Psittacine beak and feather disease

Beak and feather disease virus in wild and captive parrots: an analysis of geographic and taxonomic distribution and methodological trends

Psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) has emerged in recent years as a major threat to wild parrot populations and is an increasing concern to aviculturists and managers of captive populations. Pathological and serological tests for screening for the presence of beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) are a critical component of efforts to manage the disease and of epidemiological studies. Since the disease was first reported in the mid-1970s, screening for BFDV has been conducted in numerous wild and captive populations. However, at present, there is no current and readily accessible synthesis of screening efforts and their results. Here, we consolidate information collected from 83 PBFD- and BFDV-based publications on the primary screening methods being used and identify important knowledge gaps regarding potential global disease hotspots. We present trends in research intensity in this field and critically discuss advances in screening techniques and their applications to both aviculture and to the management of threatened wild populations. Finally, we provide an overview of estimates of BFDV prevalence in captive and wild flocks alongside a complete list of all psittacine species in which the virus has been confirmed. Our evaluation highlights the need for standardised diagnostic tests and more emphasis on studies of wild populations, particularly in view of the intrinsic connection between global trade in companion birds and the spread of novel BFDV strains into wild populations. Increased emphasis should be placed on the screening of captive and wild parrot populations within their countries of origin across the Americas, Africa and Asia.

Baculovirus expression of beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) capsid protein capable of self-assembly and haemagglutination

Beak and feather disease virus (BFDV) is a common avian circovirus infection of wild Psittaciformes and is a recognised threat to endangered psittacine species. Currently, there is a requirement to develop BFDV antigen for diagnostic purposes and since efforts to propagate BFDV in vitro have so far been unsuccessful the entire coding region of BFDV ORF C1 was expressed in Sf9 insect cells using a baculovirus expression system. The entire coding region of BFDV ORF C1, the presumptive capsid, was expressed in Sf9 insect cells using baculovirus expression system. Electron microscopic examination of negatively stained material demonstrated that the recombinant protein self-assembled to produce virus-like particles (VLPs) thus confirming that ORF C1 is likely to be the sole determinant for capsid construction in vivo. BFDV VLPs also possessed haemagglutinating activity which provides further evidence that self-assembled BFDV VLPs retain receptor mediated biological activity and that the determinants for BFDV haemagglutination activity rely solely on the capsid protein. The recombinant protein reacted with anti-BFDV sera from naturally immune parrots and cockatoo and from chickens experimentally inoculated with native BFDV in both Western blots and haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay. BFDV VLPs were also a suitable replacement antigen for serological detection of BFDV antibody by HI.

Seroprevalence of psittacine beak and feather disease in wild psittacine birds in New South Wales

A haemagglutination inhibition assay was used to detect antibody to psittacine beak and feather disease virus in sera from wild sulphur crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita), galahs (Eolophus roseicapillus), short-billed corellas (Cacatua sanguinea), eastern long-billed corellas (Cacatua tenuirostris) and other psittacine birds in New South Wales. The seroprevalence of psittacine beak and feather disease ranged from 41% to 94% in different flocks, indicating infection with the virus is widespread in wild populations.

Laboratory diagnosis of psittacine beak and feather disease by haemagglutination and haemagglutination inhibition

Simple and sensitive haemagglutination and haemagglutination inhibition assays were developed for psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) virus and serum antibody, respectively. The assays were used in the examination of samples from 73 birds clinically affected with PBFD. High antigen titres (log2 9 to log2 12) were detected in feathers, faeces and cloacal contents of PBFD-affected birds. Antigen was not detected in either faecal or feather samples from 20 normal galahs (Eolophus roseicapillus) and 9 normal sulphur crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita). After kaolin treatment and haemadsorption of serum, haemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibody titres could not be detected in serum from 42 PBFD-affected birds, whereas serum HI titres from 64 normal psittacine birds ranged from less than log2 1 to log2 8. Serum and yolk HI antibody responses of 6 PBFD virus-inoculated layer hens were measured. Pre-inoculation chicken sera contained high concentrations of non-specific haemagglutination inhibitors (not detected in chloroform-extracted yolk), which were removed by kaolin treatment and haemadsorption.

Production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies to psittacine beak and feather disease virus

Monoclonal antibodies specific for the virus that causes psittacine beak and feather disease (PBFD) were produced by fusing spleen cells from mice immunized with purified concentrated PBFD virus with mouse myeloma cell line Sp2/0. The resulting hybridomas were tested for reactivity against whole purified virus by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) system. Four clones, designated 15H8, 8E3, 11G12, and 2C3, were subcloned by limiting dilution. Isotyping indicated that clone 15H8 was secreting IgG, whereas the remaining clones secreted IgM. The secreted immunoglobulins were characterized by reactivity against purified PBFD virus using immunoblotting procedures, by immunohistochemical staining of virus-induced lesions in infected tissues, and by inhibition of PBFD virus agglutination of cockatoo erythrocytes. Antibodies secreted by clones 15H8 and 8E3 had the strongest activity against purified whole virus. Only immunoglobulin secreted by the clone 15H8 could be used to detect viral antigen in infected tissues. None of the monoclonal antibodies had hemagglutination-inhibition activity.