, influenza vaccination remains underutilized. Historically, influenza vaccination is administered to stable outpatients. Until recently, the safety and efficacy of influenza vaccination among patients with acute myocardial infarction (MI) had not been established.

RECENT FINDINGS

The recently published Influenza Vaccination after Myocardial Infarction (IAMI) trial showed that influenza vaccination within 72 h of hospitalization for MI led to a significant 28% reduction in MACE and a 41% reduction in CV mortality, without any excess in serious adverse events. Additionally, we newly performed an updated meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials (RCTs) including IAMI and the recent Influenza Vaccine to Prevent Adverse Vascular Events (IVVE) trial. In pooled analysis of 8 RCTs with a total of 14,420 patients, influenza vaccine, as compared with control/placebo, was associated with significantly lower risk of MACE at follow-up [RR 0.75 (95%CI 0.57-0.97), I2 56%]. The recent IAMI trial showed that influenza vaccination in patients with recent MI is safe and efficacious at reducing CV morbidity and mortality. Our updated meta-analysis confirms a 25% reduction in MACE. The influenza vaccine should be strongly encouraged in all patients with CVD and incorporated as an essential facet of post-MI care and secondary CVD prevention.

Cardioprotective effects of Influenza Vaccination among Patients with Established Cardiovascular Disease or at High Cardiovascular Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The clinical impact of the influenza vaccination on cardiovascular outcomes in people with established cardiovascular disease (CVD) is still debated.

AIM

The aim of this meta-analysis was to estimate the effect of influenza vaccination on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular outcomes among patients with established CVD.

METHODS

We systematically searched all electronic databases from inception until 15 April 2022. Primary clinical outcomes were all-cause mortality (ACM), and major adverse clinical events (MACE). Secondary endpoints were heart failure, myocardial infarction, CV mortality, and stroke.

RESULTS

Eighteen articles (five randomized trials and thirteen observational studies), with a total of 22,532,165 patients were included in the analysis. There were 217,072 participants included in the high cardiovascular risk or established CVD population (vaccinated n = 111,073 and unvaccinated n = 105,999). The mean age of the patients was 68 years old, without any difference between groups (69 vs 71) years. At mean follow-up of 1.5 years, vaccinated group was associated with lower risk for all-cause mortality [HR, 0.71(95%CI, 0.63-0.80), p < 0.001], MACE [HR, 0.83(95%CI:0.72-0.96), p = 0.01], CV mortality [HR, 0.78(95%CI:0.68-0.90), p < 0.001] and myocardial infarction [HR, 0.82(95%CI:0.74-0.92), p < 0.001] compared to unvaccinated group. While incidence of stroke [HR, 1.03 (95%CI, 0.92-1.06), p = 0.61] and heart failure [HR, 0.74 (95%CI, 0.51-1.08), p = 0.12] did not differ between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

Influenza vaccination reduced major adverse clinical events, all-cause mortality, CV mortality and myocardial infarction. These highlighted the importance of influenza vaccination in established CVD or high cardiovascular risk.

Capturing the value of vaccination: impact of vaccine-preventable disease on hospitalization

Evidence from epidemiological studies suggests that vaccine-preventable disease (VPD) such as influenza or herpes zoster contribute significantly to the increased risk of older adults for cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, neurological, and renal complications in the period after illnesses. However, since the period of elevated risk can persist well beyond the duration of the acute illness, the connection is not always recognized. To obtain insights into the relationship between diagnoses for vaccine-preventable disease and for other conditions, we analyzed principal and secondary diagnoses for 3,127,768 inpatient admissions of adults 50 years and older in the United States, using medical insurance claims drawn from the IBM® MarketScan® Research Databases (Marketscan). The Marketscan data indicated that overall, 3.1% of these hospitalizations had a principal diagnosis of VPD with variation by month of admission, and age. However, hospitalizations with a principal non-VPD diagnosis but secondary VPD diagnoses were 2.8 times more frequent, with particularly high rates in those whose principal diagnoses were non-VPD respiratory or circulatory disease. Hospitalized patients with a secondary VPD diagnosis tended to have poorer discharge outcomes, and longer length of stay in comparison to hospitalized patients without a secondary VPD diagnosis. In total, these data are consistent with suggestions that VPDs play a significant and potentially under-estimated role in hospitalization and outcomes, which may be potentially preventable by improved vaccination coverage.

Nonrespiratory sites of influenza-associated disease: mechanisms and experimental systems for continued study

The productive replication of human influenza viruses is almost exclusively restricted to cells in the respiratory tract. However, a key aspect of the host response to viral infection is the production of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines that are not similarly tissue restricted. As such, circulating inflammatory mediators, as well as the resulting activated immune cells, can induce damage throughout the body, particularly in individuals with underlying conditions. As a result, more holistic experimental approaches are required to fully understand the pathogenesis and scope of influenza virus-induced disease. This review summarizes what is known about some of the most well-appreciated nonrespiratory tract sites of influenza virus-induced disease, including neurological, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, muscular and fetal developmental phenotypes. In the context of this discussion, we describe the in vivo experimental systems currently being used to study nonrespiratory symptoms. Finally, we highlight important future questions and potential models that can be used for a more complete understanding of influenza virus-induced disease.

Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage during the Shutdown for COVID-19

The aim was to evaluate hospitalization rates for aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) within an interdisciplinary multicenter neurovascular network (NVN) during the shutdown for the COVID-19 pandemic along with its modifiable risk factors. In this multicenter study, admission rates for SAH were compared for the period of the shutdown for the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany (calendar weeks (cw) 12 to 16, 2020), the periods before (cw 6–11) and after the shutdown (cw 17–21 and 22–26, 2020), as well as with the corresponding cw in the years 2015–2019. Data on all-cause and pre-hospital mortality within the area of the NVN were retrieved from the Department of Health, and the responsible emergency medical services. Data on known triggers for systemic inflammation, e.g., respiratory viruses and air pollution, were analyzed. Hospitalizations for SAH decreased during the shutdown period to one-tenth within the multicenter NVN. There was a substantial decrease in acute respiratory illness rates, and of air pollution during the shutdown period. The implementation of public health measures, e.g., contact restrictions and increased personal hygiene during the shutdown, might positively influence modifiable risk factors, e.g., systemic inflammation, leading to a decrease in the incidence of SAH.

A novel soluble epoxide hydrolase vaccine protects murine cardiac muscle against myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction is still a life-threatening disease, even though its prognosis has been improved through the development of percutaneous coronary intervention and pharmacotherapy. In addition, heart failure due to remodeling after myocardial infarction requires lifelong management. The aim of this study was to develop a novel treatment suppressing the myocardial damage done by myocardial infarction. We focused on inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase to prolong the activation of epoxyeicosatrienoic acids, which have vasodilatory and anti-inflammatory properties. We successfully made a new vaccine to inactivate soluble epoxide hydrolase, and we have evaluated the effect of the vaccine in a rat myocardial infarction model. In the vaccinated group, the ischemic area was significantly reduced, and cardiac function was significantly preserved. Vaccine treatment clearly increased microvessels in the border area and suppressed fibrosis secondary to myocardial infarction. This soluble epoxide hydrolase vaccine is a novel treatment for improving cardiac function following myocardial infarction.

Burden of influenza in adults with cardiac arrest admissions in Australia

BACKGROUND

Cardiac arrest is the least preventable burden of cardiovascular disease, as treatment depends on timely resuscitation. The incidence of sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) is high, contributing 10-20% of cardiovascular mortality globally. The influenza vaccine reduces the risk of acute cardiovascular events. Little is known about the relationship of influenza infection to cardiac arrest.

METHODS

This study aimed to determine the estimated rate of SCA hospitalisations attributable to influenza in Australian adults. A generalised-additive statistical model was applied in the study. Weekly counts of laboratory-confirmed influenza notifications were used as independent variables in the model.

RESULTS

Our estimates showed that the yearly rate of SCA hospitalisations varied, and a significant association with influenza was observed in some years in older adults aged 65 years and over. On average, the annual estimated SCA hospitalisations rate due to influenza in adults aged 50-64 years and ≥ 65 years were 0.7 (95%CI: 0.4, 1.1) and 5.3 (95%CI: 4.4, 6.2) per 100,000 population, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The association between influenza and SCA is evident in adults and the disease burden is significant in older people. Prevention of influenza by vaccination may reduce SCA.

Influenza vaccination among adults with cardiovascular disease in the United States: Results from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System 2018-2019

Influenza causes significant morbidity and mortality among adults with cardiovascular disease (CVD). In nationally representative surveys of 101,210 individuals with CVD conducted in 2018 and 2019, the self-reported rate of vaccination was only 50%, with significant disparities by race and education. We advocate that cardiologists not only routinely emphasize vaccination but capitalize on the opportunity to vaccinate patients at office visits to improve overall rates of vaccination and their associated racial disparities.

Burden of influenza in patients with cardiovascular disease who receive antiviral treatment for influenza

AIMS

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) increases the risk of complications from respiratory viruses, including influenza. Moreover, respiratory viruses may increase the risk of CV events. Antiviral medication may reduce healthcare resource utilization (HRU), but more data is needed in CVD populations to explore relationships between influenza antiviral treatment, CVD-related complications, HRU, and costs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This retrospective claims analysis examined data extracted from IBM MarketScan Commercial Claims and Encounters and Medicare Supplemental and Coordination of Benefits databases during three influenza seasons: 2016-2017, 2017-2018, or 2018-2019. Propensity score matching was used to compare HRU outcomes and costs among CVD patients treated with influenza antivirals and untreated patients.

RESULTS

Across all influenza seasons, patients with CVD and influenza who received antiviral treatment had fewer all-cause emergency department (ED) visits (p < .01), respiratory-related HRU (p < .01), respiratory-related outpatient and ED visits (both p < .01), CVD-related HRU (p < .01), heart failure-related HRU visits (p < .01), and kidney failure-related HRU (p < .01) 180 days post-treatment fill date than CVD patients untreated for influenza. CVD patients treated with antivirals also had a lower mean number of all-cause inpatient, outpatient, and ED visits and days of stay (all p < .01) and fewer mean respiratory-related outpatient and ED visits (both p < .01). HRU patterns were generally consistent over time and across individual influenza seasons. Finally, treated CVD patients incurred lower all-cause outpatient costs 180 days post-treatment fill date (p < .05) than CVD patients untreated for influenza.

CONCLUSION

CVD patients who contract influenza and take antiviral medication have fewer short- and long-term influenza-related complications and less overall HRU compared with CVD patients who were not prescribed antiviral treatments. Antiviral treatment may be an important tool in reducing complications in CVD patients with influenza.

Modelling the influenza disease burden in people aged 50-64 and ≥65 years in Australia

BACKGROUND

Estimation of influenza disease burden is necessary to monitor the impact of intervention programmes. This study aims to estimate the attributable fraction of respiratory and circulatory disease due to influenza among Australian adults 50-64 and ≥65 years of age.

METHODS

A semi-parametric generalised-additive model was used to estimate annual and average rate of influenza-attributable hospitalisation and death per 100,000 population under the principal diagnosis of influenza/pneumonia, respiratory, circulatory and myocardial infarction (MI) from 2001 through 2017.

RESULTS

Over the study period, seasonal influenza accounted for an estimated annual average respiratory hospitalisation rate of 78.9 (95%CI: 76.3, 81.4) and 287.5 (95%CI: 279.8, 295.3) per 100,000 population in adults aged 50-64 and ≥65 years, respectively. The corresponding respiratory mortality rates were 0.9 (95%CI: 0.7, 1.2) and 18.2 (95%CI: 16.9, 19.4) per 100,000 population. The 2017 season had the highest influenza-attributable respiratory hospitalisations in both age groups, and respiratory complications were estimated approximately 2.5 times higher than the average annual estimate in adults aged ≥65 years in 2017. For mortality, on average, influenza attributed 1,080 circulatory and 361 MI deaths in adults aged ≥65 years per year. Influenza accounted for 1% and 2.8% of total MI deaths in adults aged 50-64 and ≥65 years, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Rates of cardiorespiratory morbidity and mortality were high in older adults, whilst the younger age group contributed a lower disease burden. Extension of influenza vaccination programme beyond the targeted population could be an alternative strategy to reduce the burden of influenza.

Impact of COVID-19 on emergency department attendance in an Australia hospital: a parallel convergent mixed methods study

OBJECTIVES

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the way people are accessing healthcare. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of COVID-19 on emergency department (ED) attendance for frequent attenders and to explore potential reasons for changes in attendance.

DESIGN

This convergent parallel mixed methods study comprised two parts.

SETTING

An interrupted time-series analysis evaluated changes in ED presentation rates; interviews investigated reasons for changes for frequent ED users in a culturally and linguistically diverse setting.

PARTICIPANTS

A total of 4868 patients were included in the time series. A subgroup of 200 patients were interviewed, mean age 66 years (range 23-99).

RESULTS

Interrupted time-series analysis from 4868 eligible participants showed an instantaneous decrease in weekly ED presentations by 36% (p<0.001), with reduction between 45% and 67% across emergency triage categories. 32% did not know they could leave home to seek care with differences seen in English versus non-English speakers (p<0.001). 35% reported postponing medical care. There was a high fear about the health system becoming overloaded (mean 4.2 (±2) on 6-point scale). Four key themes emerged influencing health-seeking behaviour: fear and/or avoidance of hospital care; use of telehealth for remote assessment; no fear or avoidance of hospital care; not leaving the house for any reason.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated reduced ED use by a vulnerable population of previously frequent attenders. COVID-19 has resulted in some fear and avoidance of hospitals, but has also offered new opportunity for alternative care through telehealth.

Influenza and morbidity and mortality risk in patients in Mexico with systemic arterial hypertension alone or with comorbidities: a retrospective, observational, cross-sectional study from 2014 to 2020

OBJECTIVES

In Mexico, patients with systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) are excluded from the influenza vaccination programme despite their risk of cardiovascular events as influenza-related complications. We investigated the impact of influenza on morbidity and mortality in patients with SAH.

DESIGN

This was a retrospective cross-sectional study that analysed data from early 2014 to mid-2020.

SETTING

Data were obtained from the Influenza Epidemiological Surveillance System in Mexico database.

PARTICIPANTS

32 663 cases of influenza in people aged ≥20 years with a confirmed case of influenza-like illness, severe respiratory infection and/or influenza death were investigated.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Influenza deaths, hospitalisation frequency and the impact on hospitalisation and/or death due to influenza by the SAH variate alone and in combination with diabetes, obesity, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disease and/or smoking, and by vaccination status were assessed.

RESULTS

The hospitalisation frequency increased with age. Notably, 46.0% (15 033/32 663) of confirmed influenza cases had at least one comorbidity, with SAH (19.2%; 6260/32 663) and obesity (18.7%; 6106/32 663) being the most prevalent. Most confirmed SAH cases (80.8%; 5057/6260) were in those who had not been vaccinated against influenza. There were 3496 deaths due to influenza (mortality rate, 0.69×1 00 000 inhabitants), with the highest rates seen in those aged ≥80 years (80-89 years, 2.0%; ≥90 years, 3.6%). The case fatality rate due to influenza and SAH was significantly higher than those due to influenza without SAH in those aged <50 years, but not in the other age groups (20-29 years, 9.8%, p<0.0005; 30-39 years, 8.2%, p<0.035; 40-49 years, 17.8%, p<0.0005; vs 15.1%-20.0%, p=0.31-0.99 for those aged ≥50 years).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the need to include SAH in public policies of influenza vaccination as a secondary prevention measure to avoid fatal outcomes.

Recommendations of the Italian society for infectious and tropical diseases (SIMIT) for adult vaccinations

Vaccination prevents 2-3 million deaths worldwide every year. Nevertheless, vaccine-preventable diseases (VPDs) still cause a considerable number of deaths especially in subjects belonging to "risk groups." These are represented by older adults, immunocompromised individuals and all subjects with underlying chronic medical conditions (cardiovascular, pulmonary, renal and liver chronic diseases, diabetes, immunodeficiency disorders). They have a weaker immune system and, if infected, are more likely to develop severe complications of their condition or of the preventable-infectious disease. This document summarizes the recommendations for vaccination of the main Global Institutional Organizations and analyses the risks of comorbidities associated with infectious disease and the benefits of vaccination for each specific group. The document provides a clear, practical and authoritative guide to adult vaccination.

Call to action: cardiologists should promote influenza vaccination

The COVID-19 pandemic has spurred clinical and scientific interest in the cardiology community because of the significantly enhanced vulnerability of patients with underlying cardiac diseases. COVID-19 vaccination is therefore of vital importance to the patients we see in our clinics and hospitals every day and should be promoted by the medical community, especially cardiologists. In view of vaccine-preventable diseases, the association between influenza and cardiovascular complications has been widely investigated. Several studies have found a substantially elevated risk of hospital admission for acute myocardial infarction in the first 7 days after laboratory-confirmed influenza, with incidence ratios ranging from 6.05-8.89. The effectiveness of the influenza vaccine to protect against acute myocardial infarction is about 29%. This effectiveness is comparable to or even better than that of existing secondary preventive therapies, such as statins (prevention rate approximately 36%), antihypertensives (prevention rate approximately 15-18%), and smoking cessation (prevention rate approximately 26%). As the influenza season is rapidly approaching, this Point of View article serves as a call to action: Cardiologists should promote influenza vaccination and actively advice their patients to get the seasonal influenza vaccination.

Associations between Combined Influenza and Pneumococcal Pneumonia Vaccination and Cardiovascular Outcomes

BACKGROUND

In 2017, the CDC listed heart disease as the leading cause of death, with pneumonia and influenza being the eighth cause of death. Several studies have suggested the protective effects of influenza vaccination on myocardial infarction (MI). Available evidence supports the use of influenza vaccination in decreasing cardiovascular events, and the Joint Commission considers influenza vaccination a metric of quality care for hospitalized patients. Our specific aim was to evaluate the combined use of pneumococcal pneumonia vaccine (PPV) and influenza vaccine on cardiovascular outcomes and mortality.

METHODS

A retrospective observational study was conducted using the 2012-2015 US National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database, to compare cardiovascular events in adult patients who did and did not receive vaccination during their hospitalization. ICD-9 codes were used to extract data for specific variables. The outcomes included MI, transient ischemic attacks, cardiac arrest, stroke, heart failure, and death. Adjusted relative risks (RR) were calculated using survey-weighted generalized linear models after adjusting for gender, race, socioeconomic status, diabetes, hypertension, hyperlipidemia, smoking status, prior coronary artery disease, and cerebrovascular disease. The effect of vaccination on in-hospital mortality was assessed in each subgroup of cardiovascular events using RR regressions.

RESULTS

This study included 22,634,643 hospitalizations, of which 21,929,592 did not receive immunization. Vaccination solely against influenza was associated with lower MI (RR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.82-0.87, p < 0.001), TIA (RR = 0.93, 95% CI: 0.9-0.96, p < 0.001), cardiac arrest (RR = 0.36, 95% CI: 0.33-0.39, p < 0.001), stroke (RR = 0.94, 95% CI: 0.91-0.97, p < 0.001), and mortality (RR = 0.38, 95% CI: 0.36-0.4, p < 0.001). Vaccination with PPV alone was associated with MI (RR = 1.13, 95% CI: 1.11-1.16, p < 0.001), TIA (RR = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.26-1.31, p < 0.001), stroke (RR = 1.21, 95% CI: 1.18-1.24, p < 0.001), and lower mortality (RR = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.45-0.49, p < 0.001). Combined PPV and influenza vaccine was associated with lower mortality (2.21% vs. 1.03%, p < 0.001) and lower cardiac arrest (0.61% vs. 0.51%, p < 0.001). In the adjusted analysis, the RR was 0.46 (95% CI: 0.43, 0.49) for mortality in the combined vaccinated cohort. The combined vaccination group also had a significantly reduced risk of mortality among those admitted with MI (RR = 0.46), transient ischemic attacks (RR = 0.58), and stroke (RR = 0.42) compared to the nonvaccinated group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows a significantly reduced risk of mortality with influenza vaccine and PPV and with combined pneumococcal and influenza vaccination. These data suggest that in-hospital administration of pneumonia and influenza vaccines appears safe and supports the use of combined vaccination during hospitalization due to their cardiovascular benefits.

Influenza vaccination and prognosis for patients with high cardiovascular risk

Cardiovascular and respiratory diseases have been one of the leading causes of mortality in the world for over 15 years. According to the results of various studies, a clear connection was revealed between the incidence of influenza and the decompensation of cardiovascular diseases, which leads to the development of acute coronary syndrome, acute heart failure and myocardial infarction. Also, the incidence of influenza is associated with an increase in the length of hospitalization, treatment costs and patient mortality. Influenza vaccination, especially in patients with high cardiovascular risk, is one of the most important secondary prevention measures. The article is dedicated to an overview of the problems of vaccination against influenza, the study of the prognosis of patients with high cardiovascular risk, as well as general points in the pathogenesis of influenza and cardiovascular diseases.

Influenza Vaccination for the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease in the Americas: Consensus document of the Inter-American Society of Cardiology and the Word Heart Federation

Background

Cardiovascular mortality is decreasing but remains the leading cause of death world-wide. Respiratory infections such as influenza significantly contribute to morbidity and mortality in patients with cardiovascular disease. Despite of proven benefits, influenza vaccination is not fully implemented, especially in Latin America.

Objective

The aim was to develop a regional consensus with recommendations regarding influenza vaccination and cardiovascular disease.

Methods

A multidisciplinary team composed by experts in the management and prevention of cardiovascular disease from the Americas, convened by the Inter-American Society of Cardiology (IASC) and the World Heart Federation (WHF), participated in the process and the formulation of statements. The modified RAND/UCLA methodology was used. This document was supported by a grant from the WHF.

Results

An extensive literature search was divided into seven questions, and a total of 23 conclusions and 29 recommendations were achieved. There was no disagreement among experts in the conclusions or recommendations.

Conclusions

There is a strong correlation between influenza and cardiovascular events. Influenza vaccination is not only safe and a proven strategy to reduce cardiovascular events, but it is also cost saving. We found several barriers for its global implementation and potential strategies to overcome them.

Protecting Vulnerable Patients from Influenza During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Urgent Call to Action for Health Care Professionals

The 2020–2021 US influenza season, although mild, initially raised concerns about an unprecedented dual threat of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, circulating alongside seasonal influenza viruses. Although everyone is susceptible to influenza infection, adults with chronic health conditions (including heart disease, lung disease, and diabetes) are particularly vulnerable to influenza-related complications including hospitalization, disability, and death—as are older adults (65+ years) and adults in underserved communities, in which rates of chronic health conditions are higher. Many of the chronic health conditions associated with an increased risk of influenza-related hospitalization and mortality are the same conditions that increase the risk of severe COVID-19 outcomes. Given the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, health care professionals must prioritize influenza vaccination for all patients, especially those with chronic health conditions.

Influenza vaccination: a 'shot' at INVESTing in cardiovascular health

The link between viral respiratory infection and non-pulmonary organ-specific injury, including cardiac injury, has become increasingly appreciated during the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Even prior to the pandemic, however, the association between acute infection with influenza and elevated cardiovascular risk was evident. The recently published results of the NHLBI-funded INfluenza Vaccine to Effectively Stop CardioThoracic Events and Decompensated (INVESTED) trial, a 5200 patient comparative effectiveness study of high-dose vs. standard-dose influenza vaccine to reduce cardiopulmonary events and mortality in a high-risk cardiovascular population, found no difference between strategies. However, the broader implications of influenza vaccine as a strategy to reduce morbidity in high-risk patients remain extremely important, with randomized controlled trial and observational data supporting vaccination in high-risk patients with cardiovascular disease. Given a favourable risk-benefit profile and widespread availability at generally low cost, we contend that influenza vaccination should remain a centrepiece of cardiovascular risk mitigation and describe the broader context of underutilization of this strategy. Few therapeutics in medicine offer seasonal efficacy from a single administration with generally mild, transient side effects, and exceedingly low rates of serious adverse effects. Infection control measures such as physical distancing, hand washing, and the use of masks during the COVID-19 pandemic have already been associated with substantially curtailed incidence of influenza outbreaks across the globe. Appending annual influenza vaccination to these measures represents an important public health and moral imperative.

A media intervention applying debunking versus non-debunking content to combat vaccine misinformation in elderly in the Netherlands: A digital randomised trial

BACKGROUND

As several COVID-19 vaccines are rolled-out globally, it has become important to develop an effective strategy for vaccine acceptance, especially in high-risk groups, such as elderly. Vaccine misconception was declared by WHO as one of the top 10 health issues in 2019. Here we test the effectiveness of applying debunking to combat vaccine misinformation, and reduce vaccine hesitancy.

METHODS

Participants were recruited via a daily news show on Dutch Television, targeted to elderly viewers. The study was conducted in 980 elderly citizens during the October 2020 National Influenza Vaccination Campaign. Borrowing from the recent literature in behavioural science and psychology we conducted a two-arm randomized blinded parallel study, in which participants were allocated to exposure to a video containing social norms, vaccine information plus debunking of vaccination myths (intervention group, n = 505) or a video only containing vaccine information plus social norm (control group, n = 475). Participants who viewed either of the video's and completed both a pre- and post-intervention survey on vaccination trust and knowledge, were included in the analysis. The main outcomes of this study were improvement on vaccine knowledge and awareness.

FINDINGS

Participants were recruited from the 13th of October 2020 till the 16th of October 2020 and could immediately participate in the pre-intervention survey. Subsequently, eligible participants were randomly assigned to an interventional video and the follow-up survey, distributed through email on the 18th of October 2020, and available for participation till the 24th of October 2020. We found that exposure to the video with addition of debunking strategies on top of social norm modelling and information resulted in substantially stronger rejection of vaccination misconceptions, including the belief that: (1) vaccinations can cause Autism Spectrum Disorders; (2) vaccinations weaken the immune system; (3) influenza vaccination would hamper the COVID-19 vaccine efficacy. Additionally, we observed that exposure to debunking in the intervention resulted in enhanced trust in government.

INTERPRETATION

Utilizing debunking in media campaigns on top of vaccine information and social norm modeling is an effective means to combat misinformation and distrust associated with vaccination in elderly, and could help maximize grounds for the acceptance of vaccines, including the COVID-19 vaccines.

FUNDING

Dutch Influenza Foundation.

Relationship Between Influenza, Temperature, and Type 1 Myocardial Infarction: An Ecological Time-Series Study

Background Previous studies investigating the relationship of influenza with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) have not distinguished between AMI types 1 and 2. Influenza and cold temperature can explain the increased incidence of AMI during winter but, because they are closely related in temperate regions, their relative contribution is unknown. Methods and Results The temporal relationship between incidence rates of AMI with demonstrated culprit plaque (type 1 AMI) from the regional primary angioplasty network and influenza, adjusted for ambient temperature, was studied in Madrid region (Spain) during 5 influenza seasons (from June 2013 to June 2018). A time-series analysis with quasi-Poisson regression models and distributed lag-nonlinear models was used. The incidence rate of type 1 AMI according to influenza vaccination status was also explored. A total of 8240 cases of confirmed type 1 AMI were recorded. The overall risk ratio (RR) of type 1 AMI during epidemic periods, adjusted for year, month, and temperature, was 1.23 (95% CI, 1.03-1.47). An increase of weekly influenza rate of 50 cases per 100 000 inhabitants resulted in an RR for type 1 AMI of 1.16 (95% CI, 1.09-1.23) during the same week, disappearing 1 week after. When adjusted for influenza, a decrease of 1ºC in the minimum temperature resulted in an increase of 2.5% type 1 AMI. Influenza vaccination was associated with a decreased risk of type 1 AMI in subjects aged 60 to 64 years (RR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.47-0.71) and ≥65 years (RR, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.49-0.57). Conclusions Influenza and cold temperature were both independently associated with an increased risk of type 1 AMI, whereas vaccination was associated with a reduced risk among older patients.