Blunt abdominal trauma: should US be used to detect both free fluid and organ injuries?

Diagnostic insights into splenic pathologies: the role of multiparametric ultrasound

Ultrasound (US) evaluation of the spleen is mandatory in the assessment of patients with chronic liver disease, and splenomegaly can be a sign of systemic diseases. However, due to the lack of distinctive ultrasound findings in specific splenic pathologies, clinical diagnosis can be very challenging. Splenomegaly, defined by increased splenic dimensions, can indicate underlying systemic conditions and is a common manifestation of portal hypertension (PH). Ultrasound and Doppler techniques help assessing splenic involvement in PH. Splenic stiffness measurement, using elastography, offers additional diagnostic accuracy, especially when liver stiffness measurements are inconclusive. CEUS enhances the diagnostic capability for focal splenic lesions, differentiating between benign and malignant lesions by their distinct enhancement patterns, and plays also a critical role in the context of splenic traumatic pathology. Overall, CEUS significantly improves the characterization of splenic pathology, reducing the need for invasive procedures and ensuring appropriate patient management. This review article describes the normal US findings of the spleen and examines the role of multiparametric US in the evaluation of the most common splenic pathologies encountered in the daily clinical practice.

Diagnostic performance of contrast-enhanced ultrasound in traumatic solid organ injuries in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Blunt abdominal trauma (BAT) is a significant contributor to pediatric mortality, often causing liver and spleen injuries. Contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT), the gold standard for diagnosing solid organ injury, poses radiation risks to children. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) may be a promising alternative imaging modality.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the diagnostic utility of CEUS for detecting solid organ injuries following BAT in the pediatric population.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted through a thorough literature search in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase databases up to October 1, 2023. Diagnostic accuracy metrics were aggregated using a bivariate model, and subgroup meta-analysis compared CEUS accuracy across various organs.

RESULTS

Meta-analysis from four studies, including 364 pediatric patients, revealed a pooled sensitivity of 88.5% (95%CI 82.5-92.6%) and specificity of 98.5% (95%CI 94.9-99.6%), with an area under the curve of 96% (95%CI 88 - 99%). Splenic injuries showed higher sensitivity than liver injuries (P-value < 0.01), while kidney assessments demonstrated higher specificity (P-value < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

This study highlights the diagnostic potential of CEUS for pediatric solid organ injuries caused by BAT. Further large-scale studies are needed due to the limited number and sample size of the included studies.

Diagnostic performance of prehospital EFAST in predicting CT scan injuries in severe trauma patients: a multicenter cohort study

BACKGROUND

The early mortality of trauma patients, mainly from hemorrhagic shock, raises interest in detecting the presence of non-exteriorized bleeding. Intra-hospital EFAST (Extended Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma) has demonstrated its utility in the assessment and management of severe trauma patients (STP). However, there is a lack of data regarding the diagnostic performance of prehospital EFAST (pEFAST). The main objective of our study was to evaluate the pEFAST performance to predict a positive CT scan in STP.

METHODS

This was a retrospective, multicenter, database-driven study. All severe trauma patients managed by a prehospital medical team were included. The results of pEFAST were compared with the admission CT scan.

RESULTS

Data from 495 patients were included. The pEFAST had sensitivity of 27% (95% CI 22; 32) and specificity of 94% (95% CI 90; 97) for predicting the presence of a lesion on CT scan at hospital admission. The area under the curve (AUC) was 0.66 (95% CI 0.57; 0.63), the positive predictive value 84% (95% CI 75; 87), the negative predictive value was 51% (95% CI 44; 66), the positive likelihood ratio was 4.24 (95% CI 2.46; 7.3) and the negative likelihood ratio 0.78 (95% CI 0.72; 0.85).

CONCLUSION

Prehospital EFAST has an excellent specificity but a poor sensitivity for predicting a positive CT scan on hospital admission. We do not know whether this low sensitivity is secondary to the delay between the two examinations or to the poor performance of pEFAST. Therefore, a negative pEFAST should not be reassuring. A positive pEFAST is highly informative, as it predicts a lesion and enables hospital management to be prepared accordingly.

Contrast-enhanced Ultrasound as a Method of Splenic Injury Assessment

Splenic injuries are common in abdominal trauma, as the spleen is one of the most often harmed organs. The treatment of splenic injuries underwent major changes during the past decades, shifting from a surgical approach to nonoperative management. This change of the proceedings results from a constantly growing awareness of the spleen's crucial hematological and immunological function and was possible owing to the advances in radiological techniques. In a setting of high-energy trauma in hemodynamically stable patients, computed tomography (CT) remains the gold standard. Where ultrasonography (US) is of major importance is in cases of unstable patients undergone high-energy trauma or in patients after low-energy trauma. Nevertheless, baseline US's sensitivity is not sufficient to detect splenic traumatic injuries; hence, a new method was developed involving ultrasound contrast agents (UCAs), called contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS). In a low-energy trauma setting, it facilitates the diagnosis of abdominal lesions with a sensitivity close to that of CT, without the disadvantages of the latter. In addition, CEUS can be used in the follow-up of abdominal traumatic injuries. The fact that CEUS preserves CT's sensitivity while not carrying the risk of radiation-induced cancer makes it feasible for children and pregnant women. This review aims to discuss the technical aspects of CEUS, the limitations, and possibilities regarding this modality, present the appearance of both a healthy and injured spleen, and compare CEUS's effectiveness to that of CT through an analysis of retrievable studies.

Lung ultrasound in respiratory therapy: a global reflective survey

BACKGROUND

Lung ultrasound (LUS) is a non-invasive point of care diagnostic tool used to assess the presence and severity of various lung disorders for more than two decades. Within the healthcare professionals are the respiratory therapists (RTs) who play a vital role in managing ventilated and other patients requiring respiratory support, but the incorporation of LUS into their scope of practice has not been well highlighted. This international cross-sectional survey was specifically designed to evaluate the knowledge, attitude, and practice of RTs with respect to LUS.

METHODS

This observational cross-sectional study was conducted among RTs from different parts of the world using a questionnaire-based study tool. 514 RTs responded to all the questions and were considered for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics, Analysis of variance, Fisher's exact, Chi-square, Bonferroni post-hoc analysis, and Binomial logistic regression analyses were performed to identify the significance of the data.

RESULTS

From 22 countries, 514 RTs responded to the survey, with the major share from the middle eastern countries. Out of the 514 responders, 44.9% of the responders were in the age group of 23-30 years; 67.1% were bachelor's degree holders; and 40.9% of participants had more than 10 years of experience. The knowledge-based questions revealed that RTs with higher experience and academic qualification provided more positive responses. While in the attitude-related domain it is observed that standardized training in LUS helps them to enhance the current practice and to add LUS to the academic curriculum of respiratory therapy schools; however there remains barriers to practice LUS based on their responses. The practice-based questions revealed that RTs expect some additional seminars/workshops/webinars to be done on LUS frequently. More than half of the participants are found to be knowledgeable with a positive attitude and working towards the inclusion of LUS in respiratory therapy profession.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that respiratory therapists have a positive attribute towards the inclusion of lung ultrasound in their clinical practice. Providing more structured training for professional respiratory therapists and including lung ultrasound modules in the respiratory therapy school curriculum may facilitate mastering their diagnostic skills, thereby expanding the scope of practice.

Contrast-enhanced point of care ultrasound for the evaluation of stable blunt abdominal trauma by the emergency physician: A prospective diagnostic study

Objectives

Clinical examination alone cannot reliably rule out significant traumatic abdominal injury. Computed tomography (CT) has become the primary method for evaluating blunt abdominal trauma and clinicians rely heavily on it to rule out abdominal injury. Ultrasound examination may miss significant abdominal injury particularly in stable patients. The use of a contrast agent improves ultrasound sensitivity to visceral abdominal injuries. The objective of this diagnostic study is to compare bedside contrast enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) performed by emergency physicians to CT in hemodynamically stable adults for the assessment of blunt abdominal trauma and evaluate CEUS accuracy outcomes.

Methods

Hemodynamically stable patients with blunt trauma were prospectively enrolled in the trauma bay. After initial evaluation, we included patients at risk of abdominal injury and for whom an abdominal CT was planned by the trauma leader. Ultrasonography was performed prospectively and at the bedside by the emergency physician followed by abdominal CT used as a reference standard.

Results

Thirty-three patients were enrolled in the study; among them, 52% showed positive traumatic findings in abdominal CT scans, and 42% were diagnosed with solid organ lesions. Compared to CT, a focused abdominal sonography (FOCUS) examination, looking for free fluid or perirenal hematoma, showed limited performance for traumatic findings with a sensitivity of 65% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 38%-86%), a specificity of 75% (95% CI: 48%-93%), a negative likelihood ratio (NLR) of 0.47 (95% CI: 0.23-0.95), and a positive likelihood ratio (PLR) of 2.59 (95% CI: 1.03-6.48). When combining FOCUS with CEUS, the sensitivity of the sonography increased to 94% (95% CI: 71%-100%) with a specificity of 75% (95% CI: 48%-93%). The PLR was 3.76 (95% CI: 1.6-8.87) and the NLR was 0.08 (95% CI: 0.01-0.54). In our population, abdominal sonography with contrast failed to identify a single positive abdominal CT with a grade 1 kidney injury.

Conclusions

A FOCUS examination shows limited sensitivity and specificity to detect positive abdominal CT in stable adults with abdominal trauma. With the addition of contrast and careful inspection of solid organs, abdominal sonography with contrast performed by the emergency physician improves the ability to rule out traumatic findings on abdominal CT. CEUS performed by emergency physicians may miss injuries, especially in the absence of free fluid, in cases of low-grade injuries, simultaneous injuries, or poor-quality examinations.

Appropriateness of Initial Course of Action in the Management of Blunt Trauma Based on a Diagnostic Workup Including an Extended Ultrasonography Scan

IMPORTANCE

The extended Focused Assessment With Sonography for Trauma (E-FAST) has become a cornerstone of the diagnostic workup in patients with trauma. The added value of a diagnostic workup including an E-FAST to support decision-making remains unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To determine how often an immediate course of action adopted in the resuscitation room based on a diagnostic workup that included an E-FAST and before whole-body computed tomography scanning (WBCT) in patients with blunt trauma was appropriate.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This cohort study was conducted at 6 French level I trauma centers between November 5, 2018, and November 5, 2019. Consecutive patients treated for blunt trauma were assessed at the participating centers. Data analysis took place in February 2022.

EXPOSURES

Diagnostic workup associating E-FAST (including abdominal, thoracic, pubic, and transcranial Doppler ultrasonography scan), systematic clinical examination, and chest and pelvic radiographs.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The main outcome criterion was the appropriateness of the observed course of action (including abstention) in the resuscitation room according to evaluation by a masked expert panel.

RESULTS

Of 515 patients screened, 510 patients (99.0%) were included. Among the 510 patients included, 394 were men (77.3%), the median (IQR) age was 46 years (29-61 years), and the median (IQR) Injury Severity Score (ISS) was 24 (17-34). Based on the initial diagnostic workup, no immediate therapeutic action was deemed necessary in 233 cases (45.7%). Conversely, the following immediate therapeutic actions were initiated before WBCT: 6 emergency laparotomies (1.2%), 2 pelvic angioembolisations (0.4%), 52 pelvic binders (10.2%), 41 chest drains (8.0%) and 16 chest decompressions (3.1%), 60 osmotherapies (11.8%), and 6 thoracotomies (1.2%). To improve cerebral blood flow based on transcranial doppler recordings, norepinephrine was initiated in 108 cases (21.2%). In summary, the expert panel considered the course of action appropriate in 493 of 510 cases (96.7%; 95% CI, 94.7%-98.0%). Among the 17 cases (3.3%) with inappropriate course of action, 13 (76%) corresponded to a deviation from existing guidelines and 4 (24%) resulted from an erroneous interpretation of the E-FAST.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This prospective, multicenter cohort study found that a diagnostic resuscitation room workup for patients with blunt trauma that included E-FAST with clinical assessment and targeted chest and pelvic radiographs was associated with the determination of an appropriate course of action prior to WBCT.

Splenic Heterogeneity in Focused Assessment With Sonography for Trauma (FAST) Scan Led to the Diagnosis of Grade 2 Splenic Injury in a Pediatric Blunt Abdominal Trauma

Splenic injuries are one of the most common injuries following blunt abdominal trauma. It occurs in 32% of blunt abdominal trauma, with motor vehicle accidents being the most common cause. The patient may present with generalized abdominal pain or left upper quadrant pain associated with left shoulder pain. Hemodynamic instability is one of the most reliable signs of splenic injuries. A focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST) scan is the initial imaging used to assess for solid organ injury in the abdomen, followed by computed tomography (CT) scans. Evidence of free fluid in the abdomen in the FAST scan indicates a solid organ injury. However, the absence of the before-mentioned finding does not rule out the presence of solid organ injury. Hereby a case of a 13-year-old Saudi male with left-sided abdominal pain after falling from a motorbike. A set of the investigation was done with insignificant results. However, FAST revealed a heterogenous appearance in the spleen. Thus, the patient subsequently underwent abdominal CT scans. The patient was managed conservatively and then discharged against medical advice (DAMA). Previously documented cases have mentioned the presence of free fluid in the abdomen in FAST scan in a stable patient leading to undergoing a CT scan and further managing trauma victim patients, which was absent in the present case.

Deep learning for emergency ascites diagnosis using ultrasonography images

PURPOSE

The detection of abdominal free fluid or hemoperitoneum can provide critical information for clinical diagnosis and treatment, particularly in emergencies. This study investigates the use of deep learning (DL) for identifying peritoneal free fluid in ultrasonography (US) images of the abdominal cavity, which can help inexperienced physicians or non-professional people in diagnosis. It focuses specifically on first-response scenarios involving focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST) technique.

METHODS

A total of 2985 US images were collected from ascites patients treated from 1 January 2016 to 31 December 2017 at the Shenzhen Second People's Hospital. The data were categorized as Ascites-1, Ascites-2, or Ascites-3, based on the surrounding anatomy. A uniform standard for regions of interest (ROIs) and the lack of obstruction from acoustic shadow was used to classify positive samples. These images were then divided into training (90%) and test (10%) datasets to evaluate the performance of a U-net model, utilizing an encoder-decoder architecture and contracting and expansive paths, developed as part of the study.

RESULTS

Test results produced sensitivity and specificity values of 94.38% and 68.13%, respectively, in the diagnosis of Ascites-1 US images, with an average Dice coefficient of 0.65 (standard deviation [SD] = 0.21). Similarly, the sensitivity and specificity for Ascites-2 were 97.12% and 86.33%, respectively, with an average Dice coefficient of 0.79 (SD = 0.14). The accuracy and area under the curve (AUC) were 81.25% and 0.76 for Ascites-1 and 91.73% and 0.91 for Ascites-2.

CONCLUSION

The results produced by the U-net demonstrate the viability of DL for automated ascites diagnosis. This suggests the proposed technique could be highly valuable for improving FAST-based preliminary diagnoses, particularly in emergency scenarios.

Relevance of Routine Abdominopelvic Ultrasound in Suspected Child Abuse in Children Under 2 years of Age: Review of 15 years of Experience

In France, the current recommendation is to perform a routine abdominopelvic ultrasound in any child under 2 years of age who is suspected to have been abused. We retrospectively studied the relevance of this practice in our center over the past fifteen years. This was a descriptive, retrospective study of all children under 2 years of age who had been subject to suspected abuse. Abdominal images and reports were reviewed and cross-referenced with possible clinical and biological signs. Four hundred and five children were included between 2006 and 2020, of whom 296 underwent abdominal imaging (2 initial abdominopelvic CT scans, 4 ultrasounds followed by CT scans, and 290 ultrasounds alone). Four examinations revealed traumatic abnormalities related to abuse. These four children all had clinical or biological anomalies. In the absence of clinical or biological signs, no imagery showed any abnormality related to abuse.

Application of Contrast-Enhanced Real-time 3-Dimensional Ultrasound in Solid Abdominal Organ Trauma

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether real-time 3-dimensional ultrasound (RT3DUS) could provide additional information on early detection and evaluation in the management of solid abdominal organ trauma based on an animal model.

METHODS

Nine bleeding lesions were developed in the livers (n = 3), kidneys (n = 3), and spleens (n = 3) from 9 pigs. An ultrasound contrast agent was administered intravenously (liver, 0.025 mL/kg; kidney, 0.008 mL/kg; and spleen, 0.013 mL/kg) after an unenhanced 2-dimensional ultrasound (2DUS) examination (B-mode and color Doppler). After contrast agent injection, bleeding lesions were imaged by 2DUS and sequentially imaged by 3-dimensional static ultrasound (3DSUS) and RT3DUS to identify active bleeding, observe the relationship between bleeding lesions and peripheral blood vessels, and evaluate the spatial scope of the bleeding lesions in the organs.

RESULTS

For the identification of active bleeding, there was no statistical difference in contrast-enhanced 2DUS, 3DSUS, and RT3DUS. For observation of the relationship between bleeding lesions and peripheral blood vessels, RT3DUS performed statistically better than 2DUS (P < .05), as reconstructed RT3DUS could show more information about the relationship. For the evaluation of the spatial scope of the bleeding lesion in the organ, RT3DUS also performed statistically better than 2DUS from the multiplanar observation by postprocessing of the 3-dimensional real-time volumes (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Real-time 3-dimensional ultrasound improves early detection and evaluation of solid abdominal organ trauma and provides additional information over the current contrast-enhanced 2DUS.

Early management of severe abdominal trauma

OBJECTIVE

To develop French guidelines on the management of patients with severe abdominal trauma.

DESIGN

A consensus committee of 20 experts from the French Society of Anaesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine (Société française d'anesthésie et de réanimation, SFAR), the French Society of Emergency Medicine (Société française de médecine d'urgence, SFMU), the French Society of Urology (Société française d'urologie, SFU) and from the French Association of Surgery (Association française de chirurgie, AFC), the Val-de-Grâce School (École du Val-De-Grâce, EVG) and the Federation for Interventional Radiology (Fédération de radiologie interventionnelle, FRI-SFR) was convened. Declaration of all conflicts of interest (COI) policy by all participants was mandatory throughout the development of the guidelines. The entire guideline process was conducted independently of any industry funding. The authors were advised to follow the principles of the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system for assessment of the available level of evidence with particular emphasis to avoid formulating strong recommendations in the absence of high level. Some recommendations were left ungraded.

METHODS

The guidelines are divided in diagnostic and, therapeutic strategy and early surveillance. All questions were formulated according to Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcomes (PICO) format. The panel focused on three questions for diagnostic strategy: (1) What is the diagnostic performance of clinical signs to suggest abdominal injury in trauma patients? (2) Suspecting abdominal trauma, what is the diagnostic performance of prehospital FAST (Focused Abdominal Sonography for Trauma) to rule in abdominal injury and guide the prehospital triage of the patient? and (3) When suspecting abdominal trauma, does carrying out a contrast enhanced thoraco-abdominal CT scan allow identification of abdominal injuries and reduction of mortality? Four questions dealt with therapeutic strategy: (1) After severe abdominal trauma, does immediate laparotomy reduce morbidity and mortality? (2) Does a "damage control surgery" strategy decrease morbidity and mortality in patients with a severe abdominal trauma? (3) Does a laparoscopic approach in patients with abdominal trauma decrease mortality or morbidity? and (4) Does non-operative management of patients with abdominal trauma without bleeding reduce mortality and morbidity? Finally, one question was formulated regarding the early monitoring of these patients: In case of severe abdominal trauma, which kind of initial monitoring does allow to reduce the morbi-mortality? The analysis of the literature and the recommendations were conducted following the GRADE® methodology.

RESULTS

The SFAR/SFMU Guideline panel provided 15 statements on early management of severe abdominal trauma. After three rounds of discussion and various amendments, a strong agreement was reached for 100% of recommendations. Of these recommendations, five have a high level of evidence (Grade 1±), six have a low level of evidence (Grade 2±) and four are expert judgments. Finally, no recommendation was provided for one question.

CONCLUSIONS

Substantial agreement exists among experts regarding many strong recommendations for the best early management of severe abdominal trauma.

Kidney and uro-trauma: WSES-AAST guidelines

Renal and urogenital injuries occur in approximately 10-20% of abdominal trauma in adults and children. Optimal management should take into consideration the anatomic injury, the hemodynamic status, and the associated injuries. The management of urogenital trauma aims to restore homeostasis and normal physiology especially in pediatric patients where non-operative management is considered the gold standard. As with all traumatic conditions, the management of urogenital trauma should be multidisciplinary including urologists, interventional radiologists, and trauma surgeons, as well as emergency and ICU physicians. The aim of this paper is to present the World Society of Emergency Surgery (WSES) and the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma (AAST) kidney and urogenital trauma management guidelines.

Point-of-care ultrasonography for diagnosing thoracoabdominal injuries in patients with blunt trauma

BACKGROUND

Point-of-care sonography (POCS) has emerged as the screening modality of choice for suspected body trauma in many emergency departments worldwide. Its best known application is FAST (focused abdominal sonography for trauma). The technology is almost ubiquitously available, can be performed during resuscitation, and does not expose patients or staff to radiation. While many authors have stressed the high specificity of POCS, its sensitivity varied markedly across studies. This review aimed to compile the current best evidence about the diagnostic accuracy of POCS imaging protocols in the setting of blunt thoracoabdominal trauma.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the diagnostic accuracy of POCS for detecting and excluding free fluid, organ injuries, vascular lesions, and other injuries (e.g. pneumothorax) compared to a diagnostic reference standard (i.e. computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), thoracoscopy or thoracotomy, laparoscopy or laparotomy, autopsy, or any combination of these) in patients with blunt trauma.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched Ovid MEDLINE (1946 to July 2017) and Ovid Embase (1974 to July 2017), as well as PubMed (1947 to July 2017), employing a prospectively defined literature and data retrieval strategy. We also screened the Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, and BIOSIS for potentially relevant citations, and scanned the reference lists of full-text papers for articles missed by the electronic search. We performed a top-up search on 6 December 2018, and identified eight new studies which may be incorporated into the first update of this review.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We assessed studies for eligibility using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. We included either prospective or retrospective diagnostic cohort studies that enrolled patients of any age and gender who sustained any type of blunt injury in a civilian scenario. Eligible studies had to provide sufficient information to construct a 2 x 2 table of diagnostic accuracy to allow for calculating sensitivity, specificity, and other indices of diagnostic test accuracy.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently screened titles, abstracts, and full texts of reports using a prespecified data extraction form. Methodological quality of individual studies was rated by the QUADAS-2 instrument (the revised and updated version of the original Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies list of items). We calculated sensitivity and specificity with 95% confidence intervals (CI), tabulated the pairs of sensitivity and specificity with CI, and depicted these estimates by coupled forest plots using Review Manager 5 (RevMan 5). For pooling summary estimates of sensitivity and specificity, and investigating heterogeneity across studies, we fitted a bivariate model using Stata 14.0.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 34 studies with 8635 participants in this review. Summary estimates of sensitivity and specificity were 0.74 (95% CI 0.65 to 0.81) and 0.96 (95% CI 0.94 to 0.98). Pooled positive and negative likelihood ratios were estimated at 18.5 (95% CI 10.8 to 40.5) and 0.27 (95% CI 0.19 to 0.37), respectively. There was substantial heterogeneity across studies, and the reported accuracy of POCS strongly depended on the population and affected body area. In children, pooled sensitivity of POCS was 0.63 (95% CI 0.46 to 0.77), as compared to 0.78 (95% CI 0.69 to 0.84) in an adult or mixed population. Associated specificity in children was 0.91 (95% CI 0.81 to 0.96) and in an adult or mixed population 0.97 (95% CI 0.96 to 0.99). For abdominal trauma, POCS had a sensitivity of 0.68 (95% CI 0.59 to 0.75) and a specificity of 0.95 (95% CI 0.92 to 0.97). For chest injuries, sensitivity and specificity were calculated at 0.96 (95% CI 0.88 to 0.99) and 0.99 (95% CI 0.97 to 1.00). If we consider the results of all 34 included studies in a virtual population of 1000 patients, based on the observed median prevalence (pretest probability) of thoracoabdominal trauma of 28%, POCS would miss 73 patients with injuries and falsely suggest the presence of injuries in another 29 patients. Furthermore, in a virtual population of 1000 children, based on the observed median prevalence (pretest probability) of thoracoabdominal trauma of 31%, POCS would miss 118 children with injuries and falsely suggest the presence of injuries in another 62 children.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

In patients with suspected blunt thoracoabdominal trauma, positive POCS findings are helpful for guiding treatment decisions. However, with regard to abdominal trauma, a negative POCS exam does not rule out injuries and must be verified by a reference test such as CT. This is of particular importance in paediatric trauma, where the sensitivity of POCS is poor. Based on a small number of studies in a mixed population, POCS may have a higher sensitivity in chest injuries. This warrants larger, confirmatory trials to affirm the accuracy of POCS for diagnosing thoracic trauma.

Role of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in the diagnosis and management of traumatic splenic injuries

Splenic injuries are common emergencies in the setting of abdominal trauma, as the spleen is the second most frequently injured abdominal organ after the liver. The treatment of splenic injuries underwent a severe shift from operative to non-operative due to an increased awareness of the double physiological function, both immunological and hematological, of the spleen. This, in turn, led to an increased application of splenic preservation techniques. The non-operative approach has been strengthened through radiological imaging and interventional radiology. While multidetector computed tomography is mandatory in the evaluation of hemodynamically stable patients after high-energy trauma, one ultrasound (US) can be used as a first-line technique to examine patients in cases of low-energy trauma. Unfortunately, baseline US has low sensitivity in the detection of traumatic injuries. With the introduction of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) as a reliable alternative to baseline ultrasound for low-grade abdominal trauma, the sensitivity of the US technique in recognizing traumatic abdominal lesions has strongly increased, reaching levels of accuracy similar to those of the CT. It has also been strongly recommended for use with children, as it allows for the performance of imaging techniques with the lowest dose of radiation possible. In this review, the authors aim to present the typical appearance of traumatic splenic injuries, using enhanced CEUS capability to overcome baseline US limits, and to describe the different techniques applied according to the hemodynamic stability of the patient.

Diagnostic Accuracy of Focused Assessment with Sonography for Blunt Abdominal Trauma in Pediatric Patients Performed by Emergency Medicine Residents versus Radiology Residents

INTRODUCTION

Focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST) has been shown to be useful to detect intraperitoneal free fluid in patients with blunt abdominal trauma (BAT).

OBJECTIVE

We compared the diagnostic accuracy of FAST performed by emergency medicine residents (EMRs) and radiology residents (RRs) in pediatric patients with BAT.

METHOD

In this prospective study, pediatric patients with BAT and high energy trauma who were referred to the emergency department (ED) at Al-Zahra and Kashani hospitals in Isfahan, Iran, were evaluated using FAST, first by EMRs and subsequently by RRs. The reports provided by the two resident groups were compared with the final outcome based on the results of the abdominal computed tomography (CT), operative exploration, and clinical observation.

RESULTS

A total of 101 patients with a median age of 6.75 ± 3.2 years were enrolled in the study between January 2013 and May 2014. These patients were evaluated using FAST, first by EMRs and subsequently by RRs. A good diagnostic agreement was noted between the results of the FAST scans performed by EMRs and RRs (κ = 0.865, P < 0.001). The sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values, and accuracy in evaluating the intraperitoneal free fluid were 72.2%, 85.5%, 52%, 93.3%, and 83.2%, respectively, when FAST was performed by EMRs and 72.2%, 86.7%, 54.2%, 93.5%, and 84.2%, respectively, when FAST was performed by RRs. No significant differences were seen between the EMR- and RR-performed FAST.

CONCLUSION

In this study, FAST performed by EMRs had acceptable diagnostic value, similar to that performed by RRs, in patients with BAT.

Point-of-Care Ultrasound in Trauma

The use of point-of-care ultrasound in trauma is widespread. Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma examination is a prototypical bedside examination used by the treating provider to quickly determine need for intervention and appropriate patient disposition. The role of bedside ultrasound in trauma, however, has expanded beyond the Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma examination. Advancements in diagnostics include contrast-enhanced ultrasound, thoracic, and musculoskeletal applications. Ultrasound is also an important tool for trauma providers for procedural guidance including vascular access and regional anesthesia. Its portability, affordability, and versatility have made ultrasound an invaluable tool in trauma management in resource-limited settings. In this review, we discuss these applications and the supporting evidence for point-of-care ultrasound in trauma.

Pancreaticobiliary Trauma: A Multimodality Imaging Update

Pancreaticobiliary injury is an uncommon entity which more often occurs in the setting of blunt than penetrating trauma. We present cases of pancreaticobiliary traumatic injuries from our Level 1 trauma center to illustrate an imaging update on the spectrum of injuries and correlation with current grading systems.

Enhancing the role of paediatric ultrasound with microbubbles: a review of intravenous applications

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) represents a complementary technique to greyscale and colour Doppler ultrasonography which allows for real-time visualization and characterization of tissue perfusion. Its inherent advantages in the child makes ultrasonography an ideal imaging modality; repeatability and good tolerance along with the avoidance of CT, a source of ionizing radiation, renders ultrasonography imaging desirable. Although currently paediatric CEUS is principally used in an "off-label" manner, ultrasonography contrast agents have received regulatory approval for assessment of paediatric focal liver lesions (FLL) in the USA. The safety of ultrasound contrast-agents is well documented in adults, as safe as or even surpassing the safety profile of CT and MR contrast agents. Except for the established intracavitary use of CEUS in voiding urosonography, i.v. paediatric applications have been introduced with promising results in the abdominal trauma initial diagnosis and follow-up, characterization and differential diagnosis of FLL and characterization of lung, pleura, renal and splenic pathology. CEUS has also been used to detect complications after paediatric transplantation, evaluate inflammatory bowel disease activity and assess tumour response to antiangiogenic therapy. The purpose of this review was to present these novel i.v. paediatric applications of CEUS and discuss their value.

Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in blunt abdominal trauma

Baseline ultrasound is essential in the early assessment of patients with a huge haemoperitoneum undergoing an immediate abdominal surgery; nevertheless, even with a highly experienced operator, it is not sufficient to exclude parenchymal injuries. More recently, a new ultrasound technique using second generation contrast agents, named contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) has been developed. This technique allows all the vascular phase to be performed in real time, increasing ultrasound capability to detect parenchymal injuries, enhancing some qualitative findings, such as lesion extension, margins and its relationship with capsule and vessels. CEUS has been demonstrated to be almost as sensitive as contrast-enhanced CT in the detection of traumatic injuries in patients with low-energy isolated abdominal trauma, with levels of sensitivity and specificity up to 95%. Several studies demonstrated its ability to detect lesions occurring in the liver, spleen, pancreas and kidneys and also to recognize active bleeding as hyperechoic bands appearing as round or oval spots of variable size. Its role seems to be really relevant in paediatric patients, thus avoiding a routine exposure to ionizing radiation. Nevertheless, CEUS is strongly operator dependent, and it has some limitations, such as the cost of contrast media, lack of panoramicity, the difficulty to explore some deep regions and the poor ability to detect injuries to the urinary tract. On the other hand, it is timesaving, and it has several advantages, such as its portability, the safety of contrast agent, the lack to ionizing radiation exposure and therefore its repeatability, which allows follow-up of those traumas managed conservatively, especially in cases of fertile females and paediatric patients.

The use of contrast-enhanced ultrasonography for the detection of active renal hemorrhage in a dog with spontaneous kidney rupture resulting in hemoperitoneum

OBJECTIVE

To describe the use of contrast-enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS) for the detection of active renal hemorrhage in a dog with spontaneous kidney rupture resulting in hemoperitoneum.

CASE SUMMARY

A 9-month-old, sexually intact male Boxer dog presented for acute collapse, abdominal pain, and tachycardia. Physical examination findings were consistent with hypovolemia and acute abdomen. B-mode ultrasonography revealed peritoneal effusion and a right kidney mass. Subsequently, a CEUS study was performed on the right kidney, which demonstrated active hemorrhage from that kidney resulting in both hemoretroperitoneum and hemoperitoneum. At exploratory surgery, ultrasonographic findings were confirmed and a right nephrectomy was performed. Histopathology demonstrated severe parenchymal alterations along with the presence of nematode larvae. Fecal and urine testing for the presence of parasitic ova were negative. Identification of the larvae was inconclusive. At 30 days postoperatively, repeat B-mode ultrasound and clinicopathologic testing was unremarkable. The dog was alive at 1 year postsurgery with no ill effects.

NEW OR UNIQUE INFORMATION PROVIDED

To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of CEUS for the detection of active hemorrhage from a kidney resulting in hemoretroperitoneum and hemoperitoneum in a dog. Although rare, the finding of nematode larvae within the renal parenchyma may have been the cause of kidney rupture. Importantly, surgical removal of the kidney was curative. Benign processes causing kidney rupture such as parasitic infestation should be considered in the working diagnosis as related to geographical location.

Massive hemobilia: a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge

BACKGROUND

Massive hemobilia is a rare but potentially life-threatening cause of upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage. In this retrospective analysis, we have evaluated the challenges involved in the diagnosis and management of massive hemobilia.

METHODS

Between 2001 and 2011, a total of 20 consecutive patients (14 males) who were treated in our department for massive hemobilia were included in the study and their records were retrospectively analyzed.

RESULTS

Causes of hemobilia were blunt liver trauma (n = 9), hepatobiliary intervention (n = 4), post-laparoscopic cholecystectomy hepatic artery pseudoaneurysm (n = 3), hepatobiliary tumors (n = 3), and vascular malformation (n = 1). Melena, abdominal pain, hematemesis, and jaundice were the leading symptoms. All patients had undergone upper GI endoscopy, abdominal ultrasound, and computerized tomography of the abdomen. An angiogram and therapeutic embolization were done in 12 patients and was successful in nine but failed in three, requiring surgery. Surgical procedures performed were right hepatectomy (n = 4), extended right hepatectomy (n = 1), segmentectomy (n = 1), extended cholecystectomy (n = 1), repair of the pseudoaneurysm (n = 3), and right hepatic artery ligation (n = 1).

CONCLUSION

The successful diagnosis of hemobilia depends on a high index of suspicion for patients with upper GI bleeding and biliary symptoms. Although transarterial embolization is the therapeutic option of choice for massive hemobilia, surgery has a definitive role in patients with hemodynamic instability, after failed embolization, and in patients requiring laparotomy for other reasons.

Accuracy of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) in the identification and characterization of traumatic solid organ lesions in children: a retrospective comparison with baseline US and CE-MDCT

INTRODUCTION

Localized low-energy abdominal trauma is very frequent in the pediatric population. The findings of several studies have shown that ultrasonography (US) can represent a useful and cost-effective tool in the evaluation of blunt abdominal trauma both in adults and children. However, many parenchymal injuries are not correctly visualized at baseline US examination. The introduction of specific US contrast agents contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) has enabled a better identification of traumatic organ injuries. The correct use of CEUS could therefore identify and select the children who need further diagnostic investigation computed tomography (CT), avoiding unnecessary radiation and iodinated contrast medium exposure. The purpose of our study was to assess the sensibility and feasibility of CEUS in the assessment of low-energy abdominal trauma compared to baseline US in pediatric patients, using contrast-enhanced MDCT as the reference standard.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed 73 children (51 M and 22 F; mean age 8.7 ± 2.8 years) who presented in our Emergency Department between October 2012 and October 2013, with history of minor abdominal trauma according to the Abbreviated Injury Scale and who underwent US, CEUS, and CE-MDCT. Inclusion criteria were: male or female, aged 0-16, hemodynamically stable patients with a history of minor blunt abdominal trauma. Exclusion criteria were adulthood, hemodynamical instability, history of major trauma. Sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, and accuracy were determined for US and CEUS compared to MDCT.

RESULTS

6/73 patients were negative at US, CEUS, and MDCT for the presence of organ injuries. In the remaining 67 patients, US depicted 26/67 parenchymal lesions. CEUS identified 67/67 patients (67/67) with parenchymal lesions: 21 lesions of the liver (28.8 %), 26 lesions of the spleen (35.6 %), 7 lesions of right kidney (9.6 %), 13 lesions of left kidney. MDCT confirmed all parenchymal lesions (67/67). Thus, the diagnostic performance of CEUS was better than that of US, as sensitivity, specificity, PPV, NPV, and accuracy were 100, 100, 100, 100, and 100 % for CEUS and 38.8, 100, 100, 12.8, and 44 % for US. In some patients CEUS identified also prognostic factors as parenchymal active bleeding in 8 cases, partial devascularization in 1 case; no cases of vascular bleeding, no cases of urinoma. MDCT confirmed all parenchymal lesions. Parenchymal active bleeding was identified in 16 cases, vascular bleeding in 2 cases, urinoma in 2 cases, partial devascularization in 1 case.

CONCLUSIONS

CEUS is more sensitive and accurate than baseline US and almost as sensitive as CT in the identification and characterization of solid organs lesions in blunt abdominal trauma. CT is more sensitive and accurate than CEUS in identifying prognostic indicators, as active bleeding and urinoma. CEUS should be considered as a useful tool in the assessment and monitoring of blunt abdominal trauma in children.

The key role of the radiologist in the management of polytrauma patients: indications for MDCT imaging in emergency radiology

Trauma causes greater losses of life years and it is the most common cause of death for people under the age of 45. Time is one of the most relevant factors for the survival of injured patients, particularly the time elapsed from trauma until the resuscitation procedures. As a member of the trauma team, the radiologist contributes to the rapid diagnosis of traumatic disorders, with appropriate imaging modalities. Based on the evidence, the most appropriate diagnostic tool for severe/multiple trauma is computed tomography (CT). With the advent of multidetector CT (MDCT), radiologists are able to more effectively characterize life-threatening traumatic disorders within a few seconds in stable or stabilized patients. Considering the diagnostic potential of MDCT, conventional radiographs could be virtually abandoned in the diagnostic algorithms for adult polytraumatized patients. The radiologist helps to facilitate triage and to assess the optimal individual treatment for polytrauma patients, thus contributing to the improvement of patient outcomes. In this article, the indications for MDCT in the polytrauma setting are discussed.

Diagnostic accuracy of a step-up imaging strategy in pediatric patients with blunt abdominal trauma

INTRODUCTION

Blunt abdominal trauma (BAT) is an important but often unrecognized cause of death in children. Imaging plays a vital role in the early detection of abdominal trauma. The exact role of imaging in the management of BAT in children is still under research. The aim of this study was to assess diagnostic accuracy of a step-up imaging strategy, where the decision to observe or to perform an intervention depends on the vital parameters of the patient, in combination with the presence or absence of free fluid at Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma (FAST) and the findings on CT (performed selectively), for pediatric patients presenting to the ED with a blunt abdominal trauma.

METHODS

Consecutive patients aged ≤ 16 years admitted between January 2008 and December 2012 to a Dutch level 1 trauma centre were included in this retrospective study. Sensitivity, negative predictive value (NPV) and the negative likelihood ratio (LR-) of the imaging strategy were calculated.

RESULTS

The cohort consisted of 122 patients; 66 (54%) patients were discharged home after primary survey, 51 (41%) patients were admitted and observed, 3 (2%) patients underwent transarterial embolization and 2 (2%) patients underwent surgery. Treatment failed in 1 patient, initially selected for observation. The sensitivity of the imaging strategy was 0.833 (0.446-0.990). The NPV and LR- were 0.991 (0.963-1.000) and 0.167 (0.028-0.997), respectively.

CONCLUSION

The step-up imaging strategy that is applied in our academic level 1 trauma centre has a high sensitivity and a high negative predictive value. No clinically relevant injuries were missed without doing unnecessary harm, e.g. radiation or an intervention.

Effectiveness of contrast-enhanced ultrasound in the classification and emergency management of abdominal trauma

OBJECTIVE

To analyse the correlation between contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS)-based classification of the severity of abdominal parenchymal organ trauma and clinical outcomes, and to explore CEUS in classifying patients with such trauma, expecting that the use of CEUS will potentially enhance the quality and speed of the emergency management of abdominal trauma.

METHODS

Three hundred six consecutive patients with blunt abdominal parenchymal organ trauma who received CEUS examination were retrospectively analysed. Two CEUS radiologists (identified as Reader A and Reader B in this study) who were not involved in the CEUS examinations of the patients were then asked to classify the patients independently according to their CEUS results. The classification results were later compared with patients' clinical outcomes using Spearman's rank correlation.

RESULTS

The final clinical outcomes showed that 25.5 % (78/306) of patients received conservative treatment, 52.0 % (159/306) received minimally invasive treatment, and 22.5 % (69/306) received surgery. Spearman's rank correlation coefficients between the CEUS-based classification and clinical outcome were 0.952 from Reader A and 0.960 from Reader B.

CONCLUSIONS

CEUS can play an important role in the emergency management of abdominal trauma through the classification of patients for different treatment methods.

KEY POINTS

• The severity of abdominal trauma was classified by contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) • There was a high correlation between CEUS-based classification and clinical outcomes • CEUS-based classification is helpful for surgeons in the emergency management of abdominal trauma.

The role of follow-up ultrasound and clinical parameters after abdominal MDCT in patients with multiple trauma

BACKGROUND

Beside its value during the initial trauma work-up (focused assessment with sonography for trauma), ultrasound (US) is recommended for early follow-up examinations of the abdomen in multiple injured patients. However, multidetector CT (MDCT) has proven to reliably diagnose traumatic lesions of abdominal organs, to depict their extent, and to assess their clinical relevance.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the diagnostic impact of follow-up US studies after MDCT of the abdomen and to identify possible clinical parameters indicating the need of a follow-up US.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

During a 30-month period, patients with suspected multiple trauma were allocated. Patients with admission to the ICU, an initial abdominal MDCT scan, and an US follow-up examination after 6 and 24 h were included. Two patient cohorts were defined: patients with normal abdominal MDCT (group 1), patients with trauma-related pathologic abdominal MDCT (group 2). In all patients, parameters indicating alteration of vital functions or hemorrhage within the first 24 h were obtained by reviewing the medical charts.

RESULTS

Forty-four of 193 patients were included: 24 were categorized in group 1 (mean age, 41.1 years; range, 21-90 years), 20 in group 2 (mean age, 36.6 years; range, 16-71 years). In group 1, US did not provide new information compared to emergency MDCT. In group 2, there were no contradictory 6- and 24-h follow-up US findings. In patients with positive MDCT findings and alterations of clinical parameters, US did not detect progression of a previously diagnosed pathology or any late manifestation of such a lesion. In none of the patients with negative abdominal MDCT and pathological clinical parameters US indicated an abdominal injury.

CONCLUSION

Routine US follow-up does not yield additional information after abdominal trauma. In patients with MDCT-proven organ lesions, follow-up MDCT should be considered if indicated by abnormal clinical and/or laboratory findings.

Comparing diagnostic accuracy of bedside ultrasound and radiography for bone fracture screening in multiple trauma patients at the ED

INTRODUCTION

Long bone fractures are currently diagnosed using radiography, but radiography has some disadvantages (radiation and being time consuming). The present study compared the diagnostic accuracy of bedside ultrasound and radiography in multiple trauma patients at the emergency department (ED).

METHOD

The study assessed 80 injured patients with multiple trauma from February 2011 to July 2012. The patients were older than 18 years and triaged to the cardiopulmonary resuscitation ward of the ED. Bedside ultrasound and radiography were conducted for them. The findings were separately and blindly assessed by 2 radiologists. Sensitivity, specificity, the positive and negative predictive value, and κ coefficient were measured to assess the accuracy and validity of ultrasound as compared with radiography.

RESULTS

The sensitivity of ultrasound for diagnosis of limb bone fractures was not high enough and ranged between 55% and 75% depending on the fracture site. The specificity of this diagnostic method had an acceptable range of 62% to 84%. Ultrasound negative prediction value was higher than other indices under study and ranged between 73% and 83%, but its positive prediction value varied between 33.3% and 71%. The κ coefficient for diagnosis of long bone fractures of upper limb (κ = 0.58) and upper limb joints (κ = 0.47) and long bones of lower limb (κ = 0.52) was within the medium range. However, the value for diagnosing fractures of lower limb joints (κ = 0.47) was relatively low.

CONCLUSION

Bedside ultrasound is not a reliable method for diagnosing fractures of upper and lower limb bones compared with radiography.

Imaging in renal trauma

Renal injuries are classified, based on the American Association for the Surgery of Trauma classification, in to five grades of injury. Several imaging modalities have been available for assessing the grade of renal injury, each with their usefulness and limitations. Currently, plain radiographs and intravenous urography have no role in the evaluation of patients with suspected renal injury. Ultrasonography (USG) has a limited role in evaluating patients with suspected retroperitoneal injury; however, it plays an important role during follow up in patients with urinoma formation. USG helps to monitor the size of a urinoma and also for the drainage procedure. The role of selective renal arteriography is mainly limited to an interventional purpose rather than for diagnostic utility. Retrograde pyelography is useful in assessing ureteral and renal pelvis integrity in suspected ureteropelvic junction injury and for an interventional purpose, like placing a stent across the site of ureteric injury. Magnetic resonance imaging has no role in acute renal injuries. Multidetector computed tomography is the modality of choice in the evaluation of renal injuries. It is also useful in evaluating traumatic injuries to kidneys with preexisting abnormalities and can help to define the extent of penetrating injuries in patients with stab wounds in the flank region. The combination of imaging findings along with clinical information is important in the management of the individual patient. This article will describe a spectrum of renal injuries encountered in a trauma setting.

Multi-detector CT (MDCT) in bowel and mesenteric injury

Objectives: To evaluate multi-detector CT (MDCT) findings in bowel and mesenteric injury due to blunt abdominal trauma. Method: Retrospective evaluation of MDCT scan reports of patients admitted in Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar with bowel and mesenteric injury during the period of January 2005 to April 2008. Results: MDCT, without using oral contrast, clearly demonstrated various specific and less specific findings of bowel and mesenteric injury. Conclusion: Multi-detector CT is an excellent diagnostic modality in bowel and mesenteric injury. Routine administration of oral contrast agent is not mandatory for initial evaluation of these patients.

A systematic review of abusive visceral injuries in childhood--their range and recognition

OBJECTIVES

To define what abusive visceral injuries occur, including their clinical features and the value of screening tests for abdominal injury among abused children.

METHODS

We searched 12 databases, with snowballing techniques, for the period 1950-2011, with all identified studies undergoing two independent reviews by trained reviewers, drawn from pediatrics, radiology, pediatric surgery and pathology. Of 5802 studies identified, 188 were reviewed. We included studies of children aged 0-18, with confirmed abusive etiology, whose injury was defined by computed tomography, contrast studies or at surgery/post mortem. We excluded injuries due to sexual abuse, or those exclusively addressing management or outcome.

RESULTS

Of 88 included studies (64 addressing abdominal injuries), only five were comparative. Every organ in the body has been injured, intra-thoracic injuries were commoner in those aged less than five years. Children with abusive abdominal injuries were younger (2.5-3.7 years vs. 7.6-10.3 years) than accidentally injured children. Duodenal injuries were commonly recorded in abused children, particularly involving the third or fourth part, and were not reported in accidentally injured children less than four years old. Liver and pancreatic injuries were frequently recorded, with potential pancreatic pseudocyst formation. Abdominal bruising was absent in up to 80% of those with abdominal injuries, and co-existent injuries included fractures, burns and head injury. Post mortem studies revealed that a number of the children had sustained previous, unrecognized, abdominal injuries. The mortality from abusive abdominal injuries was significantly higher than accidental injuries (53% vs. 21%). Only three studies addressed screening for abdominal injury among abused children, and were unsuitable for meta-analysis due to lack of standardized investigations, in particular those with 'negative' screening tests were not consistently investigated.

CONCLUSIONS

Visceral injuries may affect any organ of the body, predominantly abdominal viscera. A non-motor vehicle related duodenal trauma in a child aged<five years warrants consideration of abuse as an etiology. In the absence of clear evidence for a screening strategy, clinical vigilance is warranted in any young child with suspected abuse for the presence of abdominal injury, where the absence of abdominal bruising or specific symptoms does not preclude significant injury.

Predictors of abdominal injuries in blunt trauma

OBJECTIVE

To identify predictors of abdominal injuries in victims of blunt trauma.

METHOD

retrospective analysis of trauma protocols (collected prospectively) of adult victims of blunt trauma in a period of 15 months. Variables were compared between patients with abdominal injuries (AIS>0) detected by computed tomography or/and laparotomy (group I) and others (AIS=0, group II). Student's t, Fisher and qui-square tests were used for statistical analysis, considering p<0.05 as significant.

RESULTS

A total of 3783 cases were included, with a mean age of 39.1 ± 17.7 years (14-99), 76.1% being male. Abdominal injuries were detected in 130 patients (3.4%). Patients sustaining abdominal injuries had significantly lower mean age (35.4 + 15.4 vs. 39.2 + 17.7), lower mean systolic blood pressure on admission (114.7 + 32.4 mmHg vs. 129.1 + 21.7 mmHg), lower mean Glasgow coma scale (12.9 + 3.9 vs. 14.3 + 2.0), as well as higher head AIS (0.95 + 1.5 vs. 0.67 + 1.1), higher thorax AIS (1.10 + 1.5 vs. 0.11 + 0.6) and higher extremities AIS (1.70 ± 1.8 vs. 1.03 ± 1.2). Patients sustaining abdominal injuries also presented higher frequency of severe injuries (AIS>3) in head (18.5% vs. 7.9%), thorax (29.2% vs. 2.4%) and extremities (40.0% vs. 13.7%). The highest odds ratios for the diagnosis of abdominal injuries were associated flail chest (21.8) and pelvic fractures (21.0).

CONCLUSION

Abdominal injuries were more frequently observed in patients with hemodynamic instability, changes in Glasgow coma scale and severe lesions to the head, chest and extremities.

Blunt abdominal trauma patients are at very low risk for intra-abdominal injury after emergency department observation

Introduction

Patients are commonly admitted to the hospital for observation following blunt abdominal trauma (BAT), despite initially negative emergency department (ED) evaluations. With the current use of screening technology, such as computed tomography (CT) of the abdomen and pelvis, ultrasound, and laboratory evaluations, it is unclear which patients require observation. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of intra-abdominal injury (IAI) and death in hemodynamically normal and stable BAT patients with initially negative ED evaluations admitted to an ED observation unit and to define a low-risk subgroup of patients and assess whether they may be discharged without abdominal/pelvic CT or observation.

Methods

This was a retrospective cohort study performed at an urban level 1 trauma center and included all BAT patients admitted to an ED observation unit as part of a BAT key clinical pathway. All were observed for at least 8 hours as part of the key clinical pathway, and only minors and pregnant women were excluded. Outcomes included the presence of IAI or death during a 40-month follow-up period. Prior to data collection, low-risk criteria were defined as no intoxication, no hypotension or tachycardia, no abdominal pain or tenderness, no hematuria, and no distracting injury. To be considered low risk, patients needed to meet all low-risk criteria.

Results

Of the 1,169 patients included over the 2-year study period, 29% received a CT of the abdomen and pelvis, 6% were admitted to the hospital from the observation unit for further management, 0.4% (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.1%–1%) were diagnosed with IAI, and 0% (95% CI, 0%–0.3%) died. Patients had a median combined ED and observation length of stay of 9.5 hours. Of the 237 (20%) patients who met low-risk criteria, 7% had a CT of the abdomen and pelvis and 0% (95% CI, 0%–1.5%) were diagnosed with IAI or died.

Conclusion

Most BAT patients who have initially negative ED evaluations are at low risk for IAI but still require some combination of observation and CT. A subgroup of BAT patients may be safely discharged without CT or observation after the initial evaluation.

Accuracy of FAST scan in blunt abdominal trauma in a major London trauma centre

INTRODUCTION

Blunt abdominal trauma (BAT) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality. Rapid diagnosis and treatment with the Advanced Trauma Life Support guidelines are vital, leading to the development of Focused Assessment with Sonography in Trauma (FAST).

METHODS

A retrospective study carried out from January 2007-2008 on all patients who presented with BAT and underwent FAST scan. All patients subsequently had a CT scan within 2 h of admission or a laparotomy within two days. The presence of intra-peritoneal free fluid was interpreted as positive.

RESULTS

100 patients with BAT presented; 71 had complete data. The accuracy of FAST in BAT was 59.2%; in these 31 (43.7%) were confirmed by CT and 11 (15%) by laparotomy. There were 29 (40.8%) inaccurate FAST scans, all confirmed by CT. FAST had a specificity of 94.7% (95% CI: 0.75-0.99) and sensitivity of 46.2% (95% CI: 0.33-0.60). Positive Predictive Value of 0.96 (0.81-0.99) and Negative Predictive Value of 0.39 (0.26-0.54). Fisher's exact test shows positive FAST is significantly associated with Intra-abdominal pathology (p=0.001). Cohen's chance corrected agreement was 0.3. 21 out of 28 who underwent laparotomies had positive FAST results indicating accuracy of 75% (95% CI: 57%-87%).

CONCLUSION

Patients with false negative scans, requiring therapeutic laparotomy is concerning. In unstable patients FAST may help in triaging and identifying those requiring laparotomy. Negative FAST scans do not exclude abdominal injury. Further randomised control trials are recommended if the role of FAST is to be better understood.

Does this adult patient have a blunt intra-abdominal injury?

CONTEXT

Blunt abdominal trauma often presents a substantial diagnostic challenge. Well-informed clinical examination can identify patients who require further diagnostic evaluation for intra-abdominal injuries after blunt abdominal trauma.

OBJECTIVE

To systematically assess the precision and accuracy of symptoms, signs, laboratory tests, and bedside imaging studies to identify intra-abdominal injuries in patients with blunt abdominal trauma.

DATA SOURCES

We conducted a structured search of MEDLINE (1950-January 2012) and EMBASE (1980-January 2012) to identify English-language studies examining the identification of intra-abdominal injuries. A separate, structured search was conducted for studies evaluating bedside ultrasonography.

STUDY SELECTION

We included studies of diagnostic accuracy for intra-abdominal injury that compared at least 1 finding with a reference standard of abdominal computed tomography, diagnostic peritoneal lavage, laparotomy, autopsy, and/or clinical course for intra-abdominal injury. Twelve studies on clinical findings and 22 studies on bedside ultrasonography met inclusion criteria for data extraction.

DATA EXTRACTION

Critical appraisal and data extraction were independently performed by 2 authors.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The prevalence of intra-abdominal injury in adult emergency department patients with blunt abdominal trauma among all evidence level 1 and 2 studies was 13% (95% CI, 10%-17%), with 4.7% (95% CI, 2.5%-8.6%) requiring therapeutic surgery or angiographic embolization of injuries. The presence of a seat belt sign (likelihood ratio [LR] range, 5.6-9.9), rebound tenderness (LR, 6.5; 95% CI, 1.8-24), hypotension (LR, 5.2; 95% CI, 3.5-7.5), abdominal distention (LR, 3.8; 95% CI, 1.9-7.6), or guarding (LR, 3.7; 95% CI, 2.3-5.9) suggest an intra-abdominal injury. The absence of abdominal tenderness to palpation does not rule out an intra-abdominal injury (summary LR, 0.61; 95% CI, 0.46-0.80). The presence of intraperitoneal fluid or organ injury on bedside ultrasound assessment is more accurate than any history and physical examination findings (adjusted summary LR, 30; 95% CI, 20-46); conversely, a normal ultrasound result decreases the chance of injury detection (adjusted summary LR, 0.26; 95% CI, 0.19-0.34). Test results increasing the likelihood of intra-abdominal injury include a base deficit less than -6 mEq/L (LR, 18; 95% CI, 11-30), elevated liver transaminases (LR range, 2.5-5.2), hematuria (LR range, 3.7-4.1), anemia (LR range, 2.2-3.3), and abnormal chest radiograph (LR range, 2.5-3.8). Symptoms and signs may be most useful in combination, particularly in identification of patients who do not need further diagnostic workup.

CONCLUSIONS

Bedside ultrasonography has the highest accuracy of all individual findings, but a normal result does not rule out an intra-abdominal injury. Combinations of clinical findings may be most useful to determine which patients do not require further evaluation, but the ideal combination of variables for identifying patients without intra-abdominal injury requires further study.

[Contrast-enhanced sonography for blunt force abdominal trauma]

With the introduction of second generation ultrasound contrast agents, contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) has become available as an adjunct to the conventional FAST (focused assessment with sonography in trauma) protocol and B-mode sonography of the abdomen after blunt force abdominal trauma. Results from several controlled studies indicate excellent diagnostic accuracy of CEUS for the exclusion of clinically relevant parenchymal injuries after blunt force abdominal trauma. Particularly in younger, hemodynamically stable patients this technique could contribute to a reliable exclusion of parenchymal injuries without the use of ionizing radiation. This report provides details on the technical performance of CEUS, shows examples of typical CEUS findings after blunt abdominal trauma and summarizes the current clinical evidence regarding the use of CEUS after blunt abdominal trauma.

Splenic trauma: what is new?

Evaluation for splenic injury is an important component of patient assessment after blunt abdominal trauma. Key imaging modalities include ultrasound, particularly for rapid identification of hemoperitoneum, and computed tomography (CT), which permits a more detailed and accurate determination of splenic integrity. Specific findings at contrast-enhanced multidetector CT (MDCT) should prompt the consideration of catheter angiography with arterial embolization as an adjunct to nonsurgical management. This article reviews the roles of imaging in the management of splenic trauma, illustrates the MDCT appearance of various splenic injuries, and discusses imaging-based indications for operative and angiographic intervention.

Test characteristics of focused assessment of sonography for trauma for clinically significant abdominal free fluid in pediatric blunt abdominal trauma

OBJECTIVES

Focused assessment of sonography in trauma (FAST) has been shown useful to detect clinically significant hemoperitoneum in adults, but not in children. The objectives were to determine test characteristics for clinically important intraperitoneal free fluid (FF) in pediatric blunt abdominal trauma (BAT) using computed tomography (CT) or surgery as criterion reference and, second, to determine the test characteristics of FAST to detect any amount of intraperitoneal FF as detected by CT.

METHODS

This was a prospective observational study of consecutive children (0-17 years) who required trauma team activation for BAT and received either CT or laparotomy between 2004 and 2007. Experienced physicians performed and interpreted FAST. Clinically important FF was defined as moderate or greater amount of intraperitoneal FF per the radiologist CT report or surgery.

RESULTS

The study enrolled 431 patients, excluded 74, and analyzed data on 357. For the first objective, 23 patients had significant hemoperitoneum (22 on CT and one at surgery). Twelve of the 23 had true-positive FAST (sensitivity = 52%; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 31% to 73%). FAST was true negative in 321 of 334 (specificity = 96%; 95% CI = 93% to 98%). Twelve of 25 patients with positive FAST had significant FF on CT (positive predictive value [PPV] = 48%; 95% CI = 28% to 69%). Of 332 patients with negative FAST, 321 had no significant fluid on CT (negative predictive value [NPV] = 97%; 95% CI = 94% to 98%). Positive likelihood ratio (LR) for FF was 13.4 (95% CI = 6.9 to 26.0) while the negative LR was 0.50 (95% CI = 0.32 to 0.76). Accuracy was 93% (333 of 357, 95% CI = 90% to 96%). For the second objective, test characteristics were as follows: sensitivity = 20% (95% CI = 13% to 30%), specificity = 98% (95% CI = 95% to 99%), PPV = 76% (95% CI = 54% to 90%), NPV = 78% (95% CI = 73% to 82%), positive LR = 9.0 (95% CI = 3.7 to 21.8), negative LR = 0.81 (95% CI = 0.7 to 0.9), and accuracy = 78% (277 of 357, 95% CI = 73% to 82%).

CONCLUSION

In this population of children with BAT, FAST has a low sensitivity for clinically important FF but has high specificity. A positive FAST suggests hemoperitoneum and abdominal injury, while a negative FAST aids little in decision-making.

FAST scan: is it worth doing in hemodynamically stable blunt trauma patients?

BACKGROUND

During the last decade, focused assessment with sonography for trauma increasingly has become the initial diagnostic modality of choice in trauma patients. It is still questionable, however, whether its use results in the underdiagnosis of intra-abdominal injury. It also remains doubtful whether a positive focused assessment with sonography for trauma affects clinical decision making in hemodynamically stable blunt trauma patients as evidenced through abdominal computerized tomography use. The aim of this study was to evaluate the results of focused assessment with sonography for trauma in hemodynamically stable blunt trauma patients and to determine its role in the diagnostic evaluation of these patients.

METHODS

We reviewed our prospectively maintained trauma database. In trauma patients at our institute, focused assessment with sonography for trauma examinations are performed by surgery residents and are considered positive when free intra-abdominal fluid is visualized. Abdominal computerized tomography, diagnostic peritoneal lavage, or exploratory laparotomy findings were used as confirmation of intra-abdominal injury.

RESULTS

In our 7-year study period, 2,980 trauma patients were evaluated at our institute, of which 2,130 patients underwent a focused assessment with sonography for trauma. In all, 18 patients had an inconclusive focused assessment with sonography for trauma, whereas 7 patients died on arrival, leaving 2,105 patients for our analysis. A total 88 true positive focused assessment with sonography for trauma were conducted. All hemodynamically stable blunt trauma patients who had a positive focused assessment with sonography for trauma (70/88) were confirmed by computerized tomography. Patients who underwent exploratory laparotomy directly (17/88) or diagnostic peritoneal lavage (1/88) as confirmation either had penetrating trauma or became hemodynamically unstable. A total of 1,894 true negative focused assessments with sonography for trauma scans were conducted, with 1,201 confirmed by computerized tomography and the rest by observation. In all, 118 false negative focused assessment with sonography for trauma were performed, of which 44 (37.3%) subsequently required exploratory laparotomy. Five patients had false positive focused assessment with sonography for trauma scans. Focused assessment with sonography for trauma scan had an overall sensitivity of 43%, a specificity of 99%, and positive and negative predictive values of 95% and 94%, respectively. Accuracy was 94.1%. In the hemodynamically stable blunt trauma group, there were 60 patients with true positive focused assessment with sonography for trauma examinations and 87 patients with false negative focused assessment with sonography for trauma examinations. In this group of patients, focused assessment with sonography for trauma had a sensitivity of 41%, specificity of 99%, and positive and negative predictive values of 94% and 95%, respectively. The overall accuracy was 95%.

CONCLUSION

Given the low sensitivity, a negative focused assessment with sonography for trauma without confirmation by computerized tomography may result in missed intra-abdominal injuries. It is also observed in all focused assessment with sonography for trauma positive hemodynamically stable blunt trauma patients, confirmation is preferred through the use of a computerized tomography for better understanding of the intra-abdominal injuries and to decide on operative versus no-operative management. Thus, the use of focused assessment with sonography for trauma in hemodynamically stable blunt trauma patients seems not worthwhile. It should be reserved for hemodynamically unstable patients with blunt trauma.

[Conservative management of splenic lesions: experience in 136 patients with blunt splenic injury]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the usefulness of imaging tests in selecting the treatment for patients with blunt splenic trauma. To relate the grade of splenic lesion with the treatment. To describe the benefits of embolization in splenic trauma.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We retrospectively studied 136 splenic lesions. We analyzed the main mechanisms of injury, the imaging findings at focused assessment with sonography for trauma (FAST US) and CT, the spectrum of lesions, the therapeutic management, and the outcome.

RESULTS

The mean age of patients was 34.81 years and the most common mechanism of injury was traffic accidents. Signs of hemodynamic instability were observed in 54 (39.70%) patients; the remaining 82 (60.30%) patients remained stable or responded to resuscitation. FAST US was the initial imaging technique and the most commonly used technique in unstable patients, whereas CT was the most commonly used technique in stable patients. Surgical treatment was used in 79.99% of the high grade lesions and conservative treatment was used in 55.69% of the low grade lesions. Angiography and embolization were used to manage 8.54% of the stable patients.

CONCLUSION

FAST US is decisive in choosing the surgical treatment in unstable patients. High grade lesions are associated with a higher frequency of surgery and lower grade lesions are associated with a higher frequency of nonsurgical management. Angiography with embolization is efficacious in the treatment of vascular lesions in stable patients.

Ultrasonographic applications after mass casualty incident caused by Wenchuan earthquake

BACKGROUND

Ultrasonography has been widely applied in clinical settings, and its role in the assessment of trauma has been approved. However, there are very few reports about its role in the management of mass casualties.

METHODS

In our hospital, we retrospectively analyzed the application, the methods, and the role of ultrasonography in rescuing the Wenchuan earthquake victims.

RESULTS

On a total of 3,307 wounded patients, 1,207 were examined by ultrasonography, and on a part of them, a follow-up was also performed. A total number of 1,386 ultrasound examinations were performed. Among them, 115 patients received ultrasound-guided interventional diagnosis and treatments. Ultrasound screening detected 23 cases of hemoperitoneum, 45 cases of pleural effusion (blood), 1 case of traumatic intimal tear of femoral artery, 3 cases of deep veins phlebothrombosis of lower limbs, 12 cases of deep-part hematoma of soft tissues. In five cases of negative results by ultrasonography, visceral injury was confirmed later by surgery or computed tomography or contrast-enhanced ultrasonography. All the ultrasound-guided interventional treatments were performed successfully, without any serious complication. The detection rate of trauma-related diseases was 6.96% (84 of 1,207) without false positive; however, the false negative rate was 5.6% (5 of 89). The bedside ultrasound became the preferred examination for the majority of injuries in middle and later stage after earthquake (72 hours to 6 weeks), accounting for 73.9% (458 of 620) of examinations. Ultrasonography-based FAST method was the primary examination tool of trauma in the early stage after earthquake.

CONCLUSION

In our hospital, ultrasonography was widely used in the triage of earthquake victims, bedside examination of severe cases, and interventional treatments. The advantages of ultrasonography such as convenience, noninvasiveness, high accuracy, and repeatability have been sufficiently demonstrated in this mass casualty, where ultrasonography played a great role in the rescue of victims of Wenchuan earthquake.

Contrast-enhanced US evaluation in patients with blunt abdominal trauma()

INTRODUCTION

To evaluate the use of contrast-enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS) in patients with blunt abdominal trauma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 133 hemodynamically stable patients were evaluated using ultrasonography (US), CEUS and multislice Computer Tomography (CT) da eliminare.

RESULTS

In 133 patients, CT identified 84 lesions: 48 cases of splenic injury, 21 of liver injury, 13 of kidney or adrenal gland injury and 2 of pancreatic injury. US identified free fluid or parenchymal abnormalities in 59/84 patients positive at CT and free fluid in 20/49 patients negative at CT. CEUS revealed 81/84 traumatic injuries identified at CT and ruled out traumatic injuries in 48/49 negative at CT. Sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values for US were 70.2%, 59.2%, 74.7% and 53.7%, respectively; for CEUS the values were 96.4%, 98%, 98.8% and 94.1%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The study showed that CEUS is more accurate than US and nearly as accurate as CT, and CEUS can therefore be proposed for the initial evaluation of patients with blunt abdominal trauma.

[Mountain biking : Breezy ups and traumatic downs]

For more than two decades the popularity of mountain biking as a national pastime as well as a competitive sport has been undiminished. However, its related risks are not monitored as closely as those, for example, of skiing. The injuries caused by mountain biking are specific and cannot be compared with those caused by other cycling sports. This is due not only to the characteristics of the terrain but also to the readiness to assume a higher risk compared to cycle racing.The particular value of radiology is in the acute trauma setting. Most often musculoskeletal lesions must be examined and digital radiography and MRI are the most useful techniques. Severe trauma of the cranium, face, spine, thorax and abdomen are primarily evaluated with CT, particularly in dedicated trauma centers. Therefore, radiology can play a role in the rapid diagnosis and optimal treatment of the trauma-related injuries of mountain biking. Thus, the unnecessarily high economical damage associated with mountain biking can be avoided.