Lung function after preterm birth: development from mid-childhood to adulthood

Lung function outcomes in adults born extremely preterm across three decades of advancing perinatal medicine

AIM

Advances in perinatal medicine from 1980 to 2000 improved survival in extremely preterm (EP) neonates. Long-term effects of these developments remain unclear, and we aimed to investigate potential cohort effects on adult lung function.

METHODS

Three 18-year-old population-based cohorts born at ≤28 weeks gestation or with birthweight ≤1000 g during 1982-85, 1991-92 and 1999-2000 and term-controls underwent spirometry, body plethysmography, and tests of lung diffusing capacity, bronchodilator reversibility, and airway hyperresponsiveness. We used Welch's t-tests to compare term- with EP-born as a group and split by bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), and regression models to test group/cohort interactions.

RESULTS

In all EP-born cohorts, z-scores for FEV1, FEV1/FVC, FEF25%-75%, DLCO and KCO were reduced compared with term-born. For the 82-85, 91-92 and 99-00 cohorts, deficits for z-FEV1 and z-DLCO were 1.23 and 0.53; 0.68 and 0.92; and 0.51 and 0.57, respectively (p ≤0.01 for all). Cohort analyses showed stable lung function across the three cohorts overall, but improvements across cohorts for the BPD subgroups in z-FEV1, z-FEV1/FVC, and z-FEF25%-75%.

CONCLUSION

Adults born EP across three formative decades of neonatal care had stable lung function overall, with notable improvements in BPD subgroups across cohorts.

Long-term health outcomes of preterm birth: a narrative review

Despite a significant reduction in neonatal mortality due to advances in neonatal care, preterm birth (PTB) continues to pose a challenge due to the escalating incidence of long-term complications, which refer to health issues that persist or emerge beyond the immediate neonatal period. The impact of PTB, particularly in extremely preterm infants born before 28 weeks of gestational age, is not confined to the early years but extends across the lifespan, influencing physical, cognitive, and social development, as well as long-term health outcomes. These complications, which often persist from childhood into adulthood, span multiple systems and create a broad spectrum of health concerns. This comprehensive narrative review of literature delves into the breadth of well-characterized long-term complications associated with PTB, including neurodevelopmental, respiratory, cardiovascular, renal, gastrointestinal, and endocrine system disorders. By providing health care providers with a holistic understanding of the potential complications following PTB, this review aims to summarize the current literature and underscore the value of long-term monitoring strategies and proactive evaluations of this population. Our objective is to foster a clinical approach that anticipates these complications, enabling early interventions and better management of these at-risk infants.

Understanding the childhood origins of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Insights from birth cohorts and studies across the life-span

Birth cohorts have identified modifiable risk factors for asthma and respiratory health in children and adults, demonstrating the important role and pathways through which early-life events influence not only child outcomes but also adult health, disease, and mortality. This focused literature update from 2021 to 2024 summarizes birth cohort studies across the life-span that contribute to our understanding of risk factors for and the childhood origins of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease that may inform prevention efforts. We conclude that there are critical periods of developmental plasticity and susceptibility during which early-life events and exposures likely have the greatest impact on the development of asthma and chronic obstructive lung disease phenotypes, and that there are important prenatal and early childhood exposures, which, if modified, might be candidates for improving respiratory health across the life-span. Birth cohorts have been and will continue to be critical to advancing our understanding of lung health and disease across the life-span, including asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. As child mortality declines and the human population ages, data from birth cohort studies are needed to inform strategies for optimizing healthy longevity, including the investment in understanding the lifelong consequences of adverse prenatal and early childhood exposures.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Chronic Lung Diseases: A Narrative Review of Impacts from Womb to Tomb

The lungs are a mucosal organ constantly exposed to potentially harmful compounds and pathogens. Beyond their role in gas exchange, they must perform a well-orchestrated protective response against foreign invaders. The lungs identify these foreign compounds, respond to them by eliciting an inflammatory response, and restore tissue homeostasis after inflammation to ensure the lungs continue to function. In addition, lung function can be affected by genetics, environmental exposures, and age, leading to pulmonary diseases that infringe on quality of life. Recent studies indicate that diet can influence pulmonary health including the incidence and/or severity of lung diseases. Specifically, long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) have gained attention because of their potential to reduce inflammation and promote resolution of inflammation. Docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid are 2 potentially beneficial n-3 PUFAs primarily acquired through dietary intake. Here we review current literature examining the role of n-3 PUFAs and the biological mechanisms by which these fatty acids alter the incidence and pathologies of chronic lung diseases including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and interstitial lung disease. We also highlight the role of n-3 PUFAs in vulnerable populations such as pre/postnatal children, those with obesity, and the elderly. Lastly, we review the impact of n-3 PUFA intake and supplementation to evaluate if increasing consumption can mitigate mechanisms driving chronic lung diseases.

Perception of quality of life in school-age children born before 32 weeks of gestational age

Preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) are at increased risk of disruptions in their quality of life (QoL) at school age, often associated with respiratory morbidity and the need for ongoing hospital care. The objective of this study is to assess the impact of BPD on the perceived quality of life in preterm infants at school age. We conducted a prospective observational study of infants born at less than 32 weeks gestation who were admitted to our neonatal unit between January 2012 and December 2014. These children were followed up, and at ages 8 to 10 years, their quality of life was assessed using the Pediatric Quality of Life (PedsQL) questionnaire, with higher scores indicating poorer quality of life. The study included 102 patients with a mean gestational age of 29.42 weeks (SD 1.87) and a mean birth weight of 1221.36 g (SD 347.25), with an average age of 8.59 years (SD 0.90) at the time of the survey. Patients with BPD 2-3 exhibited a significantly poorer perception of "total quality of life" (p = 0.03) and in the "social activities" domain (p = 0.02) compared to those without BPD or with BPD 1, even after adjusting for gestational age in a multivariate model. No significant differences were observed for the "health and activities" domain (p = 0.31), "emotional state" domain (p = 0.58), or "school activities" domain (p = 0.33). Patients who experienced asthma symptoms during follow-up had a poorer perception of total quality of life than those who did not (20.53 (SD 6.19) vs. 11.89 (SD 1.44), p < 0.01). No significant differences were found between patients without a diagnosis of BPD and those with grade 1 BPD. Similarly, no significant differences were observed when comparing patients of less than 28 weeks gestational age and more than 28 weeks of gestational age.

CONCLUSION

In our population of preterm school-aged children with grades 2-3 BPD, worse perceived quality of life was reported compared to those with no BPD or grade 1 BPD. Preterm children who developed asthma symptoms during the follow-up period also reported lower perceived quality of life. No differences in QoL were observed between patients with no BPD and those with grade 1 BPD, or between those born before and after 28 weeks of gestation. These findings highlight the importance of assessing the QoL in preterm patients with BPD, particularly those with grade 2-3 BPD or asthma symptoms, as early assessment can help identify patients who may benefit from targeted interventions to improve quality of life and long-term outcomes.

WHAT IS KNOWN

• Survival rates of extremely preterm infants have increased significantly in recent years, but respiratory morbidity, particularly bronchopulmonary dysplasia, remains a common problem. The impact of BPD on the quality of life of preterm infants, particularly at school age, is still debated. BPD is associated with an increased risk of asthma and abnormal lung function, but its effect on QoL is not fully understood.

WHAT IS NEW

• Preterm infants with grade 2-3 BPD have a significantly worse perception of QoL at school age, especially in the domain of "social activities". This finding emphasises the need for long-term follow-up and possible interventions to improve QoL, especially in terms of social integration. Asthma symptoms during childhood also contribute to poorer QoL perceptions, highlighting the importance of early diagnosis and effective treatment.

Long-term lung function follow-up of preterm infants less than 32 weeks of gestational age

BACKGROUND

Preterm infants, particularly those with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), are at risk of lung development problems. Over the last decades, lung protective strategies have been used, decreasing the risk of chronic lung disease.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the pulmonary function test (PFT) of preterm infants born after the introduction of lung protective strategies and to assess perinatal determinants of impaired lung function in this population.

METHODS

A prospective, observational, single-center study was conducted in the neonatal unit of a high-complexity hospital. The study included newborns with less than 32 weeks gestational age born between 2012 and 2014, who were followed up until they reach school age. For the main outcome, two groups were stablished: no BPD or grade 1 BPD (no BPD/1) and grade 2 or 3 BPD (BPD 2/3).

RESULTS

Out of 327 patients, 116 were included. BPD was diagnosed in 49.1% (47), with 50.9% (29) classified as grade 1, 35.1% (20) as grade 2, and 14.0% (8) as grade 3. Mean age at PFT was 8.59 years (SD 0.90). Mean FEV1% was 95.36% (SD 13.21) and FEV1 z-score -0.36 (SD 1.12); FVC% 97.53% (SD 12.59) and FVC z-score -0.20 (SD 1.06); FEV1/FVC ratio 85.84% (SD 8.34) and z-score -0.24 (SD 1.34). When comparing patients with no BPD/1 and BPD 2/3, we observed differences in all pulmonary function parameters, which persisted after adjusting for gestational age. No differences in PFT were observed between patients without BPD and those with grade 1 BPD. Most patients (76.7%, 89) had normal spirometry pattern, with obstructive pattern observed in 12.9% (15), restrictive pattern in 9.5% (11), and mixed pattern in 0.9% (1) of patients.

CONCLUSION

Preterm infants with BPD 2/3 showed a decrease in all pulmonary function parameters compared to preterm infants with no BPD/1; an effect that was independent of gestational age. Among patients with BPD who had an altered PFT pattern, the most common pattern was obstructive, followed by restrictive and then, mixed.

Chorioamnionitis and respiratory outcomes in prematurely born children: a systematic review and meta analysis

INTRODUCTION

To conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between chorioamnionitis and respiratory outcomes of prematurely born children.

CONTENT

Pubmed, Medline and Embase were searched for relevant studies. Studies were included if they assessed prematurely born children, who had been exposed to chorioamnionitis and had either lung function testing or assessment of wheeze or asthma following NICU discharge. Two reviewers independently screened the search results, applied inclusion criteria and assessed methodological quality. One reviewer extracted the data and these were checked by a second reviewer.

SUMMARY

A total of 1,237 studies were identified, but only eight which included 35,000 infants, fulfilled the inclusion criteria. One study looked at both lung function results and wheeze or asthma in childhood. Four of five studies found an association between wheeze/asthma in childhood and exposure to chorioamnionitis: the overall Odds Ratio (OR) for developing wheeze/asthma in childhood was OR 1.71 (95 % CI: 1.55-1.89). Four studies looked at lung function in childhood, three of which showed no statistically significant association between chorioamnionitis exposure and altered lung function. One study found lower lung function in those exposed to chorioamnionitis and lower expiratory flows with increasing levels of chorioamnionitis (forced expiratory flow at 50 % of exhaled forced vital capacity (=FEF50) p=0.012, forced expiratory flow at 25-75 % of the forced vital capacity is exhaled (=FEF25-75) p=0.014).

OUTLOOK

There was a significant association between chorioamnionitis and the development of wheeze or asthma in childhood, but overall not in impairment of lung function.

The Diaphragmatic Initiated Ventilatory Assist (DIVA) trial: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial comparing rates of extubation failure in extremely premature infants undergoing extubation to non-invasive neurally adjusted ventilatory assist versus non-synchronized nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation

BACKGROUND

Invasive mechanical ventilation contributes to bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), the most common complication of prematurity and the leading respiratory cause of childhood morbidity. Non-invasive ventilation (NIV) may limit invasive ventilation exposure and can be either synchronized or non-synchronized (NS). Pooled data suggest synchronized forms may be superior. Non-invasive neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NIV-NAVA) delivers NIV synchronized to the neural signal for breathing, which is detected with a specialized catheter. The DIVA (Diaphragmatic Initiated Ventilatory Assist) trial aims to determine in infants born 240/7-276/7 weeks' gestation undergoing extubation whether NIV-NAVA compared to non-synchronized nasal intermittent positive pressure ventilation (NS-NIPPV) reduces the incidence of extubation failure within 5 days of extubation.

METHODS

This is a prospective, unblinded, pragmatic, multicenter phase III randomized clinical trial. Inclusion criteria are preterm infants 24-276/7 weeks gestational age who were intubated within the first 7 days of life for at least 12 h and are undergoing extubation in the first 28 postnatal days. All sites will enter an initial run-in phase, where all infants are allocated to NIV-NAVA, and an independent technical committee assesses site performance. Subsequently, all enrolled infants are randomized to NIV-NAVA or NS-NIPPV at extubation. The primary outcome is extubation failure within 5 days of extubation, defined as any of the following: (1) rise in FiO2 at least 20% from pre-extubation for > 2 h, (2) pH ≤ 7.20 or pCO2 ≥ 70 mmHg; (3) > 1 apnea requiring positive pressure ventilation (PPV) or ≥ 6 apneas requiring stimulation within 6 h; (4) emergent intubation for cardiovascular instability or surgery. Our sample size of 478 provides 90% power to detect a 15% absolute reduction in the primary outcome. Enrolled infants will be followed for safety and secondary outcomes through 36 weeks' postmenstrual age, discharge, death, or transfer.

DISCUSSION

The DIVA trial is the first large multicenter trial designed to assess the impact of NIV-NAVA on relevant clinical outcomes for preterm infants. The DIVA trial design incorporates input from clinical NAVA experts and includes innovative features, such as a run-in phase, to ensure consistent technical performance across sites.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov , trial identifier NCT05446272 , registered July 6, 2022.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia in adults: Exploring pathogenesis and phenotype

This review highlights both the longstanding impact of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) on the health of adult survivors of prematurity and the pressing need for prospective, longitudinal studies of this population. Conservatively, there are an estimated 1,000,000 survivors of BPD in the United States alone. Unfortunately, most of the available literature regarding outcomes of lung disease due to prematurity naturally focuses on pediatric patients in early or middle childhood, and the relative amount of literature on adult survivors is scant. As the number of adult survivors of BPD continues to increase, it is essential that both adult and pediatric pulmonologists have a comprehensive understanding of the pathophysiology and underlying disease process, including the molecular signaling pathways and pro-inflammatory modulators that contribute to the pathogenesis of BPD. We summarize the most common presenting symptoms for adults with BPD and identify the critical challenges adult pulmonologists face in managing the care of survivors of prematurity. Specifically, these challenges include the wide variability of the clinical presentation of adult patients, comorbid cardiopulmonary complications, and the paucity of longitudinal data available on these patients. Adult survivors of BPD have even required lung transplantation, indicating the high burden of morbidity that can result from premature birth and subsequent lung injury. In addition, we analyze the disparate symptoms and management approach to adults with "old" BPD versus "new" BPD. The aim of this review is to assist pulmonologists in understanding the underlying pathophysiology of BPD and to improve clinical recognition of this increasingly common pulmonary disease.

Unravelling the respiratory health path across the lifespan for survivors of preterm birth

Many survivors of preterm birth will have abnormal lung development, reduced peak lung function and, potentially, an increased rate of physiological lung function decline, each of which places them at increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease across the lifespan. Current rates of preterm birth indicate that by the year 2040, around 50 years since the introduction of surfactant therapy, more than 700 million individuals will have been born prematurely-a number that will continue to increase by about 15 million annually. In this Personal View, we describe current understanding of the impact of preterm birth on lung function through the life course, with the aim of putting this emerging health crisis on the radar for the respiratory community. We detail the potential underlying mechanisms of prematurity-associated lung disease and review current approaches to prevention and management. Furthermore, we propose a novel way of considering lung disease after preterm birth, using a multidimensional model to determine individual phenotypes of lung disease-a first step towards optimising management approaches for prematurity-associated lung disease.

An Update on Lung Function of Extremely and Very Preterm Infants in Later Life: The Role of Early Nutritional Interventions

Birth occurring at ≤32 weeks' gestation ("very preterm") or at ≤28 weeks' gestation ("extremely preterm") potentially poses considerable health problems for the neonate, including respiratory sequelae, not only during the immediate newborn period, but throughout childhood and into adulthood. With the progressive improvements in neonatal care, the survival of extremely preterm and very preterm neonates has improved substantially. However, a considerable percentage of these infants suffer dysfunctions that may trigger, at some stage later in life, the onset of respiratory morbidities. The interruption of the normal development of the respiratory tract caused by preterm birth, in combination with postnatal lung injury caused by various interventions, e.g., mechanical ventilation and oxygen therapy, increases the risk ofthe development of long-term respiratory deficits in survivors. Those infants that are most affected are those who develop chronic lung disease of prematurity (also called bronchopulmonary dysplasia, BPD), but impaired lung function can develop irrespective of BPD diagnosis. Apart from indicating abnormal lung function in survivors of extreme prematurity, recent long-term follow-up studies also emphasize the crucial role of early nutritional intake as an effective strategy, which promotes lung growth and repair. This article will update the associations between extremely/very preterm birth with long-term respiratory outcomes. It will also discuss the protective effect of nutritional interventions, focusing on recently published follow-up data.

Preterm or early term birth and long-term risk of asthma into midadulthood: a national cohort and cosibling study

BACKGROUND

Preterm birth is associated with pulmonary complications early in life; however, long-term risks of asthma into adulthood are unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To determine asthma risks from childhood into adulthood associated with gestational age at birth in a large population-based cohort.

METHODS

A national cohort study was conducted of all 4 079 878 singletons born in Sweden during 1973-2013, followed up for asthma identified from primary care, specialty outpatient and inpatient diagnoses in nationwide registries through 2018 (up to 46 years). Cox regression was used to adjust for potential confounders, and cosibling analyses assessed the influence of unmeasured shared familial (genetic and/or environmental) factors.

RESULTS

In 91.9 million person-years of follow-up, 607 760 (14.9%) persons were diagnosed with asthma. Preterm birth was associated with increased risk of asthma at ages <10 years (adjusted HR 1.73; 95% CI 1.70 to 1.75), 10-17 years (1.29; 1.27 to 1.32) and 18-46 years (1.19; 1.17 to 1.22). Across all ages, adjusted HRs further stratified were 3.01 (95% CI 2.88 to 3.15) for extremely preterm (22-27 weeks), 1.76 (1.72 to 1.79) for very or moderately preterm (28-33 weeks), 1.31 (1.29 to 1.32) for late preterm (34-36 weeks) and 1.13 (1.12 to 1.14) for early term (37-38 weeks), compared with full-term (39-41 weeks) birth. These findings were not explained by shared familial factors. Asthma risks were elevated after spontaneous or medically indicated preterm birth and with or without perinatal respiratory complications.

CONCLUSIONS

In this large national cohort, preterm and early term birth were associated with increased risks of asthma from childhood into midadulthood. Persons born prematurely need long-term follow-up into adulthood for timely detection and treatment of asthma.

Preterm birth and asthma and COPD in adulthood: a nationwide register study from two Nordic countries

BACKGROUND

Preterm birth affects lungs in several ways but few studies have follow-up until adulthood. We investigated the association of the entire spectrum of gestational ages with specialist care episodes for obstructive airway disease (asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)) at age 18-50 years.

METHODS

We used nationwide registry data on 706 717 people born 1987-1998 in Finland (4.8% preterm) and 1 669 528 born 1967-1999 in Norway (5.0% preterm). Care episodes of asthma and COPD were obtained from specialised healthcare registers, available in Finland for 2005-2016 and in Norway for 2008-2017. We used logistic regression to estimate odds ratios (ORs) for having a care episode with either disease outcome.

RESULTS

Odds of any obstructive airway disease in adulthood for those born at <28 or 28-31 completed weeks were 2-3-fold of those born full term (39-41 completed weeks), persisting after adjustments. For individuals born at 32-33, 34-36 or 37-38 weeks, the odds were 1.1- to 1.5-fold. Associations were similar in the Finnish and the Norwegian data and among people aged 18-29 and 30-50 years. For COPD at age 30-50 years, the OR was 7.44 (95% CI 3.49-15.85) for those born at <28 weeks, 3.18 (95% CI 2.23-4.54) for those born at 28-31 weeks and 2.32 (95% CI 1.72-3.12) for those born at 32-33 weeks. Bronchopulmonary dysplasia in infancy increased the odds further for those born at <28 and 28-31 weeks.

CONCLUSION

Preterm birth is a risk factor for asthma and COPD in adulthood. The high odds of COPD call for diagnostic vigilance when adults born very preterm present with respiratory symptoms.

Increasing airway obstruction through life following bronchopulmonary dysplasia: a meta-analysis

Background

Few studies exist investigating lung function trajectories of those born preterm; however growing evidence suggests some individuals experience increasing airway obstruction throughout life. Here we use the studies identified in a recent systematic review to provide the first meta-analysis investigating the impact of preterm birth on airway obstruction measured by the forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1) to forced vital capacity (FVC) ratio.

Methods

Cohorts were included for analysis if they reported FEV1/FVC in survivors of preterm birth (<37 weeks' gestation) and control populations born at term. Meta-analysis was performed using a random effect model, expressed as standardised mean difference (SMD). Meta-regression was conducted using age and birth year as moderators.

Results

55 cohorts were eligible, 35 of which defined groups with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). Compared to control populations born at term, lower values of FEV1/FVC were seen in all individuals born preterm (SMD -0.56), with greater differences seen in those with BPD (SMD -0.87) than those without BPD (SMD -0.45). Meta-regression identified age as a significant predictor of FEV1/FVC in those with BPD with the FEV1/FVC ratio moving -0.04 sds away from the term control population for every year of increased age.

Conclusions

Survivors of preterm birth have significantly increased airway obstruction compared to those born at term with larger differences in those with BPD. Increased age is associated with a decline in FEV1/FVC values suggesting increased airway obstruction over the life course.

Respiratory and non-respiratory outcomes of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in adolescents: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

There is lack of evidence synthesis on the global consequences of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in adolescence.

AIM

Assess the impact of bronchopulmonary dysplasia on respiratory and non-respiratory outcomes in adolescents.

METHODS

A systematic review of studies assessing the outcomes of adolescents aged 10 to 19 years-old with BPD was conducted. We independently screened studies published until 6th March 2023 in PubMed® and Scopus® databases. Data on methodologic design, sample descriptive and findings were extracted from each study. Risk of bias was assessed using quality assessment tools.

RESULTS

Thirty-one studies were included. Adolescents with a history of BPD present with more respiratory symptoms (wheezing, respiratory exacerbations, need for respiratory medication) and twenty-five studies showed a reduction in pulmonary function, with varying impact according to BPD severity and no differences before and after the surfactant era. Spirometry evaluation throughout the years is not consensual, but methacholine and salbutamol response in BPD groups is increased compared to non-BPD groups. Markers of eosinophilic airway inflammation are not increased as in asthma patients. Exercise potential is identical, but data regarding physical capacity and activity are inconsistent. More frequent radiologic abnormalities translate into higher high-resolution computed tomography scores, with linear (72.2 %) and triangular subpleural opacities (58.3 %) as the most common findings. There is a higher risk for special needs in education, but quality of life seems to be equal to non-BPD adolescents.

CONCLUSIONS

BPD negatively impacts both pulmonary and non-pulmonary outcomes in adolescents.

Prevalence of asthma in preterm and associated risk factors based on prescription data from the Korean National Health Insurance database

We retrospectively analyzed National Health Insurance claims data (January 2002-December 2018) to determine the asthma prevalence and risk factors among preterm infants born in Korea. Patients with asthma were defined as those with a history of asthma medication prescriptions at least twice per year with International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Edition codes J45 and J46. We enrolled 99,139 preterm infants. The prevalence of asthma among preterm and term infants was 32.7% and 26.9%, 21.2% and 19.1%, 6.7% and 5.9%, 2.0%, and 1.6%, and 2.4% and 1.6% at 2, 5, 10, 15, and 16 years of age, respectively. The relative risk (RR) of asthma in preterm infants was 1.1-fold that in female preterm infants. The RR of asthma medication prescriptions for infants with extreme prematurity was 1.92-fold that of infants with moderate/late pre-term status. Among preterm with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) without comorbidities, the RRs for the number of asthma medication prescriptions were 1.34 and 1.06, respectively. This study revealed a higher prevalence of asthma among preterm infants than that in term infants. Male sex, extreme prematurity, BPD, and RDS were identified as risk factors for asthma medication prescriptions in preterm infants.

The Role of Lung Function in Determining Which Children Develop Asthma

Longitudinal studies have demonstrated that altered indices of airway function, assessed shortly after birth, are a risk factor for the subsequent development of wheezing illnesses and asthma, and that these indices predict airway size and airway wall thickness in adult life. Pre- and postnatal factors that directly alter early airway function, such as extreme prematurity and cigarette smoke, may continue to affect airway function and, hence, the risks for wheeze and asthma. Early airway function and an associated asthma risk may also be indirectly influenced by immune system responses, respiratory viruses, the airway microbiome, genetics, and epigenetics, especially if they affect airway epithelial dysfunction. Few if any interventions, apart from smoking avoidance, have been proven to alter the risks of developing asthma, but vitamin C supplementation to pregnant smokers may help decrease the effects of in utero smoke on offspring lung function. We conclude that airway size and the factors influencing this play an important role in determining the risk for asthma across the lifetime. Progress in asthma prevention is long overdue and this may benefit from carefully designed interventions in well-phenotyped longitudinal birth cohorts with early airway function assessments monitored through to adulthood.

Use of impulse oscillometry to assess lung function in prematurely born children and young people: Comparisons with spirometry

Premature birth is a risk factor for bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD); both of which are associated with obstructive airway disease throughout childhood. Impulse oscillometry (IOS) is an effort-independent, passive measure of tidal breathing, which could have benefits in assessing lung function amongst younger patients unable to perform valid spirometry. A literature search was conducted to investigate the use of IOS in prematurely born children and young people. IOS results correlate with those of spirometry. Reversibility of airway obstruction in children with BPD is variable. IOS could have benefits in assessing individual patient response and suitability for bronchodilator therapy. More work, however, is required to establish multi-ethnic reference ranges and standardise commercially available devices prior to its routine incorporation into clinical practice.

The Association of Self-Reported Birthweight with Lung Function and Respiratory Diseases: Results from a Multi-Centre, Multi-Case Control Study in Italy

Early life conditions are associated with lung function and the development of respiratory and non-respiratory illnesses. The relationship with birthweight (BW), however, is conflicting. We examined associations of self-reported BW with lung function and the development of respiratory and also non-respiratory diseases within the GEIRD (Gene-Environment Interaction in Respiratory Diseases) project, an Italian multi-centre, multi-case control study involving cases of COPD, asthma, allergic rhinitis and controls. Multinomial logistic regression was performed with case/control status as response variable; BW as main determinant; and adjusting for sex, age and smoking status. Of the 2287 participants reporting BW, 6.4% (n = 147) had low BW (<2500 g), and this proportion was greater in women than men (7.8% vs. 5.1%; p = 0.006). Both men and women with low BW were shorter than those with normal BW (mean ± SD: 160.2 ± 5.5 vs. 162.6 ± 6.5 cm in women, p = 0.009; 172.4 ± 6.1 vs. 174.8 ± 7.2 cm in men, p < 0.001). Although FEV1 and FVC were reduced in individuals with low BW, this was explained by associations with sex and height. In multivariable analysis, BW was not associated with respiratory diseases in adulthood. However, those with low BW had a higher risk of self-reported hospitalisation for lung disease before the age of two (10.3% vs. 4.1%; p < 0.001), severe respiratory infection before the age of five (16.9% vs. 8.8%; p = 0.001) and hypertension in adulthood (29.9% vs. 23.7%; p = 0.001); however, they had a lower risk of arrhythmia (2.7% vs. 5.8%; p = 0.027).

Pulmonary function in school-age children following intravitreal injection of bevacizumab for retinopathy of prematurity

The effect of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor on neonatal lung development was inconclusive. To evaluate pulmonary function in school-age children who have received intravitreal bevacizumab (IVB) for retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), this study included 118 school-aged children who were grouped into three groups: full-term control children (group 1), preterm children who had not received IVB treatment (group 2) and preterm children with ROP who had received IVB treatment (group 3). Pulmonary function was measured by spirometry and impulse oscillometry. Pulmonary function was significantly better in group 1 than in groups 2 and 3 (all p < 0.05 in forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁), forced expiratory flow between 25 and 75% of FVC (FEF_25-75), and respiratory resistance at 5 Hz and difference between respiratory resistance at 5 and 20 Hz (R5-R20). There were no statistically significant differences between group 2 and group 3 in all pulmonary function parameters, including FVC, FEV₁, ratio of FEV₁ to FVC, FEF_25-75, R5, R20, R5-R20, and respiratory reactance at 5 Hz. In conclusion, our study revealed that preterm infants receiving IVB for ROP had comparable pulmonary function at school age to their preterm peers who had not received IVB treatment.

Cardiopulmonary Function Abnormalities in Cohort of Adults following Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia as Preterm Infants

OBJECTIVE

This study was aimed to describe the cardiopulmonary profiles of adult patients with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), comparing them to normative adult values.

STUDY DESIGN

This study presents a retrospective chart review of all BPD patients followed in the adult BPD clinic, identified from institutional and archive databases, born preterm at ≤33 weeks of estimated gestational age (EGA) between January 1980 and December 2000.

RESULTS

Forty-four patients with BPD (26.4 ± 2.7 weeks of EGA) were included. Average age at follow-up was 19 years. Majority (61.4%) of the patients had a diagnosis of asthma. Mean spirometry values were: first second of forced expiration (FEV1) 74.1%, forced vital capacity (FVC) 80.7%, and FEV1/FVC 82.5%. Echocardiography (ECHO) images were reviewed, left ventricular (LV) structure and performance did not differ between obstructive and nonobstructive pulmonary function test (PFT) groups, but values of LV longitudinal strain were 4.8% lower than expected normal for adults. Patients with obstructive PFT had additional decreased right ventricular (RV) function by ECHO.

CONCLUSION

BPD patients in this study were found to have a burden of cardiorespiratory alterations that persisted into adulthood, with RV performance abnormalities found among patients with obstructive PFT.

KEY POINTS

· BPD patients born at extremes of prematurity have cardiorespiratory alterations in adulthood.. · Among patients with obstructive lung function, subtle cardiac performance abnormalities were found.. · Future directions should include systematic follow-up of premature newborns with BPD..

Geographical Differences and Temporal Improvements in Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 Second of Preterm-Born Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Importance

Although preterm birth is associated with later deficits in lung function, there is a paucity of information on geographical differences and whether improvements occur over time, especially after surfactant was introduced.

Objective

To determine deficits in percentage predicted forced expiratory volume in 1 second (%FEV1) in preterm-born study participants, including those with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in infancy, when compared with term-born control groups.

Data Sources

Eight databases searched up to December 2021.

Study Selection

Studies reporting spirometry for preterm-born participants with or without a term-born control group were identified.

Data Extraction and Synthesis

Data were extracted and quality assessed by 1 reviewer and checked by another. Data were pooled using random-effects models and analyzed using Review Manager and the R metafor package.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Deficits in %FEV1 between preterm-born and term groups. Associations between deficits in %FEV1 and year of birth, age, introduction of surfactant therapy, and geographical region of birth and residence were also assessed.

Results

From 16 856 titles, 685 full articles were screened: 86 with and without term-born control groups were included. Fifty studies with term controls were combined with the 36 studies from our previous systematic review, including 7094 preterm-born and 17 700 term-born participants. Of these studies, 45 included preterm-born children without BPD, 29 reported on BPD28 (supplemental oxygen dependency at 28 days), 26 reported on BPD36 (supplemental oxygen dependency at 36 weeks' postmenstrual age), and 86 included preterm-born participants. Compared with the term-born group, the group of all preterm-born participants (all preterm) had deficits of %FEV1 of -9.2%; those without BPD had deficits of -5.8%, and those with BPD had deficits of approximately -16% regardless of whether they had BPD28 or BPD36. As year of birth increased, there was a statistically significant narrowing of the difference in mean %FEV1 between the preterm- and term-born groups for the all preterm group and the 3 BPD groups but not for the preterm-born group without BPD. For the all BPD group, when compared with Scandinavia, North America and western Europe had deficits of -5.5% (95% CI, -10.7 to -0.3; P = .04) and -4.1% (95% CI, -8.8 to 0.5; P = .08), respectively.

Conclusions and Relevance

Values for the measure %FEV1 were reduced in preterm-born survivors. There were improvements in %FEV1 over recent years, but geographical region had an association with later %FEV1 for the BPD groups.

Cardiac cycle: an observational/interventional study protocol to characterise cardiopulmonary function and evaluate a home-based cycling program in children and adolescents born extremely preterm

INTRODUCTION

Extremely preterm (EP)/extremely low birthweight (ELBW) individuals may have an increased risk for adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Compared with term-born controls, these individuals have poorer lung function and reduced exercise capacity. Exercise interventions play an important role in reducing cardiopulmonary risk, however their use in EP/ELBW cohorts is unknown. This study, cardiac cycle, aims to characterise the cardiopulmonary system of children and adolescents who were born EP compared with those born at term, following acute and chronic exercise bouts.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The single-centre study comprises a home-based exercise intervention, with physiological characterisation at baseline and after completion of the intervention. Fifty-eight children and adolescents aged 10-18 years who were born EP and/or with ELBW will be recruited. Cardiopulmonary function assessed via measures of blood pressure, arterial stiffness, capillary density, peak oxygen consumption, lung clearance indexes and ventricular structure/function, will be compared with 58 age-matched and sex-matched term-born controls at baseline and post intervention. The intervention will consist of a 10-week stationary cycling programme, utilising Zwift technology.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study is approved by the Ethics Committee of the Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne under HREC2019.053. Results will be disseminated via peer-reviewed journal regardless of outcome.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

12619000539134, ANZCTR.

Longitudinal changes in lung function in very prematurely born young people receiving high-frequency oscillation or conventional ventilation from birth

OBJECTIVE

To examine changes in lung function over time in extremely prematurely born adolescents.

WORKING HYPOTHESIS

Changes in lung function during adolescence would vary by ventilation mode immediately after birth.

STUDY DESIGN

Longitudinal follow-up study.

PATIENT SUBJECT SELECTION

Participants from the United Kingdom Oscillation Study who were randomized at birth to high-frequency oscillation (HFO) or conventional ventilation (CV) were assessed at 11-14 years (n = 319) and at 16-19 years (n = 159).

METHODOLOGY

Forced expiratory flow (FEF), forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), and lung volumes including functional residual capacity (FRC) were reported as z-scores. The diffusion capacity of the lungs for carbon monoxide (DLCO) was measured. Lung function trajectories were compared by mode of ventilation using mixed models. Changes in z-scores were scaled to 5-year average follow-up.

RESULTS

There were significant changes in the mean FEF75, FEF50, FEF25, FEV1, FVC, and DLCO z-scores within the CV and HFO cohorts, but no significant differences in the changes between the two groups. The mean FRC z-score increased in both groups, with an average change of greater than one z-score. The mean FEV1/FVC z-score increased significantly in the CV group, but not in the HFO group (difference in slopes: p = 0.02). Across the population, deterioration in lung function was associated with male sex, white ethnicity, lower gestational age at birth, postnatal corticosteroids, oxygen dependency at 36 weeks postmenstrual age, and lower birth weight, but not ventilation mode.

CONCLUSIONS

There was little evidence that the mode of ventilation affected changes in lung function over time.

Lifelong Lung Sequelae of Prematurity

The clinical, functional, and structural pattern of chronic lung disease of prematurity has changed enormously in last years, mirroring a better perinatal management and an increasing lung immaturity with the survival of increasingly premature infants. Respiratory symptoms and lung function impairment related to prematurity seem to improve over time, but premature birth increases the likelihood of lung function impairment in late childhood, predisposing to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). It is mandatory to identify those individuals born premature who are at risk for developing long-term lung disease through a better awareness of physicians, the use of standardized CT imaging scores, and a more comprehensive periodic lung function evaluation. The aim of this narrative review was to provide a systematic approach to lifelong respiratory symptoms, lung function impairment, and lung structural anomalies in order to better understand the specific role of prematurity on lung health.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia and expiratory airflow at 8 years in children born extremely preterm in the post-surfactant era

BACKGROUND

It is unclear if bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is independently associated with reduced expiratory airflow at school age.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the independent associations of moderate-severe BPD, mild BPD, gestational age and birth weight z-score with expiratory airflow in children born extremely preterm (EP; <28 weeks' gestation).

METHODS

All EP survivors born in Victoria, Australia, in three eras (1991-1992, n=225; 1997, n=151; and 2005, n=170) were recruited at birth and 418/546 (77%) had valid spirometry data at 8 years. BPD was classified as moderate-severe (oxygen requirement at 36 weeks' postmenstrual age), or mild (oxygen >28 days but not at 36 weeks' postmenstrual age). Expiratory airflow variables, including the forced expired volume in 1 s (FEV₁), were measured and values converted to z-scores.

RESULTS

Compared with no BPD (n=94), moderate-severe BPD (n=193) was associated with a substantial reduction in expiratory airflow (eg, zFEV₁ mean difference -0.69, 95% CI -0.97 to -0.41; p<0.001), but mild BPD (n=131) was not (zFEV₁ mean difference 0.01, 95% CI -0.28 to 0.31; p=0.93). On multivariable analysis, moderate-severe BPD remained strongly associated with reduced airflow (zFEV₁ mean difference -0.63, 95% CI -0.92 to -0.33; p<0.001), but mild BPD (zFEV₁ mean difference 0.04, 95% CI -0.26 to 0.34; p=0.27), gestational age (zFEV₁ 0.06 mean increase per week, 95% CI -0.05 to 0.17; p=0.29) and birth weight z-score (zFEV₁ 0.07 mean increase per SD, 95% CI -0.06 to 0.20; p=0.28) were not.

CONCLUSIONS

In children born EP, moderate-severe BPD, but not mild BPD was independently associated with reduced expiratory airflow at 8 years.

Tracking of lung function from 10 to 35 years after being born extremely preterm or with extremely low birth weight

Background

Lifelong pulmonary consequences of being born extremely preterm or with extremely low birth weight remain unknown. We aimed to describe lung function trajectories from 10 to 35 years of age for individuals born extremely preterm, and address potential cohort effects over a period that encompassed major changes in perinatal care.

Methods

We performed repeated spirometry in three population-based cohorts born at gestational age ≤28 weeks or with birth weight ≤1000 g during 1982–85, 1991–92 and 1999–2000, referred to as extremely preterm-born, and in term-born controls matched for age and gender. Examinations were performed at 10, 18, 25 and 35 years. Longitudinal data were analysed using mixed models regression, with the extremely preterm-born stratified by bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD).

Results

We recruited 148/174 (85%) eligible extremely preterm-born and 138 term-born. Compared with term-born, the extremely preterm-born had lower z-scores for forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁) at most assessments, the main exceptions were in the groups without BPD in the two youngest cohorts. FEV₁ trajectories were largely parallel for the extremely preterm- and term-born, also during the period 25–35 years that includes the onset of the age-related decline in lung function. Extremely preterm-born had lower peak lung function than term-born, but z-FEV₁ values improved for each consecutive decade of birth (p=0.009). More extremely preterm—than term-born fulfilled the spirometry criteria for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 44/148 (30%) vs 7/138 (5%), p<0.001.

Conclusions

Lung function after extremely preterm birth tracked in parallel, but significantly below the trajectories of term-born from 10 to 35 years, including the incipient age-related decline from 25 to 35 years. The deficits versus term-born decreased with each decade of birth from 1980 to 2000.

Severity of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia and Neurodevelopmental Outcome at 2 and 5 Years Corrected Age

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) severity and risk of neurodevelopmental impairment (NDI) at 2 years and 5 years corrected age and to examine whether this association changes over time.

STUDY DESIGN

This single-center retrospective cohort study included patients with a gestational age <30 weeks surviving to 36 weeks postmenstrual age, divided into groups according to BPD severity. NDI was defined as having cognitive or motor abilities below -1 SD, cerebral palsy, or a hearing or a visual impairment. The association was assessed using a multivariate logistic regression model analysis, adjusting for known confounders for NDI, and mixed-model analysis.

RESULTS

Of the 790 surviving infants (15% diagnosed with mild BPD, 9% with moderate BPD, and 10% with severe BPD), 88% and 82% were longitudinally assessed at 2 years and 5 years corrected age, respectively. The mixed-model analysis showed a statistically significant increase in NDI at all levels of BPD severity compared with infants with no BPD, and a 5-fold increased risk in NDI was seen from 2 years to 5 years corrected age in all degrees of BPD severity. The strength of this association between NDI and BPD severity did not change over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased BPD severity is associated with increased risk of NDI at both 2 years and 5 years corrected age. The absolute incidence of NDI increased significantly from 2 years to 5 years corrected age for all BPD severity categories, but this increased risk was similar at both time points in each category.

Cohort profile: the vitamin A and D and nitric oxide (AD-ON) observational cohort on lung development and symptoms in premature and mature children in North Zealand, Denmark

PURPOSE

The risk of developing asthma-like symptoms and asthma in childhood is influenced by genetics, environmental exposures, prenatal and early postnatal events, and their interactions. The cohort name refers to vitamins A and D, and nitric oxide (NO) spelt backwards and this cohort profile paper aims to present the data collection and aim of the cohort.The overall aim when establishing this cohort was to investigate if childhood lung function can be traced back to early neonatal lung function and fractional exhaled NO (FeNO) and investigate prenatal and postnatal risk factors including maternal and neonatal vitamin A and D levels in preterm and term born children.

PARTICIPANTS

One thousand five hundred women and their babies born at Nordsjaellands Hospital in Denmark from 2013 to 2014 were included in the AD-ON research biobank prior to birth.Neonates from the AD-ON research biobank, admitted to the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit at Nordsjaellands Hospital, were included in the AD-ON neonatal cohort. The neonatal cohort consisted of 149 neonates hereof 63 preterm and 86 term born. The children in the cohort have been invited to follow-up visits at age 1 and 6 years.

FINDINGS TO DATE

Published data from this cohort includes a validated and clinically applicable method to measure FeNO in neonates. We found an age-specific pattern of association between respiratory symptoms at age 1 and neonatal FeNO in preterm children. Moreover, we found that the respiratory symptoms risk was associated with postnatal factors (Respiratory Syncytial Virus infection and parental smoking) in preterm infants and prenatal factors (parental asthma and maternal infection during pregnancy) in term born infants.

FUTURE PLANS

In the future, the children will be examined continuously with 3-year to 5-year intervals until the age of 18. Lung function, allergy tests, environmental exposure measurements and questionnaires will be collected at each follow-up visit.

Perinatal Origins of Adult Disease and Opportunities for Health Promotion: A Narrative Review

The "developmental origins of health and disease" (DOHaD) hypothesis refers to the influence of early developmental exposures and fetal growth on the risk of chronic diseases in later periods. During fetal and early postnatal life, cell differentiation and tissue formation are influenced by several factors. The interaction between genes and environment in prenatal and early postnatal periods appears to be critical for the onset of multiple diseases in adulthood. Important factors influencing this interaction include genetic predisposition, regulation of gene expression, and changes in microbiota. Premature birth and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) are other important factors considered by the DOHaD hypothesis. Preterm birth is associated with impaired or arrested structural or functional development of key organs/systems, making preterm infants vulnerable to cardiovascular, respiratory, and chronic renal diseases during adulthood. Growth restriction, defined as impaired fetal growth compared to expected biological potential in utero, is an additional negative factor increasing the risk of subsequent diseases. Environmental factors implicated in the developmental programming of diseases include exposure to pollution, stress, drugs, toxic agents, nutrition, and exercise. The DOHaD may explain numerous conditions, including cardiovascular, metabolic, respiratory, neuropsychiatric, and renal diseases. Potential antenatal and postnatal preventive measures, interventions, and future directions are discussed.

Lung growth and pulmonary function after prematurity and bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) still carries a heavy burden of morbidity and mortality in survivors of extreme prematurity. The disease is characterized by simplification of the alveolar structure, involving a smaller number of enlarged alveoli due to decreased septation and a dysmorphic pulmonary microvessel growth. These changes lead to persistent abnormalities mainly affecting the smaller airways, lung parenchyma, and pulmonary vasculature, which can be assessed with lung function tests and imaging techniques. Several longitudinal lung function studies have demonstrated that most preterm-born subjects with BPD embark on a low lung function trajectory, never achieving their full airway growth potential. They are consequently at higher risk of developing a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease-like phenotype later in life. Studies based on computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, have also shown that in these patients there is a persistence of lung abnormalities like emphysematous areas, bronchial wall thickening, interstitial opacities, and mosaic lung attenuation also in adult age. This review aims to outline the current knowledge of pulmonary and vascular growth in survivors of BPD and the evidence of their lung function and imaging up to adulthood.

Development of lung diffusion to adulthood following extremely preterm birth

Background

Gas exchange in extremely preterm (EP) infants must take place in fetal lungs. Childhood lung diffusing capacity of the lung for carbon monoxide (D_LCO) is reduced; however, longitudinal development has not been investigated. We describe the growth of D_LCO and its subcomponents to adulthood in EP compared with term-born subjects.

Methods

Two area-based cohorts born at gestational age ≤28 weeks or birthweight ≤1000 g in 1982–1985 (n=48) and 1991–1992 (n=35) were examined twice, at ages 18 and 25 years and 10 and 18 years, respectively, and compared with matched term-born controls. Single-breath D_LCO was measured at two oxygen pressures, with subcomponents (membrane diffusion (D_M) and pulmonary capillary blood volume (V_C)) calculated using the Roughton–Forster equation.

Results

Age-, sex- and height-standardised transfer coefficients for carbon monoxide (K_CO) and D_LCO were reduced in EP compared with term-born subjects, and remained so during puberty and early adulthood (p-values for all time-points and both cohorts ≤0.04), whereas alveolar volume (V_A) was similar. Development occurred in parallel to term-born controls, with no signs of pubertal catch-up growth nor decline at age 25 years (p-values for lack of parallelism within cohorts 0.99, 0.65, 0.71, 0.94 and 0.44 for z-D_LCO, z-V_A, z-K_CO, D_M and V_C, respectively). Split by membrane and blood volume components, findings were less clear; however, membrane diffusion seemed most affected.

Conclusions

Pulmonary diffusing capacity was reduced in EP compared with term-born subjects, and development from childhood to adulthood tracked in parallel to term-born subjects, with no signs of catch-up growth nor decline at age 25 years.

Pulmonary diffusing capacity following extremely preterm (EP) birth was reduced compared with term-born subjects. From mid-childhood to adulthood, development tracked in parallel in the EP and term-born groups, with preterms following lower trajectories.https://bit.ly/3ARPD7D

Do preterm-born adolescents have a poorer oral health-related quality of life?

Background

To evaluate oral health-related quality of life (OHRQoL) over a period of five years using the Oral Health Impact Profile (OHIP-14) questionnaire in a population of Swedish adolescents born preterm and full term.

Methods

In a longitudinal study of adolescents aged 12–14 and 17–19, changes over time in OHRQoL were measured by using OHIP-14. The OHIP-14 score, self-reported chronic illness, temporomandibular disorder (TMD pain) and subjective orthodontic treatment need were compared between 98 extremely and very preterm born (< 32 gestational week) and 93 full-term controls (≥ 37 gestational week) at two ages. The chi-square test was used for comparisons within the extremely-, very-, and full-term control groups, and to contrast the differences of mean scores of OHIP-14, the ANOVA test was used for comparisons within the study groups of extremely preterm, very preterm and full term-born adolescents.

Results

All adolescents reported a good self-perceived OHRQoL. No significant differences in the comparisons of the total mean scores were revealed between the groups, between gender or in domain-specific scores over the 5-year period. Very preterm adolescents with reported chronic illness at 12–14 years of age showed significantly higher mean scores of OHIP-14 compared with those without chronic illness (p = 0.015). At age 17–19, significantly higher mean scores of OHIP-14 were reported by very preterm adolescents with TMD pain compared to those without TMD pain (p = 0.024). Significantly higher mean scores of OHIP-14 were found among the extremely preterm (p = 0.011) and very preterm born adolescents (p = 0.031) with a subjective need of orthodontic treatment compared with those without orthodontic treatment need.

Conclusions

Poor OHRQoL measured with OHIP-14 in very preterm adolescents aged 12–14 was related to chronic illness and aged 17–19 to TMD pain. In addition, extremely and very preterm-born adolescents with subjective orthodontic treatment need at 17–19 years of age also reported poor OHRQoL. To improve the dentist–patient relationship and achieve more successful treatment results, it is important for dental clinicians to understand the impact that chronic illness, TMD pain and orthodontic treatment need has on OHRQoL in preterm-born adolescents.

Neutrophilic inflammation during lung development disrupts elastin assembly and predisposes adult mice to COPD

Emerging evidence indicates that early life events can increase the risk for developing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Using an inducible transgenic mouse model for NF-κB activation in the airway epithelium, we found that a brief period of inflammation during the saccular stage (P3-P5) but not alveolar stage (P10-P12) of lung development disrupted elastic fiber assembly, resulting in permanent reduction in lung function and development of a COPD-like lung phenotype that progressed through 24 months of age. Neutrophil depletion prevented disruption of elastic fiber assembly and restored normal lung development. Mechanistic studies uncovered a role for neutrophil elastase (NE) in downregulating expression of critical elastic fiber assembly components, particularly fibulin-5 and elastin. Further, purified human NE and NE-containing exosomes from tracheal aspirates of premature infants with lung inflammation downregulated elastin and fibulin-5 expression by saccular-stage mouse lung fibroblasts. Together, our studies define a critical developmental window for assembling the elastin scaffold in the distal lung, which is required to support lung structure and function throughout the lifespan. Although neutrophils play a well-recognized role in COPD development in adults, neutrophilic inflammation may also contribute to early-life predisposition to COPD.

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia and postnatal growth following extremely preterm birth

OBJECTIVES

To report the current incidence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) and to compare changes in weight and head circumference between infants who developed BPD and infants who did not.

DESIGN

Retrospective, whole-population study.

SETTING

All neonatal units in England between 2014 and 2018.

PATIENTS

All liveborn infants born <28 completed weeks of gestation.

INTERVENTIONS

The change in weight z-score (ΔWz) was calculated by subtracting the birthweight z-score from the weight z-score at 36 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA) and at discharge. The change in head circumference z-score (ΔHz) was calculated by subtracting the birth head circumference z-score from the head circumference z-score at discharge.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

BPD was defined as the need for any respiratory support at 36 weeks PMA.

RESULTS

11 806 infants were included in the analysis. The incidence of BPD was 57.5%, and 18.9% of the infants died before 36 weeks PMA. The median (IQR) ΔWz from birth to 36 weeks PMA was significantly smaller in infants who developed BPD (-0.69 (-1.28 to -0.14), n=6105) than in those who did not develop BPD (-0.89 (-1.40 to -0.33), n=2390; adjusted p<0.001). The median (IQR) ΔHz from birth to discharge was significantly smaller in infants who developed BPD (-0.33 (-1.69 to 0.71)) than in those who did not develop BPD (-0.61 (-1.85 to 0.35); adjusted p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Postnatal growth was better in infants diagnosed with BPD compared with infants without BPD possibly due to more aggressive nutrition strategies.

Functional respiratory imaging provides novel insights into the long-term respiratory sequelae of bronchopulmonary dysplasia

RATIONALE

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a common complication of preterm birth. Lung function and imaging are classically used to assess BPD. Functional respiratory imaging (FRI) combines a structural and functional assessment of the airways and their vasculature. We aimed to assess BPD using FRI and to correlate these findings with the clinical presentation.

METHODS

We included 37 adolescents with a history of preterm birth (22 BPD cases and 15 preterm controls). The study protocol included a detailed history, lung function testing and computed tomography (CT) (at total lung capacity (TLC) and functional residual capacity (FRC)) with FRI. CT images were also assessed using the Aukland scoring system.

RESULTS

BPD patients had lower forced expiratory volume in 1 s to forced vital capacity ratio (p=0.02) and impaired diffusion capacity (p=0.02). Aukland CT scores were not different between the two groups. FRI analysis showed higher lobar volumes in BPD patients at FRC (p<0.01), but not at TLC. Airway resistance was significantly higher in the BPD group, especially in the distal airways. Additionally, FRI showed more air trapping in BPD patients, in contrast to findings on conventional CT images.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first to use FRI in research for BPD. FRI analysis showed higher lobar volumes in BPD patients, indicating air trapping and reduced inspiratory capacity. In contrast to Aukland CT scores, FRI showed more air trapping in the BPD group, suggesting that FRI might be a more sensitive detection method. Importantly, we also showed increased distal airway resistance in BPD patients. By combining structural and functional assessment, FRI may help to better understand the long-term sequelae of BPD.

Air quality, Environment and Respiratory Outcomes in Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia, the AERO-BPD cohort study: design and adaptation during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic

INTRODUCTION

Almost half of all school-age children with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) have asthma-like symptoms and more suffer from lung function deficits. While air pollution and indoor respiratory irritants are known to affect high-risk populations of children, few studies have objectively evaluated environmental contributions to long-term respiratory morbidity in this population. This study aimed to examine the role of indoor environmental exposures on respiratory morbidity in children with BPD.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

The Air quality, Environment and Respiratory Ouctomes in BPD (AERO-BPD) study is a prospective, single-centre observational study that will enrol a unique cohort of 240 children with BPD and carefully characterise participants and their indoor home environmental exposures. Measures of indoor air quality constituents will assess the relationship of nitrogen dioxide (NO2), particulate matter (PM2.5), nitric oxide (NO), temperature and humidity, as well as dust concentrations of allergens, with concurrently measured respiratory symptoms and lung function.Adaptations to the research protocol due to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic included remote home environment and participant assessments.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Study protocol was approved by the Boston Children's Hospital Committee on Clinical Investigation. Dissemination will be in the form of peer-reviewed publications and participant information products.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04107701.

Early chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A new perspective

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a respiratory disease with a high incidence, mortality, and disability rate. Because there are few symptoms in the early stages of COPD, diagnosis and treatment are seriously insufficient. It is necessary to find effective clues for early COPD diagnosis and provide appropriate interventions. Several studies suggest that small airway disease is the earliest stage of COPD because it is correlated with subsequent development of airflow obstruction. However, there are currently no globally accepted criteria for defining early COPD. This study mainly introduced risk factors, definition, diagnosis, and treatment of early COPD from a new perspective.

Early Changes and Indicators Characterizing Lung Aging in Neonatal Chronic Lung Disease

Infants suffering from neonatal chronic lung disease, i.e., bronchopulmonary dysplasia, are facing long-term consequences determined by individual genetic background, presence of infections, and postnatal treatment strategies such as mechanical ventilation and oxygen toxicity. The adverse effects provoked by these measures include inflammatory processes, oxidative stress, altered growth factor signaling, and remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Both, acute and long-term consequences are determined by the capacity of the immature lung to respond to the challenges outlined above. The subsequent impairment of lung growth translates into an altered trajectory of lung function later in life. Here, knowledge about second and third hit events provoked through environmental insults are of specific importance when advocating lifestyle recommendations to this patient population. A profound exchange between the different health care professionals involved is urgently needed and needs to consider disease origin while future monitoring and treatment strategies are developed.

Lung function trajectories in children with post-prematurity respiratory disease: identifying risk factors for abnormal growth

Background

Survivors of prematurity are at risk for abnormal childhood lung function. Few studies have addressed trajectories of lung function and risk factors for abnormal growth in childhood. This study aims to describe changes in lung function in a contemporary cohort of children born preterm followed longitudinally in pulmonary clinic for post-prematurity respiratory disease and to assess maternal and neonatal risk factors associated with decreased lung function trajectories.

Methods

Observational cohort of 164 children born preterm ≤ 32 weeks gestation followed in pulmonary clinic at Boston Children’s Hospital with pulmonary function testing. We collected demographics and neonatal history. We used multivariable linear regression to identify the impact of neonatal and maternal risk factors on lung function trajectories in childhood.

Results

We identified 264 studies from 82 subjects with acceptable longitudinal FEV₁ data and 138 studies from 47 subjects with acceptable longitudinal FVC and FEV₁/FVC data. FEV₁% predicted and FEV₁/FVC were reduced compared to childhood norms. Growth in FVC outpaced FEV₁, resulting in an FEV₁/FVC that declined over time. In multivariable analyses, longer duration of mechanical ventilation was associated with a lower rate of rise in FEV₁% predicted and greater decline in FEV₁/FVC, and postnatal steroid exposure in the NICU was associated with a lower rate of rise in FEV₁ and FVC % predicted. Maternal atopy and asthma were associated with a lower rate of rise in FEV₁% predicted.

Conclusions

Children with post-prematurity respiratory disease demonstrate worsening obstruction in lung function throughout childhood. Neonatal risk factors including exposure to mechanical ventilation and postnatal steroids, as well as maternal atopy and asthma, were associated with diminished rate of rise in lung function. These results may have implications for lung function trajectories into adulthood.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12931-021-01720-0.

Severe respiratory syncytial virus disease in preterm infants: a case of innate immaturity

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the most common viral pathogen associated with acute lower respiratory tract infection (LRTI) in children under 5 years of age. Severe RSV disease is associated with the development of chronic respiratory complications such as recurrent wheezing and asthma. A common risk factor for developing severe RSV disease is premature gestation and this is largely due to an immature innate immune system. This increases susceptibility to RSV since the innate immune system is less able to protect against pathogens at a time when adaptive immunity has not fully developed. This review focuses on comparing different aspects of innate immunity between preterm and term infants to better understand why preterm infants are more susceptible to severe RSV disease. Identifying early life innate immune biomarkers associated with the development of severe RSV disease, and understanding how these compare between preterm and term infants, remains a critically important question that would aid the development of interventions to reduce the burden of disease in this vulnerable population.

Left Vocal Cord Paralysis, Lung Function and Exercise Capacity in Young Adults Born Extremely Preterm With a History of Neonatal Patent Ductus Arteriosus Surgery-A National Cohort Study

Background: Left vocal cord paralysis (LVCP) is a known complication of patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) surgery in extremely preterm (EP) born neonates; however, consequences of LVCP beyond the first year of life are insufficiently described. Both voice problems and breathing difficulties during physical activity could be expected with an impaired laryngeal inlet. More knowledge may improve the follow-up of EP-born subjects who underwent PDA surgery and prevent confusion between LVCP and other diagnoses. Objectives: Examine the prevalence of LVCP in a nationwide cohort of adults born EP with a history of PDA surgery, and compare symptoms, lung function, and exercise capacity between groups with and without LVCP, and vs. controls born EP and at term. Methods: Adults born EP (<28 weeks' gestation or birth weight <1,000 g) in Norway during 1999-2000 who underwent neonatal PDA surgery and controls born EP and at term were invited to complete questionnaires mapping voice-and respiratory symptoms, and to perform spirometry and maximal treadmill exercise testing. In the PDA-surgery group, exercise tests were performed with a laryngoscope positioned to evaluate laryngeal function. Results: Thirty out of 48 (63%) eligible PDA-surgery subjects were examined at mean (standard deviation) age 19.4 (0.8) years, sixteen (53%) had LVCP. LVCP was associated with self-reported voice symptoms and laryngeal obstruction during exercise, not with lung function or peak oxygen consumption (VO₂peak). In the PDA-surgery group, forced expiratory volume in 1 second z-score (z-FEV₁) was reduced compared to EP-born controls (n = 30) and term-born controls (n = 36); mean (95% confidence interval) z-FEV₁ was -1.8 (-2.3, -1.2), -0.7 (-1.1, -0.3) and -0.3 (-0.5, -0.0), respectively. For VO₂peak, corresponding figures were 37.5 (34.9, 40.2), 38.1 (35.1, 41.1), and 43.6 (41.0, 46.5) ml/kg/min, respectively. Conclusions: LVCP was common in EP-born young adults who had undergone neonatal PDA surgery. Within the PDA-surgery group, LVCP was associated with self-reported voice symptoms and laryngeal obstruction during exercise, however we did not find an association with lung function or exercise capacity. Overall, the PDA-surgery group had reduced lung function compared to EP-born and term-born controls, whereas exercise capacity was similarly reduced for both the PDA-surgery and EP-born control groups when compared to term-born controls.

New BPD-prevalence and risk factors for bronchopulmonary dysplasia/mortality in extremely low gestational age infants ≤28 weeks

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate prevalence and risk factors of moderate-severe Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD)/Death in extremely low gestation age neonates (ELGANs).

STUDY DESIGN

Study of 266 ELGANs born at gestational age (GA) ≤ 28 weeks (w). Primary Outcome measure-composite outcome of moderate-severe BPD/Death using the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development NICHD's (2001) BPD definition.

RESULT

Cohort's mean GA and birth-weight (BW) were 25.3 ± 1.4w and 724 ± 14 g respectively with an overall mortality of 19% and moderate-severe BPD of 67%. Prevalence of moderate-severe BPD/death decreased significantly with increasing GA (86-93%) at 23-24 w; to <60% at 27-28w (OR 0.63; 95% CI; 0.52-0.77). On univariate analysis, other risk factors included BW(OR 1.005; 95% CI; 1.003-1.007), Sepsis (OR 2.9; 95% CI, 1.3-6.4), PDA needing treatment (OR 2.2; 95% CI, 1.3-3.9); air leaks (OR 2.7; 95% CI; 1.02-7.3) FiO₂ requirement >25%(OR 1.06; 95% CI; 1.01-1.11); and mechanical ventilation(MV) on Day7 (OR5.5; 95% CI; 2.8-10.8). Only need for Day7 MV was independently predictive of composite outcome (OR1.97; 95% CI; 1.3-3.1).

CONCLUSION

Risk factor identification will enable initiatives to implement lung protective strategies and develop prospective models for BPD prediction and prognostication.

Vascular Endothelial Function Assessed by Flow-Mediated Vasodilatation in Young Adults Born Very Preterm or With Extremely Low Birthweight: A Regional Cohort Study

Background: Preterm birth and low birthweight have been associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease in young adults. Endothelial dysfunction is established as an early marker for development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Previous studies of endothelial function in young adults born very preterm or with extremely low birthweight have, however, shown diverging results. Objective: We aimed to evaluate the risk of cardiovascular disease as measured by vascular endothelial function in young adults born very preterm (<29 weeks of gestation) or with extremely low birthweight (<1,000 g), compared with term-born controls. Methods: This study included 50 young adults born very preterm or with extremely low birthweight and 49 term-born controls born in Norway in the periods 1982-1985, 1991-1992, and 1999-2000 at mean age 28 (±6) years. The endothelial function was assessed by ultrasound measured flow-mediated dilatation (FMD) of the right brachial artery. The arterial diameter was measured at baseline, after release of 5 min of occlusion, and after sublingual administration of nitroglycerine. FMD was reported as absolute and percentage diameter change from baseline and relative to nitroglycerine-induced dilatation. Results: The participants were mainly normal weight non-smokers, without hypertension, diabetes, or established cardiovascular disease. The cases and controls had mean blood pressure 112/71 (SD 12/9) and 112/69 (SD 11/8) mmHg, body mass index 24.0 (SD 4.2) and 24.4 (SD 4.5) kg/m², and HbA1c 32.7 (SD 2.5) and 33.0 (SD 2.6) mmol/mol, respectively. For both groups, 4 (8%) were smokers. Mean FMD for the adults born very preterm or with extremely low birthweight was 0.17 mm (95% CI 0.14, 0.21) vs. 0.24 mm (95% CI 0.20, 0.28) for the controls (p = 0.01), corresponding to a percentage increase of 5.4% (95% CI 4.2, 6.6) and 7.6% (95% CI 6.2, 8.9), respectively (p = 0.02). The FMD relative to maximal nitroglycerine-induced dilatation was 20% and 31%, respectively (p = 0.001). Conclusions: Young adults born very preterm or with extremely low birthweight have significantly lower FMD compared with the term-born controls suggesting an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

Predicting Long-Term Respiratory Outcomes in Premature Infants: Is It Time to Move beyond Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia?

Premature birth has been shown to be associated with adverse respiratory health in children and adults; children diagnosed with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in infancy are at particularly high risk. Since its first description by Northway et al. about half a century ago, the definition of BPD has gone through several iterations reflecting the changes in the patient population, advancements in knowledge of lung development and injury, and improvements in perinatal care practices. One of the key benchmarks for optimally defining BPD has been the ability to predict long-term respiratory and health outcomes. This definition is needed by multiple stakeholders for hosts of reasons including: providing parents with some expectations for the future, to guide clinicians for developing longer term follow-up practices, to assist policy makers to allocate resources, and to support researchers involved in developing preventive or therapeutic strategies and designing studies with meaningful outcome measures. Long-term respiratory outcomes in preterm infants with BPD have shown variable results reflecting not only limitations of the current definition of BPD, but also potentially the impact of other prenatal, postnatal and childhood factors on the respiratory health. In this manuscript, we present an overview of the long-term respiratory outcomes in infants with BPD and discuss the role of other modifiable or non-modifiable factors affecting respiratory health in preterm infants. We will also discuss the limitations of using BPD as a predictor of respiratory morbidities and some of the recent advances in delineating the causes and severity of respiratory insufficiency in infants diagnosed with BPD.

An overview of adult health outcomes after preterm birth

Preterm birth (gestational age < 37 completed weeks) has increased in prevalence in most countries in the past 20 years and now affects nearly 11% of all births worldwide. Because of treatment advances introduced in the 1970s-1980s, >95% of preterm infants who receive modern neonatal and pediatric care now survive into adulthood. The earliest birth cohorts to benefit from those advances are now in their 4th and 5th decades of life. A growing number of large cohort studies have investigated the long-term health sequelae in adulthood. Evidence has consistently shown that adult survivors of preterm birth have increased risks of chronic disorders involving various organ systems, including cardiovascular, endocrine/metabolic, respiratory, renal, neurodevelopmental, and psychiatric disorders, which either persist from childhood into adulthood or sometimes first manifest in adulthood. These disorders also lead to moderately (30% to 50%) increased mortality risks during early to mid-adulthood among persons born preterm compared with full-term, and even higher risks among those born at the earliest gestational ages. However, the majority of persons born preterm have low absolute risks of these outcomes and good self-reported quality of life in adulthood. Priorities for future research include the assessment of long-term health sequelae of preterm birth in racially and economically diverse populations, additional follow-up of existing cohorts into older adulthood, elucidation of outcomes by preterm birth subtype (e.g., different underlying causes) to improve risk stratification, and identification of protective factors that will support the long-term health trajectory and well-being of preterm-born adults.