Endothelial nitric oxide synthase control mechanisms in the cutaneous vasculature of humans in vivo

Inhibition of superoxide and iNOS augment cutaneous nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation in non-Hispanic black young adults

We assessed the combined effect of superoxide and iNOS inhibition on microvascular function in non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White participants (n = 15 per group). Participants were instrumented with four microdialysis fibers: (1) lactated Ringer's (control), (2) 10 μM tempol (superoxide inhibition), (3) 0.1 mM 1400 W (iNOS inhibition), (4) tempol + 1400 W. Cutaneous vasodilation was induced via local heating and NO-dependent vasodilation was quantified. At control sites, NO-dependent vasodilation was lower in non-Hispanic Black (45 ± 9% NO) relative to non-Hispanic White (79 ± 9% NO; p < 0.01; effect size, d = 3.78) participants. Tempol (62 ± 16% NO), 1400 W (78 ± 12% NO) and tempol +1400 W (80 ± 13% NO) increased NO-dependent vasodilation in non-Hispanic Black participants relative to control sites (all p < 0.01; d = 1.22, 3.05, 3.03, respectively). The effect of 1400 W (p = 0.04, d = 1.11) and tempol +1400 W (p = 0.03, d = 1.22) was greater than tempol in non-Hispanic Black participants. There was no difference between non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White participants at 1400 W or tempol + 1400 W sites. These data suggest iNOS has a greater effect on NO-dependent vasodilation than superoxide in non-Hispanic Black participants.

Skin temperature influence on transcutaneous carbon dioxide (CO2) conductivity and skin blood flow in healthy human subjects at the arm and wrist

Objective: present transcutaneous carbon dioxide (CO2)-tcpCO2-monitors suffer from limitations which hamper their widespread use, and call for a new tcpCO2 measurement technique. However, the progress in this area is hindered by the lack of knowledge in transcutaneous CO2 diffusion. To address this knowledge gap, this study focuses on investigating the influence of skin temperature on two key skin properties: CO2 permeability and skin blood flow. Methods: a monocentric prospective exploratory study including 40 healthy adults was undertaken. Each subject experienced a 90 min visit split into five 18 min sessions at different skin temperatures-Non-Heated (NH), 35, 38, 41, and 44°C. At each temperature, custom sensors measured transcutaneous CO2 conductivity and exhalation rate at the arm and wrist, while Laser Doppler Flowmetry (LDF) assessed skin blood flow at the arm. Results: the three studied metrics sharply increased with rising skin temperature. Mean values increased from the NH situation up to 44°C from 4.03 up to 8.88 and from 2.94 up to 8.11 m·s-1 for skin conductivity, and from 80.4 up to 177.5 and from 58.7 up to 162.3 cm3·m-2·h-1 for exhalation rate at the arm and wrist, respectively. Likewise, skin blood flow increased elevenfold for the same temperature increase. Of note, all metrics already augmented significantly in the 35-38°C skin temperature range, which may be reached without active heating-i.e. only using a warm clothing. Conclusion: these results are extremely encouraging for the development of next-generation tcpCO2 sensors. Indeed, the moderate increase (× 2) in skin conductivity from NH to 44°C tends to indicate that heating the skin is not critical from a response time point of view, i.e. little to no skin heating would only result in a doubled sensor response time in the worst case, compared to a maximal heating at 44°C. Crucially, a skin temperature within the 35-38°C range already sharply increases the skin blood flow, suggesting that tcpCO2 correlates well with the arterial paCO2 even at such low skin temperatures. These two conclusions further strengthen the viability of non-heated tcpCO2 sensors, thereby paving the way for the development of wearable transcutaneous capnometers.

Impaired microvascular reactivity in patients treated with 5-fluorouracil chemotherapy regimens: Potential role of endothelial dysfunction

Background

5-fluorouracil (5-FU) is the second most common cancer chemotherapy associated with short- and long-term cardiotoxicity. Although the mechanisms mediating these toxicities are not well understood, patients often present with symptoms suggestive of microvascular dysfunction. We tested the hypotheses that patients undergoing cancer treatment with 5-FU based chemotherapy regimens would present with impaired microvascular reactivity and that these findings would be substantiated by decrements in endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) gene expression in 5-FU treated human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAEC).

Methods

We first performed a cross-sectional analysis of 30 patients undergoing 5-FU based chemotherapy treatment for cancer (5-FU) and 32 controls (CON) matched for age, sex, body mass index, and prior health history (excluding cancer). Cutaneous microvascular reactivity was evaluated by laser Doppler flowmetry in response to endothelium-dependent (local skin heating; acetylcholine iontophoresis, ACh) and -independent (sodium nitroprusside iontophoresis, SNP) stimuli. In vitro experiments in HCAEC were completed to assess the effects of 5-FU on eNOS gene expression.

Results

5-FU presented with diminished microvascular reactivity following eNOS-dependent local heating compared to CON (P = 0.001). Iontophoresis of the eNOS inhibitor L-NAME failed to alter the heating response in 5-FU (P = 0.95), despite significant reductions in CON (P = 0.03). These findings were corroborated by lower eNOS gene expression in 5-FU treated HCAEC (P < 0.01) compared to control. Peak vasodilation to ACh (P = 0.58) nor SNP (P = 0.39) were different between groups.

Conclusions

The present findings suggest diminished microvascular function along the eNOS-NO vasodilatory pathway in patients with cancer undergoing treatment with 5-FU-based chemotherapy regimens and thus, may provide insight into the underlying mechanisms of 5-FU cardiotoxicity.

Endothelin A receptor inhibition increases nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation independent of superoxide in non-Hispanic Black young adults

Young non-Hispanic Black adults have reduced microvascular endothelial function compared with non-Hispanic White counterparts, but the mechanisms are not fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of endothelin-1 A receptor (ET_AR) and superoxide on cutaneous microvascular function in young non-Hispanic Black (n = 10) and White (n = 10) adults. Participants were instrumented with four intradermal microdialysis fibers: 1) lactated Ringer's (control), 2) 500 nM BQ-123 (ET_AR antagonist), 3) 10 μM tempol (superoxide dismutase mimetic), and 4) BQ-123 + tempol. Skin blood flow was assessed via laser-Doppler flowmetry (LDF), and each site underwent rapid local heating from 33°C to 39°C. At the plateau of local heating, 20 mM l-NAME [nitric oxide (NO) synthase inhibitor] was infused to quantify NO-dependent vasodilation. Data are means ± standard deviation. NO-dependent vasodilation was decreased in non-Hispanic Black compared with non-Hispanic White young adults (P < 0.01). NO-dependent vasodilation was increased at BQ-123 sites (73 ± 10% NO) and at BQ-123 + tempol sites (71 ± 10%NO) in non-Hispanic Black young adults compared with control (53 ± 13%NO, P = 0.01). Tempol alone had no effect on NO-dependent vasodilation in non-Hispanic Black young adults (63 ± 14%NO, P = 0.18). NO-dependent vasodilation at BQ-123 sites was not statistically different between non-Hispanic Black and White (80 ± 7%NO) young adults (P = 0.15). ET_AR contributes to reduced NO-dependent vasodilation in non-Hispanic Black young adults independent of superoxide, suggesting a greater effect on NO synthesis rather than NO scavenging via superoxide.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Endothelin-1 A receptors (ET_ARs) have been shown to reduce endothelial function independently and through increased production of superoxide. We show that independent ET_AR inhibition increases microvascular endothelial function in non-Hispanic Black young adults. However, administration of a superoxide dismutase mimetic alone and in combination with ET_AR inhibition had no effect on microvascular endothelial function suggesting that, in the cutaneous microvasculature, the negative effects of ET_AR in non-Hispanic Black young adults are independent of superoxide production.

Effects of biological sex and oral contraceptive pill use on cutaneous microvascular endothelial function and nitric oxide-dependent vasodilation in humans

The purpose of this study was to evaluate in vivo endothelial function and nitric oxide (NO)-dependent vasodilation between women in either menstrual or placebo pill phases of their respective hormonal exposure [either naturally cycling (NC) or using oral contraceptive pills (OCPs)] and men. A planned subgroup analysis was then completed to assess endothelial function and NO-dependent vasodilation between NC women, women using OCP, and men. Endothelium-dependent and NO-dependent vasodilation were assessed in the cutaneous microvasculature using laser-Doppler flowmetry, a rapid local heating protocol (39°C, 0.1 °C/s), and pharmacological perfusion through intradermal microdialysis fibers. Data are represented as means ± standard deviation. Men displayed greater endothelium-dependent vasodilation (plateau, men: 71 ± 16 vs. women: 52 ± 20%CVC_max, P < 0.01), but lower NO-dependent vasodilation (men: 52 ± 11 vs. women: 63 ± 17%NO, P = 0.05) compared with all women. Subgroup analysis revealed NC women had lower endothelium-dependent vasodilation (plateau, NC women: 48 ± 21%CVC_max, P = 0.01) but similar NO-dependent vasodilation (NC women: 52 ± 14%NO, P > 0.99), compared with men. Endothelium-dependent vasodilation did not differ between women using OCP and men (P = 0.12) or NC women (P = 0.64), but NO-dependent vasodilation was significantly greater in women using OCP (74 ± 11%NO) than both NC women and men (P < 0.01 for both). This study highlights the importance of directly quantifying NO-dependent vasodilation in cutaneous microvascular studies. This study also provides important implications for experimental design and data interpretation.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study supports differences in microvascular endothelial function and nitric oxide (NO)-dependent vasodilation between women in low hormone phases of two hormonal exposures and men. However, when separated into subgroups of hormonal exposure, women during placebo pills of oral contraceptive pill (OCP) use have greater NO-dependent vasodilation than naturally cycling women in their menstrual phase and men. These data improve knowledge of sex differences and the effect of OCP use on microvascular endothelial function.

Novel Method to Assess Endothelial Function via Monitoring of Perfusion Response to Local Heating by Imaging Photoplethysmography

Endothelial dysfunction is one of the most important markers of the risk of cardiovascular complications. This study is aimed to demonstrate the feasibility of imaging photoplethysmography to assess microcirculation response to local heating in order to develop a novel technology for assessing endothelial function. As a measure of vasodilation, we used the relative dynamics of the pulsatile component of the photoplethysmographic waveform, which was assessed in a large area of the outer surface of the middle third of the subject's forearm. The perfusion response was evaluated in six healthy volunteers during a test with local skin heating up to 40-42 °C and subsequent relaxation. The proposed method is featured by accurate control of the parameters affecting the microcirculation during the prolonged study. It was found that in response to local hyperthermia, a multiple increase in the pulsation component, which has a biphasic character, was observed. The amplitude of the first phase of the perfusion reaction depends on both the initial skin temperature and the difference between the basal and heating temperatures. The proposed method allows the assessment of a reproducible perfusion increase in response to hyperthermia developed due to humoral factors associated with the endothelium, thus allowing detection of its dysfunction.

Women with a history of preeclampsia have preserved sensory nerve-mediated dilatation in the cutaneous microvasculature

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? Are sensory nerve-mediated vasodilatation and the NO-dependent contribution to that response attenuated in the cutaneous microvasculature of women who have had preeclampsia? What is the main finding and its importance? Women who have had preeclampsia demonstrate attenuated microvascular endothelium-dependent dilatation compared to women with a history of uncomplicated pregnancy. However, there are no differences in sensory nerve-mediated vasodilatation between groups. This suggests that the neurogenic response is not altered following preeclampsia, and that the NO-dependent vasodilatation of the neurogenic response is not related to endothelium-dependent NO-mediated dilatation in these women.

ABSTRACT

Women who have had preeclampsia (PE) demonstrate microvascular endothelial dysfunction, mediated in part by reduced nitric oxide (NO)-dependent mechanisms. Localized heating of the skin induces a biphasic vasodilatation response: a sensory nerve-mediated initial peak, followed by a sustained endothelium-dependent plateau. We have previously shown that the endothelium-dependent plateau is attenuated in PE. However, it is unknown if the sensory nerve-mediated initial peak is similarly attenuated. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of PE history on sensory nerve-mediated vasodilatation and the NO-dependent contribution to that response. We hypothesized that PE would have an attenuated initial peak and a reduced NO-dependent contribution to that response compared to women with a history of normotensive pregnancy (healthy controls, HC). Nine HC (31 ± 4 years) and nine PE (28 ± 6 years) underwent a standard local heating protocol (42°C; 0.1°C s^-1 ). Two intradermal microdialysis fibres were placed in the skin of the ventral forearm for the continuous local delivery of lactated Ringer solution alone (control) or 15-mM N^G -nitro-l-arginine methyl ester for nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibition. Red blood cell flux was measured at each site by laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF). Cutaneous vascular conductance was calculated (CVC = LDF/mean arterial pressure) and normalized to maximum (%CVC_max ; 28-mM SNP + local heat 43°C). There were no differences in the initial peak between groups (HC: 79 ± 8 vs. PE: 80 ± 10%CVC_max ; P = 0.936). NOS inhibition attenuated the initial peak in both HC (57 ± 18% CVC_max ; P = 0.003) and PE (54 ± 10%CVC_max ; P = 0.002). However, there were no differences in the NO-dependent portion of the initial peak (HC: 23 ± 16 vs. PE: 24 ± 9%; P = 0.777). The local heating plateau (HC: 99 ± 4 vs. PE: 88 ± 7%CVC_max ; P = 0.001) and NO contribution to the plateau (HC: 31 ± 9 vs. PE: 17 ± 14%; P = 0.02) were attenuated in PE. There was no relation between NO-dependent dilatation in the initial peak and NO-dependent dilatation in the plateau across groups (R²  = 0.005; P = 0.943). Women who have had PE demonstrate attenuated microvascular endothelium-dependent dilatation. However, there are no differences in sensory nerve-mediated vasodilatation following PE, suggesting that the NO-dependent vasodilatation of the neurogenic response is not related to endothelium-dependent NO-mediated dilatation in these women.

Low-frequency oscillations of murine skin microcirculations and periodic changes of [Ca2+ ]i and [NO]i levels in murine endotheliocytes: An effect of provocative tests

The five frequency intervals of skin blood oscillation were described: cardiac, respiratory, myogenic, neurogenic, and endothelial. The endothelial interval is derived into NO-independent and NO-dependent. The exact molecular, cell, or systemic mechanisms of endothelial oscillations generation are unclear. We proposed that oscillations of Ca²⁺ and NO in endotheliocytes may be possible sources of skin blood perfusion (SBP) oscillations in endothelial interval. To examine our hypothesis we compared the oscillations of cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ and NO ([Ca²⁺ ]_i and [NO]_i ) concentration in cultured murine microvascular endotheliocytes and SBP oscillations in mice. Local heating test and model hypoxia were used as tools to evaluate an interconnection of studied parameters. [Ca²⁺ ]_i and [NO]_i were measured simultaneously by Fura-2 AM and DAF-FM. The SBP was measured by laser Doppler flowmetry. The [Ca²⁺ ]_i and [NO]_i oscillations at 0.005-0.01 Hz were observed in endotheliocytes, that coincides the ranges of NO-independent endothelial interval. Heating decreased amplitude of [Ca²⁺ ]_i and [NO]_i oscillations in cells in NO-independent endothelial interval, while amplitudes of SBP oscillations increased in NO-independent and NO-dependent intervals. Hypoxia reduced the [NO]_i oscillations amplitude. Heating test during hypoxia increased NO-independent endothelial SBP oscillations and decreased myogenic ones, did not effect on [NO]_i oscillations, and shifted [Ca²⁺ ]_i oscillations peak from 0.005-0.01 Hz to 0.01-0.018 Hz. We observed the [Ca²⁺ ]_i and [NO]_i oscillations synchronization within a cell and between cells for the first time. Heating abolished these synchronizations. Therefore low-frequency [Ca²⁺ ]_i and [NO]_i oscillations in endotheliocytes may be considered as modulators of low-frequency endothelial SBP oscillations.

TRPA1 channel activation with cinnamaldehyde induces cutaneous vasodilation through NOS, but not COX and KCa channel, mechanisms in humans

ABSTRACT

Transient receptor potential ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) channel activation induces cutaneous vasodilation in humans in vivo. However, the mechanisms underlying this response remains equivocal. We hypothesized that nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS) and Ca2+ activated K+ (KCa) channels contribute to the TRPA1 channel-induced cutaneous vasodilation with no involvement of cyclooxygenase (COX). Cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) in 9 healthy young adults was assessed at four dorsal forearm skin sites treated by intradermal microdialysis with either: 1) vehicle control (98% propylene glycol + 1.985% dimethyl sulfoxide + 0.015% lactated Ringer solution), 2) 10 mM L-NAME, a non-selective NOS inhibitor, 3) 10 mM ketorolac, a non-selective COX inhibitor, or 4) 50 mM tetraethylammonium, a non-selective KCa channel blocker. Cinnamaldehyde, a TRPA1 channel activator, was administered to each skin site in a dose-dependent manner (2.9, 8.8, 26 and 80 %, each lasting ≥30min). Administration of ≥8.8% cinnamaldehyde increased CVC from baseline at the vehicle control site by as much as 27.4% [95 % confidence interval of 5.3] (P<0.001). NOS inhibitor attenuated the cinnamaldehyde induced-increases in CVC at the 8.8, 26.0, and 80.0% concentrations relative to the vehicle control site (all P≤0.05). In contrast, both the COX inhibitor and KCa channel blockers did not attenuate the cinnamaldehyde induced-increases in CVC relative to the vehicle control site for all concentrations (all P≥0.130). We conclude that in human skin in vivo, NOS plays a role in modulating the regulation of cutaneous vasodilation in response to TRPA1 channel activation with no detectable contributions of COX and KCa channels.

ETB receptor-mediated vasodilation is regulated by estradiol in young women

The endothelin-B (ET_B) receptor is a key regulator of vascular endothelial function in women. We have previously shown that the ET_B receptor mediates vasodilation in young women, an effect that is lost after menopause. However, the direct impact of changes in estradiol (E₂) on ET_B receptor function in women remains unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that E₂ exposure modulates ET_B receptor-mediated dilation in young women. Fifteen young women (24 ± 4 yr, 24 ± 3 kg/m²) completed the study. Endogenous sex hormone production was suppressed with daily administration of a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist (GnRHant; Ganirelix) for 10 days; E₂ (0.1 mg/day, Vivelle-Dot patch) was added back on days 4-10. We measured vasodilation in the cutaneous microcirculation (microvascular endothelial function) via local heating (42°C) on day 4 (GnRHant) and day 10 (GnRHant + E₂) using laser Doppler flowmetry coupled with intradermal microdialysis during perfusions of lactated Ringer's (control) and ET_B receptor antagonist (BQ-788, 300 nM). During GnRHant, vasodilatory responses to local heating were enhanced with ET_B receptor blockade (control: 83 ± 9 vs. BQ-788: 90 ± 5%CVC_max, P = 0.004). E₂ administration improved vasodilation in the control site (GnRHant: 83 ± 9 vs. GnRHant + E₂: 89 ± 8%CVC_max, P = 0.036). Furthermore, cutaneous vasodilatory responses during ET_B receptor blockade were blunted after E₂ administration (control: 89 ± 8 vs. BQ-788: 84 ± 8%CVC_max, P = 0.047). These data demonstrate that ovarian hormones, specifically E₂, modulate ET_B receptor function and contribute to the regulation of microvascular endothelial function in young women.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The endothelin-B (ETB) receptor mediates vasodilation in young women, an effect lost following menopause. It is unclear whether these alterations are due to aging or changes in estradiol (E2). During endogenous hormone suppression (GnRH antagonist), blockade of ETB receptors enhanced cutaneous microvascular vasodilation. However, during E2 administration, blockade of ETB receptors attenuated vasodilation, indicating that the ETB receptor mediates dilation in the presence of E2. In young women, ETB receptors mediate vasodilation in the presence of E2, an effect that is lost when E2 is suppressed.

The effects of different accumulated pressure-time integral stimuli on plantar blood flow in people with diabetes mellitus

Background

Exercise, especially weight-bearing exercise (e.g. walking), may affect plantar tissue viability due to prolonged repetitive high vertical and high shear pressure stimulus on the plantar tissue, and further induce development of diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs). This study aimed to investigate the effects of different accumulated pressure-time integral (APTI) stimuli induced by walking on plantar skin blood flow (SBF) responses in people with diabetes mellitus (DM).

Methods

A repeated measures design was used in this study. Two walking protocols (low APTI (73,000 kPa·s) and high APTI (73,000 × 1.5 kPa·s)) were randomly assigned to ten people with DM and twenty people without DM. The ratio of SBF measured by laser Doppler flowmetry after walking to that before (normalized SBF) was used to express the SBF responses.

Results

After low APTI, plantar SBF of people with DM showed a similar response to people without DM (P = 0.91). However, after high APTI, people with DM had a significantly lower plantar SBF compared to people without DM (P < 0.05). In people with DM, plantar SBF in the first 2 min after both APTI stimuli significantly decreased compared to plantar SBF before walking (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

People with DM had a normal SBF response after low APTI walking but had an impaired SBF response after high APTI walking, which suggests that they should avoid weight-bearing physical activity with intensity more than 73,000 kPa·s and should rest for more than 2 min after weight-bearing physical activity to allow a full vasodilatory response to reduce risk of DFUs.

Evaluation of sympathetic adrenergic branch of cutaneous neural control throughout thermography and its relationship to nitric oxide levels in patients with fibromyalgia

BACKGROUND

Fibromyalgia syndrome is defined as a complex disease, characterized by chronic widespread musculoskeletal pain and other symptoms. The factors underlying physiopathology of fibromyalgia are not well understood, complicating its diagnosis and management.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the peripheral vascular blood flow of the skin of the hands and the core body temperature as indirect measures of sympathetic adrenergic activity of the nervous system and its relationship to nitric oxide levels (NO) in women with fibromyalgia compared with healthy controls.

METHODS

Forty-two women with fibromyalgia and 52 healthy women were enrolled in this observational pilot study. We used infrared thermography of the hands and an infrared dermal thermometer to evaluate the peripheral vascular blood flow and tympanic and axillary core body temperature, respectively. We measured NO levels using the ozone chemiluminescence-based method.

RESULTS

Two-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed that the tympanic (P=0.002) and hand temperatures were significantly higher in the patients with fibromyalgia than in the controls (P≤0.001). Significant associations were also found between serum NO levels and minimum temperatures at the dorsal center of the dominant hand (β=-3.501; 95% confidence interval [CI] -6.805, ‑0.198; P= 0.038), maximum temperature (β=-5.594; 95% CI ‑10.106, ‑1.081; P=0.016), minimum temperature (β=-4.090; 95% CI ‑7.905, ‑0.275; P=0.036), and mean temperature (β=-5.519; 95% CI ‑9.933, ‑1.106; P=0.015) of the center of the palm of the non-dominant hand, maximum temperature at the thenar eminence of the dominant hand (β=-5.800; 95% CI ‑10.508, ‑1.092; P=0.017), and tympanic temperature (β=-9.321; 95% CI ‑17.974, ‑0.669; P=0.035) in the controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the women with fibromyalgia showed higher tympanic core body and hand temperature than the healthy controls. Moreover, there were negative associations between hand peripheral vasodilation and NO in the healthy women but not in those with fibromyalgia, suggesting a dysfunction of sympathetic cutaneous neural control.

Inhibition of iNOS augments cutaneous endothelial NO-dependent vasodilation in prehypertensive non-Hispanic Whites and in non-Hispanic Blacks

We tested the hypothesis that inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) contributes to reduced nitric oxide (NO)-dependent vasodilation in non-Hispanic Blacks and prehypertensive non-Hispanic Whites. Twenty Black and twenty White participants (10 normotensive, 10 prehypertensive per group; n = 40 total) participated in this study. Participants were instrumented with two microdialysis fibers, and each site was randomized as control (lactated Ringer) or iNOS inhibition (0.1 mM 1400W). Laser-Doppler flow probes and local heaters were used to measure skin blood flow and heat the skin to induce vasodilation, respectively. Each site was heated from 33°C to 39°C (rate: 0.1°C/s). Once a plateau was established, 20 mM nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), a nonspecific NOS inhibitor, was infused at each site to quantify NO-dependent vasodilation. At control sites, %NO-dependent vasodilation was reduced in prehypertensive Whites (47 ± 10%NO) and in both normotensive and prehypertensive Blacks (39 ± 9%NO and 28 ± 5%NO, respectively) relative to normotensive Whites (73 ± 8%NO; P < 0.0001 for all comparisons). Compared with respective control sites, iNOS inhibition increased NO-dependent vasodilation in prehypertensive Whites (68 ± 8%NO) and in both normotensive and prehypertensive Blacks (78 ± 8%NO and 55 ± 6%NO, respectively; P < 0.0001 for all comparisons). We failed to find an effect for normotensive Whites (77 ± 7%NO). After iNOS inhibition, %NO-dependent vasodilation was similar between normotensive Whites, prehypertensive Whites, and normotensive Blacks. Inhibition of iNOS increased NO-dependent vasodilation to a lesser extent in prehypertensive Blacks. These data suggest that iNOS contributes to reduced NO-dependent vasodilation in prehypertension and in Black participants.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is typically upregulated in conditions of increased oxidative stress and may have detrimental effects on the vasculature. Endothelial nitric oxide (NO), which is cardioprotective, is reduced in prehypertensive non-Hispanic Whites and in non-Hispanic Blacks. We found that inhibition of iNOS can increase endothelial NO-dependent vasodilation in prehypertensive White participants and in both normotensive and prehypertensive Black participants.Inducible nitric oxide (NO) synthase (iNOS) can be upregulated under conditions of increased oxidative stress and may have detrimental effects on the vasculature. Endothelial NO, which is cardioprotective, is reduced in prehypertensive non-Hispanic Whites and in non-Hispanic Blacks. We found that inhibition of iNOS can increase endothelial NO-dependent vasodilation in prehypertensive White participants and in both normotensive and prehypertensive Black participants.

Heat shock protein 90 modulates cutaneous vasodilation during an exercise-heat stress, but not during passive whole-body heating in young women

Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) modulates exercise-induced cutaneous vasodilation in young men via nitric oxide synthase (NOS), but only when core temperature is elevated ~1.0°C. While less is known about modulation of this heat loss response in women during exercise, sex differences may exist. Further, the mechanisms regulating cutaneous vasodilation can differ between exercise- and passive-heat stress. Therefore, in 11 young women (23 ± 3 years), we evaluated whether HSP90 contributes to NOS-dependent cutaneous vasodilation during exercise (Protocol 1) and passive heating (Protocol 2) and directly compared responses between end-exercise and a matched core temperature elevation during passive heating. Cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC%max ) was measured at four forearm skin sites continuously treated with (a) lactated Ringers solution (control), (b) 178 μM Geldanamycin (HSP90 inhibitor), (c) 10 mM L-NAME (NOS inhibitor), or (d) combined 178 μM Geldanamycin and 10 mM L-NAME. Participants completed both protocols during the early follicular (low hormone) phase of the menstrual cycle (0-7 days). Protocol 1: participants rested in the heat (35°C) for 70 min and then performed 50 min of moderate-intensity cycling (~55% VO2peak ) followed by 30 min of recovery. Protocol 2: participants were passively heated to increase rectal temperature by 1.0°C, comparable to end-exercise. HSP90 inhibition attenuated CVC%max relative to control at end-exercise (p < .05), but not during passive heating. While NOS inhibition and combined HSP90 + NOS inhibition attenuated CVC%max relative to control for both protocols (all p < .05), they did not differ from each other. We show that HSP90 modulates cutaneous vasodilation NOS-dependently during exercise in young women, with no effect during passive heating, despite a similar NOS contribution.

Sensory nerve-mediated and nitric oxide-dependent cutaneous vasodilation in normotensive and prehypertensive non-Hispanic blacks and whites

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of race and subclinical elevations in blood pressure (i.e., prehypertension) on cutaneous sensory nerve-mediated and nitric oxide (NO)-dependent vasodilation. We recruited participants who self-identified as either non-Hispanic black (n = 16) or non-Hispanic white (n = 16). Within each group, participants were subdivided as either normotensive (n = 8 per group) or prehypertensive (n = 8 per group). Each participant was instrumented with four intradermal microdialysis fibers: 1) control (lactated Ringer's), 2) 5% lidocaine (sensory nerve inhibition), 3) 20 mM N^ω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME) (NO synthase inhibition), and 4) lidocaine + l-NAME. Skin blood flow was assessed via laser-Doppler flowmetry, and each site underwent local heating from 33°C to 39°C. At the plateau, 20 mM l-NAME were infused at control and lidocaine sites to quantify NO-dependent vasodilation. Maximal vasodilation was induced via 54 mM sodium nitroprusside and local heating to 43°C. Data are means ± SD. Sensory nerve-mediated cutaneous vasodilation was reduced in prehypertensive non-Hispanic white (34 ± 7%) and both non-Hispanic black groups (normotensive, 20 ± 9%, prehypertensive, 24 ± 15%) relative to normotensive non-Hispanic whites (54 ± 12%). NO-dependent vasodilation was also reduced in prehypertensive non-Hispanic white (41 ± 7%) and both non-Hispanic black groups (normotensive, 44 ± 7%, prehypertensive, 19 ± 7%) relative to normotensive non-Hispanic whites (60 ± 11%). The decrease in NO-dependent vasodilation in prehypertensive non-Hispanic blacks was further reduced relative to all other groups. These data suggest subclinical increases in blood pressure adversely affect sensory-mediated and NO-dependent vasodilation in both non-Hispanic blacks and whites.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Overt hypertension is known to reduce cutaneous sensory nerve-mediated and nitric oxide (NO)-dependent vasodilation, but the effect of subclinical increases in blood pressure (i.e., prehypertension) is unknown. The combined effect of race and prehypertension is also unknown. In this study, we found that prehypertension reduces cutaneous sensory nerve-mediated and NO-dependent vasodilation in both non-Hispanic white and black populations, with the greatest reductions observed in prehypertensive non-Hispanic blacks.

Nitric oxide: To be or not to be an endocrine hormone?

Nitric oxide (NO), a highly reactive gasotransmitter, is critical for a number of cellular processes and has multiple biological functions. Due to its limited lifetime and diffusion distance, NO has been mainly believed to act in autocrine/paracrine fashion. The increasingly recognized effects of pharmacologically delivered and endogenous NO at a distant site have changed the conventional wisdom and introduced NO as an endocrine signalling molecule. The notion is greatly supported by the detection of a number of NO adducts and their circulatory cycles, which in turn contribute to the transport and delivery of NO bioactivity, remote from the sites of its synthesis. The existence of endocrine sites of synthesis, negative feedback regulation of biosynthesis, integrated storage and transport systems, having an exclusive receptor, that is, soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), and organized circadian rhythmicity make NO something beyond a simple autocrine/paracrine signalling molecule that could qualify for being an endocrine signalling molecule. Here, we discuss hormonal features of NO from the classical endocrine point of view and review available knowledge supporting NO as a true endocrine hormone. This new insight can provide a new framework within which to reinterpret NO biology and its clinical applications.

Dietary supplementation with New Zealand blackcurrant extract enhances fat oxidation during submaximal exercise in the heat

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated the effect of 7 days' supplementation with New Zealand blackcurrant extract on thermoregulation and substrate metabolism during running in the heat.

DESIGN

Randomized, double-blind, cross-over study.

METHODS

Twelve men and six women (mean±SD: Age 27±6 years, height 1.76±0.10m, mass 74±12kg, V̇O_2max 53.4±7.0mLkg^-1min^-1) completed one assessment of maximal aerobic capacity and one familiarisation trial (18°C, 40% relative humidity, RH), before ingesting 2×300mgday^-1 capsules of CurraNZ™ (each containing 105mg anthocyanin) or a visually matched placebo (2×300mg microcrystalline cellulose M102) for 7 days (washout 14 days). On day 7 of each supplementation period, participants completed 60min of fasted running at 65% V̇O_2max in hot ambient conditions (34°C and 40% relative humidity).

RESULTS

Carbohydrate oxidation was decreased in the NZBC trial [by 0.24gmin^-1 (95% CI: 0.21-0.27gmin^-1)] compared to placebo (p= 0.014, d=0.46), and fat oxidation was increased in the NZBC trial [by 0.12gmin^-1 (95% CI: 0.10 to 0.15gmin^-1)], compared to placebo (p=0.008, d=0.57). NZBC did not influence heart rate (p=0.963), rectal temperature (p=0.380), skin temperature (p=0.955), body temperature (p=0.214) or physiological strain index (p=0.705) during exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

Seven-days intake of 600mg NZBC extract increased fat oxidation without influencing cardiorespiratory or thermoregulatory variables during prolonged moderate intensity running in hot conditions.

Myofascial Trigger Points Therapy Modifies Thermal Map of Gluteal Region

Background

Thermal imaging may be effectively used in musculoskeletal system diagnostics and therapy evaluation; thus, it may be successfully applied in myofascial trigger points assessment.

Objective

Investigation of thermal pattern changes after myofascial trigger points progressive compression therapy in healthy males and females.

Methods

The study included 30 healthy people (15 females and 15 males) with age range 19–34 years (mean age: 23.1 ± 4.21). Thermograms of myofascial trigger points were taken pre- and posttherapy and consecutively in the 15^th and 30^th minutes. Pain reproducible by palpation intensity was assessed with numeric rating scale.

Results

Progressive compression therapy leads to myofascial trigger points temperature (p=0.02) and surface (p=0.02) and surface (p=0.02) and surface (p=0.02) and surface (

Conclusions

The study indicates that myofascial trigger points reaction to applied therapy spreads in time and space and depends on participants' sex.

Historical reviews of the assessment of human cardiovascular function: interrogation and understanding of the control of skin blood flow

Several techniques exist for the determination of skin blood flow that have historically been used in the investigation of thermoregulatory control of skin blood flow, and more recently, in clinical assessments or as an index of global vascular function. Skin blood flow measurement techniques differ in their methodology and their strengths and limitations. To examine the historical development of techniques for assessing skin blood flow by describing the origin, basic principles, and important aspects of each procedure and to provide recommendations for best practise. Venous occlusion plethysmography was one of the earliest techniques to intermittently index a limb’s skin blood flow under conditions in which local muscle blood flow does not change. The introduction of laser Doppler flowmetry provided a method that continuously records an index of skin blood flow (red cell flux) (albeit from a relatively small skin area) that requires normalisation due to high site-to-site variability. The subsequent development of laser Doppler and laser speckle imaging techniques allows the mapping of skin blood flow from larger surface areas and the visualisation of capillary filling from the dermal plexus in two dimensions. The use of iontophoresis or intradermal microdialysis in conjunction with laser Doppler methods allows for the local delivery of pharmacological agents to interrogate the local and neural control of skin blood flow. The recent development of optical coherence tomography promises further advances in assessment of the skin circulation via three-dimensional imaging of the skin microvasculature for quantification of vessel diameter and vessel recruitment.

Noninvasive assessment of increases in microvascular endothelial function following repeated bouts of hyperaemia

OBJECTIVE

Spectral analyses of laser-Doppler signal can delineate underlying mechanisms in response to pharmacological agents and in cross-sectional studies of healthy and clinical populations. We tested whether spectral analyses can detect acute changes in endothelial function in response to a 6-week intervention of repeated bouts of hyperaemia.

METHODS

Eleven males performed forearm occlusion (5 s with 10 s rest) for 30 min, 5 times/week for 6 weeks on one arm; the other was an untreated control. Skin blood flow was measured using laser-Doppler fluxmetry (LDF), and endothelial function was assessed with and without nitric oxide (NO) synthase-inhibition with L-NAME in response to local heating (42 °C and 44 °C) and acetylcholine. A wavelet transform was used for spectral analysis of frequency intervals associated with physiological functions.

RESULTS

Basal measures were all unaffected by the hyperaemia intervention (all P > 0.05). In response to local skin heating to 42 °C, the 6 weeks hyperaemia intervention increased LDF, endothelial NO-independent and NO-dependent activity (all P ≤ 0.038). In response to peak local heating (44 °C) endothelial NO-independent and NO-dependent activity increased (both P ≤ 0.01); however, LDF did not (P > 0.2). In response to acetylcholine, LDF, endothelial NO-independent and NO-dependent activity all increased (all P ≤ 0.003) post-intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Spectral analysis appears sufficiently sensitive to measure changes over time in cutaneous endothelial activity that are consistent with standard physiological (local heating) and pharmacological (acetylcholine) interventions of assessing cutaneous endothelial function, and may be useful not only in research but also clinical diagnosis and treatment.

The reliability of cutaneous low-frequency oscillations in young healthy males

OBJECTIVE

Spectral analyses of laser-Doppler flowmetry measures enable a simple and non-invasive method to investigate mechanisms regulating skin blood flow. We assessed within-day and day-to-day variability of cutaneous spectral analyses.

METHODS

Eleven young, healthy males were tested twice in three identical sessions, with 19 to 24 days between visits, for a total of six tests. Wavelet data were analyzed at rest, in response to local skin heating to 42 and 44°C, and during 5-minutes PORH. We did this for six frequency bands commonly associated with physiological functions. To assess reliability, we calculated CV and ICC scores.

RESULTS

At rest, mean CV for the wavelet data ranged from 21% to 24% and ICC scores ranged from 0.67 to 0.91. During local heating, mean CV scores ranged from 17% to 22% and mean ICC scores ranged from 0.71 to 0.95. For peak PORH, CV ranged from 14% to 23% and the ICC range was 0.88 to 0.97. For the area under the curve of the PORH, CV range was 12% to 21% and ICC range was 0.81 to 0.92.

CONCLUSIONS

These analyses indicate good-to-excellent reliability of the wavelet data in healthy young males.

Cutaneous vasomotor responses in boys and men

Few studies have investigated skin blood flow in children and age-related differences in the underlying mechanisms. We examined mechanisms of skin blood flow responses to local heating, postocclusive reactive hyperaemia (PORH), and isometric handgrip exercise in adult and prepubescent males, hypothesizing that skin blood flow responses would be greater in children compared with adults. We measured skin blood flow in 12 boys (age, 9 ± 1 years) and 12 men (age, 21 ± 1 years) using laser-Doppler flowmetry at rest, in response to 3-min PORH, 2-min isometric handgrip exercise, and local skin heating to 39 °C (submaximal) and 44 °C (maximal). Using wavelet analysis we assessed endothelial, neural, and myogenic activities. At rest and in response to local heating to 39 °C, children had higher skin blood flow and endothelial activity compared with men (d ≥ 1.1, p < 0.001) and similar neurogenic and myogenic activities (d < 0.2, p > 0.05). Maximal responses to 44 °C local skin heating, PORH, and isometric handgrip exercise did not differ between boys and men (all d ≤ 0.2, p > 0.05). During PORH children demonstrated greater endothelial activity compared with men (d ≥ 0.6, p < 0.05); in contrast, men had higher neurogenic activity (d = 1.0, p < 0.01). During isometric handgrip exercise there were no differences in endothelial, neurogenic, and myogenic activities (d < 0.2, p > 0.3), with boys and men demonstrating similar increases in endothelial activity and decreases in myogenic activity (d ≥ 0.8, p < 0.05). These data suggest that boys experience greater levels of skin blood flow at rest and in response to submaximal local heating compared with men, while maximal responses appear to be similar. Additionally, endothelial mediators seem to contribute more to vasodilatation in boys than in men.

Blood pressure normalization via pharmacotherapy improves cutaneous microvascular function through NO-dependent and NO-independent mechanisms

Hypertension is associated with endothelial dysfunction and vascular remodeling.

OBJECTIVE

To assess effects of antihypertensive pharmacotherapy on eNOS- and iNOS-dependent mechanisms and maximal vasodilator capacity in the cutaneous microvasculature.

METHODS

Intradermal microdialysis fibers were placed in 15 normotensive (SBP 111±2 mm Hg), 12 unmedicated hypertensive (SBP 142±2 mm Hg), and 12 medicated hypertensive (SBP 120±2 mm Hg) subjects. Treatments were control, iNOS-inhibited (1400w), and NOS-inhibited (l-NAME). Red cell flux, measured during local heating (42°C) and ACh dose-response protocols, was normalized to CVC (flux MAP^-1 ) and a percentage of maximal vasodilation (%CVC_max ).

RESULTS

Compared to normotensives, ACh-mediated vasodilation was attenuated in the hypertensive (P<.001), but not in medicated subjects (P=.83). NOS inhibition attenuated ACh-mediated vasodilation in normotensives compared to hypertensive (P<.001) and medicated (P<.001) subjects. With iNOS inhibition, there was no difference in ACh-mediated vasodilation between groups. Compared to the normotensives, local heat-induced vasodilation was attenuated in the hypertensives (P<.001), but iNOS inhibition augmented vasodilation in the hypertensives so this attenuation was abolished (P=.31). Compared to normotensives, maximal vasodilator capacity was reduced in the hypertensive (P=.014) and medicated subjects (P=.004).

CONCLUSIONS

In the cutaneous microvasculature, antihypertensive pharmacotherapy improved endothelial function through NO-dependent and NO-independent mechanisms, but did not improve maximal vasodilator capacity.

Attenuated cutaneous microvascular function in healthy young African Americans: Role of intradermal l-arginine supplementation

It has been established that endothelial function in conduit vessels is reduced in young African Americans (AA) relative to Caucasian Americans (CA). However, less is known regarding endothelial function in microvasculature of young AA. We hypothesized that microvascular function in response to local heating of skin is attenuated in young AA relative to age-matched CA due largely to the lack of NO bioavailability, which is in turn improved by intradermal l-arginine supplementation and/or inhibition of arginase. Nine AA and nine CA adults participated in this study. Participants were instrumented with four microdialysis membranes in the cutaneous vasculature of one forearm and were randomly assigned to receive 1) lactated Ringer's solution as a control site; 2) 20 mM NG-nitro-l-arginine (l-NAME) to inhibit NO synthase activity; 3) 10 mM l-arginine to local supplement l-arginine; or 4) a combination of 5.0 mM (S)-(2‑boronoethyl)-l-cysteine-HCL (BEC) and 5.0 mM Nω-hydroxy-nor-l-arginine (nor-NOHA) at a rate of 2.0 μl/min to locally inhibit arginase activity. Cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) was calculated as red blood cell flux divided by mean arterial pressure. All CVC data were presented as a percentage of maximal CVC (%CVCmax) that was determined by maximal cutaneous vasodilation induced by 44 °C heating plus sodium nitroprusside administration. The response during the 42 °C local heating plateau was blunted in the AA at the control site (CA: 84 ± 12 vs. AA: 62 ± 6 vs. %CVCmax; P < 0.001). This response was improved in AA at the l-arginine site (Control: 62 ± 6 vs. l-arginine: 70 ± 18%CVCmax; P < 0.05) but not in the arginase inhibited site (Control: 62 ± 6 vs. Arginase inhibited: 62 ± 13%CVCmax; P = 0.91). In addition, the AA group had an attenuated NO contribution to the plateau phase during 42 °C local heating relative to the CA group (CA: 56 ± 14 vs. AA: 44 ± 6 Δ %CVCmax; P < 0.001). These findings suggest that 1) cutaneous microvascular function in response to local heating is blunted in young AA when compared to age-matched young CA; 2) this attenuated response is partly related to decrease in NO bioavailability in young AA; and 3) a local infusion of l-arginine, but not arginase inhibition, improves cutaneous microvascular responses to local heating in young AA relative to CA.

Skin vasoconstriction as a heat conservation thermoeffector

Cold exposure stimulates heat production and conservation to protect internal temperature. Heat conservation is brought about via reductions in skin blood flow. The focus, here, is an exploration of the mechanisms, particularly in humans, leading to that cutaneous vasoconstriction. Local skin cooling has several effects: (1) reduction of tonic nitric oxide formation by inhibiting nitric oxide synthase and element(s) downstream of the enzyme, which removes tonic vasodilator effects, yielding a relative vasoconstriction; (2) translocation of intracellular alpha-2c adrenoceptors to the vascular smooth-muscle cell membrane, enhancing adrenergic vasoconstriction; (3) increased norepinephrine release from vasoconstrictor nerves; and (4) cold-induced vasodilation, seen more clearly in anastomoses-rich glabrous skin. Cold-induced vasodilation occurs in nonglabrous skin when nitric oxide synthase or sympathetic function is blocked. Reflex responses to general body cooling complement these local effects. Sympathetic excitation leads to the increased release of norepinephrine and its cotransmitter neuropeptide Y, each of which contributes significantly to the vasoconstriction. The contributions of these two transmitters vary with aging, disease and, in women, reproductive hormone status. Interaction between local and reflex mechanisms is in part through effects on baseline and in part through removal of the inhibitory effects of nitric oxide on adrenergic vasoconstriction.

Role of mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species in microvascular dysfunction in chronic kidney disease

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of mortality in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Mitochondrial dysfunction secondary to CKD is a potential source of oxidative stress that may impair vascular function. This study sought to determine if mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species contribute to microvascular dysfunction in stage 3-5 CKD. Cutaneous vasodilation in response to local heating was assessed in 20 CKD patients [60 ± 13 yr; estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) 46 ± 13 ml·kg^-1·1.73 m^-2] and 11 matched healthy participants (58 ± 2 yr; eGFR >90 ml·kg^-1·1.73 m^-2). Participants were instrumented with two microdialysis fibers for the delivery of 1) Ringer solution, and 2) the mitochondria- specific superoxide scavenger MitoTempo. Skin blood flow was measured via laser Doppler flowmetry during standardized local heating (42°C). Cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) was calculated as a percentage of the maximum conductance achieved with sodium nitroprusside infusion at 43°C. Urinary isofuran/F₂-isoprostane ratios were assessed by gas-chromatography mass spectroscopy. Isofuran-to-F₂-isoprostane ratios were increased in CKD patients (3.08 ± 0.32 vs. 1.69 ± 0.12 arbitrary units; P < 0.01) indicative of mitochondria-derived oxidative stress. Cutaneous vasodilation was impaired in CKD compared with healthy controls (87 ± 1 vs. 92 ± 1%CVC_max; P < 0.01). Infusion of MitoTempo significantly increased the plateau phase CVC in CKD patients (CKD Ringer vs. CKD MitoTempo: 87 ± 1 vs. 93 ± 1%CVC_max; P < 0.01) to similar levels observed in healthy controls ( P = 0.9). These data provide in vivo evidence that mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species contribute to microvascular dysfunction in CKD and suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction may be a potential therapeutic target to improve CKD-related vascular dysfunction.

Effects of dietary nitrate supplementation on the response to extremity cooling and endothelial function in individuals with cold sensitivity. A double blind, placebo controlled, crossover, randomised control trial

Individuals with cold sensitivity have low peripheral skin blood flow and skin temperature possibly due to reduced nitric oxide (NO•) bioavailability. Beetroot has a high concentration of inorganic nitrate and may increase NO-mediated vasodilation. Using a placebo-controlled, double blind, randomised, crossover design, this study tested the hypotheses that acute beetroot supplementation would increase the rate of cutaneous rewarming following a local cold challenge and augment endothelium-dependent vasodilation in cold sensitive individuals. Thirteen cold sensitive participants completed foot and hand cooling (separately, in 15 °C water for 2 min) with spontaneous rewarming in 30 °C air whilst skin temperature and cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) were measured (Baseline). On two further separate visits, participants consumed 140 ml of either concentrated beetroot juice (nitrate supplementation) or nitrate-depleted beetroot juice (Placebo) 90 min before resting seated blood pressure was measured. Endothelial function was assessed by measuring CVC at the forearm, finger and foot during iontophoresis of 1% w/v acetylcholine followed by foot and hand cooling as for Baseline. Plasma nitrite concentrations significantly increased in nitrate supplementation compared to Placebo and Baseline (502 ± 246 nmol L^-1; 73 ± 45 nmol L^-1; 74 ± 49 nmol L^-1 respectively; n = 11; P < 0.001). Resting blood pressure and the response to foot and hand cooling did not differ between conditions (all P > 0.05). Nitrate supplementation did not alter endothelial function in the forearm, finger or foot (all P > 0.05) compared to Placebo. Despite a physiologically meaningful rise in plasma nitrite concentrations, acute nitrate supplementation does not alter extremity rewarming, endothelial function or blood pressure in individuals with cold sensitivity.

Prospects of Laser Doppler flowmetry application in assessment of skin microcirculation in diabetes

This review includes results of scientific and clinical use of laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) in patients with diabetes mellitus. LDF is a non-invasive method for the quantitative evaluation of microcirculation, which can assess microcirculatory rhythms and conduct functional tests with various impacts, allowing the exploration of regulatory mechanisms of microcirculation. LDF reveals specific diabetes changes in the regulatory function of microcirculation. Microcirculation disturbances, which are traditionally associated with the pathogenesis of complications, also occur in patients with early disorders of carbohydrate metabolism and may precede the manifestation of diabetes. However, this method is still not applied in clinical practice. In this review, we analysed factors limiting the implementation of LDF in practical medicine and suggest ways to improve its clinical significance.

The role of shear stress on cutaneous microvascular endothelial function in humans

PURPOSE

Previous studies suggest that exercise and heat stress improve cutaneous endothelial function, caused by increases in shear stress. However, as vasodilatation in the skin is primarily a thermogenic phenomenon, we investigated if shear stress alone without increases in skin temperature that occur with exercise and heat stress increases endothelial function. We examined the hypothesis that repeated bouts of brief occlusion would improve cutaneous endothelial function via shear stress-dependent mechanisms.

METHODS

Eleven males underwent a shear stress intervention (forearm occlusion 5 s rest 10 s) for 30 min, five times·week^-1 for 6 weeks on one arm, the other was an untreated control. Skin blood flow was measured using laser-Doppler flowmetry, and endothelial function was assessed with and without NOS-inhibition with L-NAME in response to three levels of local heating (39, 42, and 44 °C), ACh administration, and reactive hyperaemia. Data are cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC, laser-Doppler/blood pressure).

RESULTS

There were no changes in the control arm (all d ≤ 0.2, p > 0.05). In the experimental arm, CVC to 39 °C was increased after 3 and 6 weeks (d = 0.6; p ≤ 0.01). Nitric oxide contribution was increased after 6 weeks compared to baseline (d = 0.85, p < 0.001). Following skin heating to 42 °C and 44 °C, CVC was not different at weeks 3 or 6 (d ≤ 0.8, p > 0.05). For both 42 and 44 °C, nitric oxide contribution was increased after weeks 3 and 6 (d ≥ 0.4, p < 0.03). Peak and area-under-the-curve responses to ACh increased following 6 weeks (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Episodic increases in shear stress, without changes in skin or core temperature, elicit an increase in cutaneous microvascular reactivity and endothelial function.

Heat shock protein 90 contributes to cutaneous vasodilation through activating nitric oxide synthase in young male adults exercising in the heat

While the mechanisms underlying the control of cutaneous vasodilation have been extensively studied, there remains a lack of understanding of the different factors that may modulate cutaneous perfusion during an exercise-induced heat stress. We evaluated the hypothesis that heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) contributes to the heat loss response of cutaneous vasodilation via the activation of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) during exercise in the heat. In 11 young males (25 ± 5 yr), cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) was measured at four forearm skin sites that were continuously treated with 1) lactated Ringer solution (control), 2) NOS inhibition with 10 mM NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME), 3) HSP90 inhibition with 178 μM geldanamycin, or 4) a combination of 10 mM l-NAME and 178 μM geldanamycin. Participants rested in a moderate heat stress (35°C) condition for 70 min. Thereafter, they performed a 50-min bout of moderate-intensity cycling (~52% V̇o2peak) followed by a 30-min recovery period. We showed that NOS inhibition attenuated CVC (~40-50%) relative to the control site during pre- and postexercise rest in the heat (P ≤ 0.05); however, no effect of HSP90 inhibition was observed (P > 0.05). During exercise, we observed an attenuation of CVC with the separate inhibition of NOS (~40-50%) and HSP90 (~15-20%) compared with control (both P ≤ 0.05). However, the effect of HSP90 inhibition was absent in the presence of the coinhibition of NOS (P > 0.05). We show that HSP90 contributes to cutaneous vasodilation in young men exposed to the heat albeit during exercise only. We also show that the HSP90 contribution is due to NOS-dependent mechanisms.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We show that heat shock protein 90 functionally contributes to the heat loss response of cutaneous vasodilation during exercise in the heat, and this response is mediated through the activation of nitric oxide synthase. Therefore, interventions that may activate heat shock protein 90 may facilitate an increase in heat dissipation through an augmentation of cutaneous perfusion. In turn, this may attenuate or reduce the increase in core temperature and therefore the level of heat strain.

Effects of vehicle microdialysis solutions on cutaneous vascular responses to local heating

Microdialysis is a minimally invasive technique often paired with laser Doppler flowmetry to examine cutaneous microvascular function, yet presents with several challenges, including incompatibility with perfusion of highly lipophilic compounds. The present study addresses this methodological concern, with an emphasis on the independent effects of commonly used vehicle dialysis solutions to improve solubility of pharmacological agents with otherwise low aqueous solubility. Four microdialysis fibers were placed in the ventral forearm of eight subjects (4 men, 4 women; 25 ± 1 yr) with sites randomized to serve as 1) control (lactated Ringer's), 2) Sodium carbonate-bicarbonate buffer administered at physiological pH [SCB-HCl; pH 7.4, achieved via addition of hydrochloric acid (HCl)], 3) 0.02% ethanol, and 4) 2% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). After baseline (34°C), vehicle solutions were administered throughout a standardized local heating protocol to 42°C. Laser Doppler flowmetry provided an index of blood flow. Cutaneous vascular conductance was calculated and normalized to maximum (%CVC_max, sodium nitroprusside and 43°C local heat). The SCB-HCl solution increased baseline %CVC_max (control: 9.7 ± 0.8; SCB-HCl: 21.5 ± 3.5%CVC_max; P = 0.03), but no effects were observed during heating or maximal vasodilation. There were no differences with perfusion of ethanol or DMSO at any stage of the protocol ( P > 0.05). These data demonstrate the potential confounding effects of some vehicle dialysis solutions on cutaneous vascular function. Notably, this study provides evidence that 2% DMSO and 0.02% ethanol are acceptable vehicles with no confounding local vascular effects to a standardized local heating protocol at the concentrations presented. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study examined the independent effects of common vehicle solutions on cutaneous vascular responses. A basic buffer (SCB-HCl) caused baseline vasodilation; 2% DMSO and 0.02% ethanol had no effects. This highlights the need for considering potential confounding effects of solubilizing solutions when combined with low aqueous soluble pharmacological agents. Importantly, DMSO and ethanol do not appear to influence cutaneous vascular function during baseline or local heating at the concentrations studied, allowing their use without confounding effects.

Edward F. Adolph Distinguished Lecture: Skin-deep insights into vascular aging

The skin is an accessible model circulation for studying vascular function and dysfunction across the lifespan. Age-related changes, as well as those associated with disease progression, often appear first in the cutaneous circulation. Furthermore, impaired vascular signaling and attendant endothelial dysfunction, the earliest indicators of cardiovascular pathogenesis, occur in a similar fashion across multiple tissue beds throughout the body, including the skin. Because microvascular dysfunction is a better predictor of long-term outcomes and adverse cardiovascular events than is large vessel disease, an understanding of age-associated changes in the control of the human cutaneous microcirculation is important. This review focuses on 1) the merits of using skin-specific methods and techniques to study vascular function, 2) microvascular changes in aged skin (in particular, the role of the endothelial-derived dilator nitric oxide), and 3) the impact of aging on heat-induced changes in skin vasodilation. While skin blood flow is controlled by multiple, often redundant, mechanisms, our laboratory has used a variety of distinct thermal provocations of this model circulation to isolate specific age-associated changes in vascular function. Skin-specific approaches and techniques, such as intradermal microdialysis coupled with laser-Doppler flowmetry (in vivo) and biochemical analyses of skin biopsy samples (in vitro), have allowed for the targeted pharmacodissection of the mechanistic pathways controlling skin vasoreactivity and study of the impact of aging and disease states. Aged skin has an attenuated ability to vasodilate in response to warm stimuli and to vasoconstrict in response to cold stimuli.

ETB receptor contribution to vascular dysfunction in postmenopausal women

Endothelin-1 (ET-1) contributes to age-related endothelial dysfunction in men via the ET_A receptor. However, there are sex differences in the ET-1 system, and ET_B receptors are modulated by sex hormones. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that ET_B receptors contribute to impaired vasodilatory function in postmenopausal women (PMW). We measured flow-mediated dilation (FMD) using ultrasound, and cutaneous nitric oxide-mediated vasodilation during local heating (42°C) via laser Doppler flowmetry in 18 young women (YW; 22 ± 1 yr) and 16 PMW (56 ± 1 yr). Cutaneous microdialysis perfusions of lactated Ringer (control), an ET_B receptor antagonist (BQ-788, 300 nM), and an ET_A receptor antagonist (BQ-123, 500 nM), were done through separate fibers, followed by perfusions of sodium nitroprusside (28 mM) and local heating to 43°C (max). Cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) was calculated as cutaneous blood flow/mean arterial pressure and expressed as a percent of maximal dilation. FMD (YW: 7.5 ± 0.5 vs. PMW: 5.6 ± 0.6%) and cutaneous vasodilation (YW: 93 ± 2 vs. PMW: 83 ± 4%CVC_max) were lower in PMW (both P < 0.05). Blockade of ET_B receptors decreased cutaneous vasodilation in YW (87 ± 2%CVC_max; P < 0.05 vs. control) but increased vasodilation in PMW (93 ± 1%CVC_max; P < 0.05 vs. control). ET_A receptor blockade had minimal effect in YW (92 ± 1%CVC_max) but increased cutaneous vasodilation in PMW (91 ± 2%CVC_max; P < 0.05 vs. control). In conclusion, ET_B receptors mediate vasodilation in YW, but this effect is lost after menopause. Impaired vasodilatory function in PMW is due in part to a loss of ET_B-mediated dilation.

Neuropeptide Y not involved in cutaneous vascular control in young human females taking oral contraceptive hormones

We previously reported that the cutaneous vasodilator response to local warming in males required noradrenaline (NA) and neuropeptide-Y (NPY). Animal work has shown no role for NPY in female vascular control. We investigated the contribution of NA and NPY in human female cutaneous vascular control. Nine female and nine male participants volunteered. To elucidate whether synthetic oestrogen and progesterone altered cutaneous vascular responses, females were tested in high-hormone (HH) and low-hormone (LH) phases of oral contraceptive pill (OCP). Skin blood flow was assessed by laser-Doppler flowmetry and expressed as cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC). Treatments were: control, combined yohimbine and propranolol (YP), BIBP-3226, and bretylium tosylate (BT). YP and BT increased basal CVC (p<0.05) relative to control sites in both HH and LH phases; though, BIBP-3226 had no effect in either phase (both p>0.05). Males basal CVC was increased at all treated sites compared to control sites (all p<0.05). YP and BT treated sites were higher in HH compared to LH (p<0.05). YP and BT treatment reduced the local warming-induced vasodilatation compared to control sites (p>0.05) in both HH and LH phases; whereas, BIBP-3226 treatment had no effect (p>0.05). In males, the vasodilatation achieved at all treated sites was reduced compared to the untreated control site (p<0.05). Data indicate that NA, not NPY, regulates basal skin blood flow and contributes to the vasodilator response to local warming in young females; however, both NA and NPY play a role in both basal and heat-induced cutaneous responses in males.

Spectral analysis of reflex cutaneous vasodilatation during passive heat stress

Previous work has demonstrated that spectral analysis is a useful tool to non-invasively ascertain the mechanisms of control of the cutaneous circulation. The majority of work using spectral analysis has focused on local control mechanisms, with none examining reflex control. Skin blood flow was analysed using spectral analysis on the dorsal aspect of the forearm of 7 males and 7 females during passive heat stress, with mean forearm and local temperature at the site of measurement maintained at thermoneutral (33°C) to minimize the effect of local control mechanisms. Participants were passively heated to ~1.2±0.1°C above baseline rectal temperature (d=4.0, P<0.001) using a water-perfused, tube lined suit, with skin blood flow assessed using a laser-Doppler probe with an integrated temperature monitor. Spectral analysis was performed using a Morlet wavelet on the entire data set, with median power extracted during 20min of data during baseline (normothermia) and hyperthermia. Passive heat stress significantly increased laser-Doppler flux above baseline (d=4.7, P<0.001). Spectral power of the endothelial nitric oxide-independent (0.005-0.01Hz; d=1.1, P=0.004), neurogenic (0.2-0.05Hz; d=0.6, P=0.025), myogenic (0.05-0.15Hz; d=1.5, P=0.002), respiratory (0.15-0.4Hz; d=1.4 P=0.002), and cardiac (0.4-2.0Hz; d=1.1, P=0.012) frequency intervals increased with passive heat stress. In contrast, the endothelial nitric oxide-dependent frequency interval did not change (0.01-0.02Hz; d=0.3, P=0.09) with passive heat stress. These data suggest that cutaneous reflex vasodilatation is neurogenic in origin and not mediated by endothelial-nitric oxide synthase, and are congruent with invasive examinations of reflex cutaneous vasodilatation.

Current concepts of active vasodilation in human skin

In humans, an increase in internal core temperature elicits large increases in skin blood flow and sweating. The increase in skin blood flow serves to transfer heat via convection from the body core to the skin surface while sweating results in evaporative cooling of the skin. Cutaneous vasodilation and sudomotor activity are controlled by a sympathetic cholinergic active vasodilator system that is hypothesized to operate through a co-transmission mechanism. To date, mechanisms of cutaneous active vasodilation remain equivocal despite many years of research by several productive laboratory groups. The purpose of this review is to highlight recent advancements in the field of cutaneous active vasodilation framed in the context of some of the historical findings that laid the groundwork for our current understanding of cutaneous active vasodilation.

Peripheral Microvascular Vasodilatory Response to Estradiol and Genistein in Women with Insulin Resistance

OBJECTIVE

E2 enhances vasodilation in healthy women, but vascular effects of the phytoestrogen GEN are still under investigation. IR compromises microvascular function. We therefore examined the interaction of E2 , GEN, and IR on microvascular vasodilatory responsiveness.

METHODS

We hypothesized that E2 and GEN increase microvascular vasodilation in healthy women (control, n = 8, 23 ± 2 year, BMI: 25.9 ± 2.9 kg/m2) but not in women with IR (n = 7, 20 ± 1 year, BMI: 27.3 ± 3.0 kg/m2). We used the cutaneous circulation as a model of microvascular vasodilatory function. We determined CVC with laser Doppler flowmetry and beat-to-beat blood pressure during local cutaneous heating (42 °C) with E2 or GEN microdialysis perfusions. Because heat-induced vasodilation is primarily an NO-mediated response, we examined microvascular vasodilation with and without L-NMMA.

RESULTS

In C, E2 enhanced CVC (94.4 ± 2.6% vs. saline 81.6 ± 4.2% CVCmax , p < 0.05), which was reversed with L-NMMA (80.9 ± 7.8% CVCmax , p < 0.05), but GEN did not affect vasodilation. Neither E2 nor GEN altered CVC in IR, although L-NMMA attenuated CVC during GEN.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study does not support improved microvascular responsiveness during GEN exposure in healthy young women, and demonstrates that neither E2 nor GEN improves microvascular vasodilatory responsiveness in women with IR.

Effect of passive heat stress on arterial stiffness in smokers versus non-smokers

In non-smokers, passive heat stress increases shear stress and vasodilation, decreasing arterial stiffness. Smokers, who reportedly have arterial dysfunction, may have similar improvements in arterial stiffness with passive heat stress. Therefore, we examined the effects of an acute bout of whole-body passive heat stress on arterial stiffness in smokers vs. non-smokers. Thirteen smokers (8.8 ± 5.5 [median = 6] cigarettes per day for > 4 years) and 13 non-smokers matched for age, mass, height, and exercise habits (27 ± 8 years; 78.8 ± 15.4 kg; 177.6 ± 6.7 cm) were passively heated to 1.5 °C core temperature (T C) increase. At baseline and each 0.5 °C T C increase, peripheral (pPWV) and central pulse wave velocity (cPWV) were measured via Doppler ultrasound. No differences existed between smokers and non-smokers for any variables (all p >  .05), except cPWV slightly increased from baseline (526.7 ± 81.7 cm · s(-1)) to 1.5 °C ΔT C (579.7 ± 69.8 cm · s(-1); p < 0.005), suggesting heat stress acutely increased central arterial stiffness. pPWV did not change with heating (grand mean: baseline = 691.9 ± 92.9 cm · s(-1); 1.5 °C ΔT C = 691.9 ± 79.5 cm · s(-1); p > 0.05). Changes in cPWV and pPWV during heating correlated (p < 0.05) with baseline PWV in smokers (cPWV: r = -0.59; pPWV: r = -0.62) and non-smokers (cPWV: r = -0.45; pPWV: r = -0.77). Independent of smoking status, baseline stiffness appears to mediate the magnitude of heating-induced changes in arterial stiffness.

Roles of LOX-1 in microvascular dysfunction

Studies from human and animal models with metabolic disease and hypertension highlight atrophic remodeling, reduced lumen size and thinner vascular walls of microvessels with profound density reduction. This impaired vascular response limits the perfusion of peripheral tissues inducing organ damage. These conditions are strongly associated with oxidative stress and in particular with the up-regulation of lectin-like oxidized low density lipoprotein receptor-1 (LOX-1). Several factors such as cytokines, shear stress, and advanced glycation end-products, especially oxLDL, can up-regulate LOX-1. The activation of this receptor induces the production of adhesion molecules, cytokines and the release of reactive oxygen species via NADPH oxidase. LOX-1 is considered a potent mediator of endothelial dysfunction and it is significantly associated with reduced microvascular endothelium NO-dependent vasodilation in hypercholesterolemia and hypertension. Microvascular endothelial cells increased the expression of IL-6 in association with the increased concentration of LDL and its degree of oxidation. Moreover, increased IL-6 levels are associated with up-regulation of LOX-1 in a dose-dependent manner. Another consequence of microvascular inflammation is the generation of small amounts of ROS, similar to those induced by low concentration of oxLDL (<5 μg/mL) which induces capillary tube formation of endothelial cells, through LOX-1 up-regulation. In light of its central role, LOX-1 represents an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of human atherosclerotic diseases and microvascular disorders.

The effect of heating rate on the cutaneous vasomotion responses of forearm and leg skin in humans

We examined skin blood flow (SkBF) and vasomotion in the forearm and leg using laser-Doppler fluxmetry (LDF) and spectral analysis to investigate endothelial, sympathetic, and myogenic activities in response to slow (0.1 °C·10 s(-1)) and fast (0.5 °C·10 s(-1)) local heating. At 33 °C (thermoneutral) endothelial activity was higher in the legs than the forearms (P ≤ 0.02). Fast-heating increased SkBF more than slow heating (P=0.037 forearm; P=0.002 leg). At onset of 42 °C, endothelial (P=0.043 forearm; P=0.48 leg) activity increased in both regions during the fast-heating protocol. Following prolonged heating (42 °C) endothelial activity was higher in both the forearm (P=0.002) and leg (P<0.001) following fast-heating. These results confirm regional differences in the response to local heating and suggest that the greater increase in SkBF in response to fast local heating is initially due to increased endothelial and sympathetic activity. Furthermore, with sustained local skin heating, greater vasodilatation was observed with fast heating compared to slow heating. These data indicate that this difference is due to greater endothelial activity following fast heating compared to slow heating, suggesting that the rate of skin heating may alter the mechanisms contributing to cutaneous vasodilatation.

Responses to hyperthermia. Optimizing heat dissipation by convection and evaporation: Neural control of skin blood flow and sweating in humans

Under normothermic, resting conditions, humans dissipate heat from the body at a rate approximately equal to heat production. Small discrepancies between heat production and heat elimination would, over time, lead to significant changes in heat storage and body temperature. When heat production or environmental temperature is high the challenge of maintaining heat balance is much greater. This matching of heat elimination with heat production is a function of the skin circulation facilitating heat transport to the body surface and sweating, enabling evaporative heat loss. These processes are manifestations of the autonomic control of cutaneous vasomotor and sudomotor functions and form the basis of this review. We focus on these systems in the responses to hyperthermia. In particular, the cutaneous vascular responses to heat stress and the current understanding of the neurovascular mechanisms involved. The available research regarding cutaneous active vasodilation and vasoconstriction is highlighted, with emphasis on active vasodilation as a major responder to heat stress. Involvement of the vasoconstrictor and active vasodilator controls of the skin circulation in the context of heat stress and nonthermoregulatory reflexes (blood pressure, exercise) are also considered. Autonomic involvement in the cutaneous vascular responses to direct heating and cooling of the skin are also discussed. We examine the autonomic control of sweating, including cholinergic and noncholinergic mechanisms, the local control of sweating, thermoregulatory and nonthermoregulatory reflex control and the possible relationship between sudomotor and cutaneous vasodilator function. Finally, we comment on the clinical relevance of these control schemes in conditions of autonomic dysfunction.

Acute Thermotherapy Prevents Impairments in Cutaneous Microvascular Function Induced by a High Fat Meal

We tested the hypothesis that a high fat meal (HFM) would impair cutaneous vasodilation, while thermotherapy (TT) would reverse the detrimental effects. Eight participants were instrumented with skin heaters and laser-Doppler (LD) probes and tested in three trials: control, HFM, and HFM + TT. Participants wore a water-perfused suit perfused with 33°C (control and HFM) or 50°C (HFM + TT) water. Participants consumed 1 g fat/kg body weight. Blood samples were taken at baseline and two hours post-HFM. Blood pressure was measured every 5-10 minutes. Microvascular function was assessed via skin local heating from 33°C to 39°C two hours after HFM. Cutaneous vascular conductance (CVC) was calculated and normalized to maximal vasodilation (%CVCmax). HFM had no effect on initial peak (48 ± 4 %CVCmax) compared to control (49 ± 4 %CVCmax) but attenuated the plateau (51 ± 4 %CVCmax) compared to control (63 ± 4 %CVCmax, P < 0.001). Initial peak was augmented in HFM + TT (66 ± 4 %CVCmax) compared to control and HFM (P < 0.05), while plateau (73 ± 3 % CVCmax) was augmented only compared to the HFM trial (P < 0.001). These data suggest that HFM negatively affects cutaneous vasodilation but can be minimized by TT.

Non-Invasive Measurement of Skin Microvascular Response during Pharmacological and Physiological Provocations

Introduction

Microvascular changes in the skin due to pharmacological and physiological provocations can be used as a marker for vascular function. While laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) has been used extensively for measurement of skin microvascular responses, Laser Speckle Contrast Imaging (LSCI) and Tissue Viability Imaging (TiVi) are novel imaging techniques. TiVi measures red blood cell concentration, while LDF and LSCI measure perfusion. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare responses to provocations in the skin using these different techniques.

Method

Changes in skin microcirculation were measured in healthy subjects during (1) iontophoresis of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and noradrenaline (NA), (2) local heating and (3) post-occlusive reactive hyperemia (PORH) using LDF, LSCI and TiVi.

Results

Iontophoresis of SNP increased perfusion (LSCI: baseline 40.9±6.2 PU; 10-min 100±25 PU; p<0.001) and RBC concentration (TiVi: baseline 119±18; 10-min 150±41 AU; p = 0.011). No change in perfusion (LSCI) was observed after iontophoresis of NA (baseline 38.0±4.4 PU; 10-min 38.9±5.0 PU; p = 0.64), while RBC concentration decreased (TiVi: baseline 59.6±11.8 AU; 10-min 54.4±13.3 AU; p = 0.021). Local heating increased perfusion (LDF: baseline 8.8±3.6 PU; max 112±55 PU; p<0.001, LSCI: baseline 50.8±8.0 PU; max 151±22 PU; p<0.001) and RBC concentration (TiVi: baseline 49.2±32.9 AU; max 99.3±28.3 AU; p<0.001). After 5 minutes of forearm occlusion with prior exsanguination, a decrease was seen in perfusion (LDF: p = 0.027; LSCI: p<0.001) and in RBC concentration (p = 0.045). Only LSCI showed a significant decrease in perfusion after 5 minutes of occlusion without prior exsanguination (p<0.001). Coefficients of variation were lower for LSCI and TiVi compared to LDF for most responses.

Conclusion

LSCI is more sensitive than TiVi for measuring microvascular changes during SNP-induced vasodilatation and forearm occlusion. TiVi is more sensitive to noradrenaline-induced vasoconstriction. LSCI and TiVi show lower inter-subject variability than LDF. These findings are important to consider when choosing measurement techniques for studying skin microvascular responses.