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Davis CJ, Zielinski MR, Dunbrasky D, Taishi P, Dinarello CA, Krueger JM. Interleukin 37 expression in mice alters sleep responses to inflammatory agents and influenza virus infection. Neurobiol Sleep Circadian Rhythms 2016; 3:1-9. [PMID: 28070566 PMCID: PMC5218600 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbscr.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple interactions between the immune system and sleep are known, including the effects of microbial challenge on sleep or the effects of sleep loss on facets of the immune response. Cytokines regulate, in part, sleep and immune responses. Here we examine the role of an anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-37 (IL-37) on sleep in a mouse strain that expresses human IL-37b (IL37tg mice). Constitutive expression of the IL-37 gene in the brains of these mice under resting conditions is low; however, upon an inflammatory stimulus, expression increases dramatically. We measured sleep in three conditions; (a) under baseline conditions and after 6 h of sleep loss, (b) after bolus intraperitoneal administration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or IL-1β and (c) after intranasal influenza virus challenge. Under baseline conditions, the IL37tg mice had 7% more spontaneous non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS) during the light period than wild-type (WT) mice. After sleep deprivation both WT mice and IL37tg mice slept an extra 21% and 12%, respectively, during the first 6 h of recovery. NREMS responses after sleep deprivation did not significantly differ between WT mice and IL37tg mice. However, in response to either IL-1β or LPS, the increases in time spent in NREMS were about four-fold greater in the WT mice than in the IL37tg mice. In contrast, in response to a low dose of mouse-adapted H1N1 influenza virus, sleep responses developed slowly over the 6 day recording period. By day 6, NREMS increased by 10% and REMS increased by 18% in the IL37tg mice compared to the WT mice. Further, by day 4 IL37tg mice lost less weight, remained more active, and retained their body temperatures closer to baseline values than WT mice. We conclude that conditions that promote IL-37 expression attenuate morbidity to severe inflammatory challenge. Sleep responses to mild acute sleep deprivation are similar in mice transgenic for interleukin-37 (IL37tg) IL37tg and wild type (WT) mice. Sleep responses induced by either IL-β or LPS are greatly attenuated in IL37tg mice compared to WT mice. After influenza virus challenge, IL37tg mice have reduced morbidities and enhanced sleep responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Davis
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, USA 99210-1495
| | - Mark R Zielinski
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, USA 99210-1495; VA Boston Healthcare System, Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, USA 02312; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, USA 02312
| | - Danielle Dunbrasky
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, USA 99210-1495
| | - Ping Taishi
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, USA 99210-1495
| | - Charles A Dinarello
- Department of Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO, USA 80045; Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - James M Krueger
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, WA, USA 99210-1495
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Abstract
Sleep is a complex physiological process that is regulated globally, regionally, and locally by both cellular and molecular mechanisms. It occurs to some extent in all animals, although sleep expression in lower animals may be co-extensive with rest. Sleep regulation plays an intrinsic part in many behavioral and physiological functions. Currently, all researchers agree there is no single physiological role sleep serves. Nevertheless, it is quite evident that sleep is essential for many vital functions including development, energy conservation, brain waste clearance, modulation of immune responses, cognition, performance, vigilance, disease, and psychological state. This review details the physiological processes involved in sleep regulation and the possible functions that sleep may serve. This description of the brain circuitry, cell types, and molecules involved in sleep regulation is intended to further the reader's understanding of the functions of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R. Zielinski
- Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA 02132, USA and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry
| | - James T. McKenna
- Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, West Roxbury, MA 02132, USA and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry
| | - Robert W. McCarley
- Veterans Affairs Boston Healthcare System, Brockton, MA 02301, USA and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry
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Zielinski MR, Souza G, Taishi P, Bohnet SG, Krueger JM. Olfactory bulb and hypothalamic acute-phase responses to influenza virus: effects of immunization. Neuroimmunomodulation 2013; 20:323-33. [PMID: 23948712 PMCID: PMC3874867 DOI: 10.1159/000351716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 04/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Within hours of intranasal challenge, mouse-adapted H1N1 A/Puerto Rico/8/34 (PR8) influenza genomic RNA is found in the olfactory bulb (OB) and OB pro-inflammatory cytokines are up-regulated. Severing the olfactory tract delays the acute-phase response (APR) and the APR is attenuated by immunization. OBJECTIVES To determine if immunization affects OB localization of influenza or the molecular brain mechanisms regulating APR. METHODS Male mice were immunized with PR8 influenza, then OB viral RNA, APR, and influenza-related cytokine responses were determined after homologous viral challenge. RESULTS Immunization did not prevent influenza OB viral invasion within 24 h of viral challenge. However, it greatly attenuated OB viral RNA 6 days after viral challenge and the APR including hypothermia and body weight loss responses. Within the OB, 24 h after influenza challenge, prior immunization blocked virus-induced up-regulation of toll-like receptor 7 and interferon (IFN) γ mRNAs. At this time, hypothalamic (HT) growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor and tumor necrosis factor-α mRNAs were greatly enhanced in immunized but not in positive control mice. By 6 days after viral challenge, OB and HT mRNAs returned towards baseline values. In the lung, mRNA up-regulation was greater than that in the brain and maximized 6 days after challenge. Lung IFNγ mRNA decreased at 24 h but increased 6 days after challenge in the positive compared to negative controls. Immunization prevented the up-regulation of most of the flu-related mRNAs measured in lungs. CONCLUSION Collectively, these data suggest a role for OB and HT involvement in immunization protection against influenza infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Zielinski
- Sleep and Performance Research Center and WWAMI Medical Education Program, Washington State University, Spokane, Wash., USA
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Landreau F, Galeano P, Caltana LR, Masciotra L, Chertcoff A, Pontoriero A, Baumeister E, Amoroso M, Brusco HA, Tous MI, Savy VL, Lores Arnaiz MDR, de Erausquin GA. Effects of two commonly found strains of influenza A virus on developing dopaminergic neurons, in relation to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. PLoS One 2012; 7:e51068. [PMID: 23251423 PMCID: PMC3519479 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0051068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2011] [Accepted: 11/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza virus (InfV) infection during pregnancy is a known risk factor for neurodevelopment abnormalities in the offspring, including the risk of schizophrenia, and has been shown to result in an abnormal behavioral phenotype in mice. However, previous reports have concentrated on neuroadapted influenza strains, whereas increased schizophrenia risk is associated with common respiratory InfV. In addition, no specific mechanism has been proposed for the actions of maternal infection on the developing brain that could account for schizophrenia risk. We identified two common isolates from the community with antigenic configurations H3N2 and H1N1 and compared their effects on developing brain with a mouse modified-strain A/WSN/33 specifically on the developing of dopaminergic neurons. We found that H1N1 InfV have high affinity for dopaminergic neurons in vitro, leading to nuclear factor kappa B activation and apoptosis. Furthermore, prenatal infection of mothers with the same strains results in loss of dopaminergic neurons in the offspring, and in an abnormal behavioral phenotype. We propose that the well-known contribution of InfV to risk of schizophrenia during development may involve a similar specific mechanism and discuss evidence from the literature in relation to this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Landreau
- Cultivo de Tejidos, Departamento Virología, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Pablo Galeano
- Laboratorio de Citoarquitectura y Plasticidad Neuronal, Instituto de Investigaciones “Prof. Dr. Alberto C. Taquini” (ININCA), Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Laura R. Caltana
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia “Profesor E. De Robertis”, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Luis Masciotra
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencia “Profesor E. De Robertis”, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Agustín Chertcoff
- Bioterio Central, Instituto Nacional de Producción de Biológicos, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - A. Pontoriero
- Virus Respiratorios, Departamento Virología, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Elsa Baumeister
- Virus Respiratorios, Departamento Virología, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Marcela Amoroso
- Microscopía Electrónica, Departamento Virología, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Herminia A. Brusco
- Bioterio Central, Instituto Nacional de Producción de Biológicos, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mónica I. Tous
- Cultivo de Tejidos, Departamento Virología, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Vilma L. Savy
- Virus Respiratorios, Departamento Virología, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María del Rosario Lores Arnaiz
- Microscopía Electrónica, Departamento Virología, Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Infecciosas, ANLIS “Dr Carlos G. Malbran”, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Facultad de Psicología, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gabriel A. de Erausquin
- Roskamp Laboratory of Brain Development, Modulation and Repair, Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, United States of America
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Hodgson NR, Bohnet SG, Majde JA, Krueger JM. Influenza virus pathophysiology and brain invasion in mice with functional and dysfunctional Mx1 genes. Brain Behav Immun 2012; 26:83-9. [PMID: 21821116 PMCID: PMC3221813 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.07.238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2011] [Revised: 07/12/2011] [Accepted: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice with a dysfunctional myxovirus resistance-1 (dMx1) gene transport intranasally-instilled PR8 influenza virus to the olfactory bulb (OB) within 4 h post-infection. To determine if the presence of a functional Mx1 (fMx1) gene would influence this brain viral localization and/or disease, we infected mature C57BL/6 dMx1 and fMx1 mice under the same conditions and observed sickness behaviors, viral nucleoprotein (NP) RNA expression and innate immune mediator (IIM) mRNA expression in selected tissues at 15 and 96 h post-infection. Virus invaded the OB and lungs comparably in both sub-strains at 15 and 96 h as determined by nested PCR. In contrast, virus was present in blood and somatosensory cortex of dMx1, but not fMx1 mice at 96 h. At 15 h, sickness behaviors were comparable in both sub-strains. By 96 h dMx1, but not fMx1, were moribund. In both 15 and 96 h lungs, viral NP was significantly elevated in the dMx1 mice compared to the fMx1 mice, as determined by quantitative PCR. OB expression of most IIM mRNAs was similar at both time periods in both sub-strains. In contrast, lung IIM mRNAs were elevated in fMx1 at 15 h, but by 96 h were consistently reduced compared to dMx1 mice. In conclusion, functional Mx1 did not alter OB invasion by virus but attenuated illness compared to dMx1 mice. Inflammation was similar in OBs and lungs of both strains at 15 h but by 96 h it was suppressed in lungs, but not in OBs, of fMx1 mice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - James M. Krueger
- Corresponding Author: Dr. James M. Krueger, WWAMI Medical Education Program and the Sleep and Performance Research Center, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99210-1495, , Phone: 509-358-7808, Fax: 509-358-7627
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Broom L, Marinova-Mutafchieva L, Sadeghian M, Davis JB, Medhurst AD, Dexter DT. Neuroprotection by the selective iNOS inhibitor GW274150 in a model of Parkinson disease. Free Radic Biol Med 2011; 50:633-40. [PMID: 21185368 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2010.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2010] [Revised: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation and the activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) have been proposed to play a role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson disease (PD). In this study we investigated the effects of the selective iNOS inhibitor GW274150 in the 6-OHDA model of PD. 6-OHDA administration was associated with increased numbers of cells expressing iNOS. Administration of the iNOS inhibitor twice daily for 7 days, beginning 2 days after the 6-OHDA lesioning, led to a significant neuroprotection as shown by assessment of the integrity of the nigrostriatal system by tyrosine hydroxylase immunocytochemistry and HPLC assessment of striatal dopamine content. However, GW274150 displayed a bell-shaped neuroprotective profile, being ineffective at high doses. 6-OHDA lesioning was associated with an increase in microglial activation as assessed by the MHC II antigen OX-6 and the number of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9)-immunopositive cells. NO is a known modulator of MMP-9, and iNOS inhibition was associated with decreased numbers of MMP-9-immunopositive cells, culminating in a reduction in the numbers of reactive microglia. Withdrawal of GW274150 for a further 7 days negated any neuroprotective effects of iNOS inhibition, suggesting that the damaging effects of inflammation last beyond 7 days in this model and the continued administration of the drug may be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Broom
- Parkinson's Disease Research Group, Centre for Neuroscience, Division of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London W12 0NN, UK
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Abstract
Many pro-inflammatory molecules, such as interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) are somnogenic, while many anti-inflammatory molecules inhibit sleep. Sleep loss increases the production/release of these sleep regulatory pro-inflammatory molecules. Further, sleep changes occurring during various pathologies are mediated by these inflammatory substances in response to pathogen recognition and subsequent inflammatory cellular pathways. This review summarizes information and concepts regarding inflammatory mechanisms of the innate immune system that mediate sleep. Further, we discuss sleep-immune interactions in regards to sleep in general, pathologies, and sleep as a local phenomenon including the central role that extracellular ATP plays in the initiation of sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark R Zielinski
- Sleep and Performance Research Center, Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6520, USA
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8
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Leyva-Grado VH, Churchill L, Harding J, Krueger JM. The olfactory nerve has a role in the body temperature and brain cytokine responses to influenza virus. Brain Behav Immun 2010; 24:281-8. [PMID: 19836444 PMCID: PMC2818451 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2009] [Revised: 10/08/2009] [Accepted: 10/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mouse-adapted human influenza virus is detectable in the olfactory bulbs of mice within hours after intranasal challenge and is associated with enhanced local cytokine mRNA and protein levels. To determine whether signals from the olfactory nerve influence the unfolding of the acute phase response (APR), we surgically transected the olfactory nerve in mice prior to influenza infection. We then compared the responses of olfactory-nerve-transected (ONT) mice to those recorded in sham-operated control mice using measurements of body temperature, food intake, body weight, locomotor activity and immunohistochemistry for cytokines and the viral antigen, H1N1. ONT did not change baseline body temperature (Tb); however, the onset of virus-induced hypothermia was delayed for about 13 h in the ONT mice. Locomotor activity, food intake and body weights of the two groups were similar. At 15 h post-challenge fewer viral antigen-immunoreactive (IR) cells were observed in the olfactory bulb (OB) of ONT mice compared to sham controls. The number of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha)- and interleukin 1beta (IL1beta)-IR cells in ONT mice was also reduced in the OB and other interconnected regions in the brain compared to sham controls. These results suggest that the olfactory nerve pathway is important for the initial pathogenesis of the influenza-induced APR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor H Leyva-Grado
- Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6520, USA
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Majde JA, Kapás L, Bohnet SG, De A, Krueger JM. Attenuation of the influenza virus sickness behavior in mice deficient in Toll-like receptor 3. Brain Behav Immun 2010; 24:306-15. [PMID: 19861156 PMCID: PMC2818367 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2009] [Revised: 10/14/2009] [Accepted: 10/22/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Certain sickness behaviors occur consistently in influenza-infected humans and mice. These include body temperature changes, somnolence, and anorexia. Several cytokines serve as mediators of the influenza acute phase response (APR), including these sickness behaviors, and one likely inducer of these cytokines is dsRNA produced during viral replication. TLR3 is known to be one of the host cellular components capable of recognizing dsRNA and activating cytokine synthesis. To determine the role of TLR3-detected viral dsRNA in the causation of viral symptoms, TLR3-deficient mice (TLR3 knockouts, or KOs) were infected with a marginally-lethal dose of mouse-adapted X-31 influenza virus. TLR3 KOs and their wild-type (WT) controls were monitored for baseline body temperature, locomotor activity, and sleep profiles prior to infection. Both mouse strains were then infected and monitored for changes in these sickness behaviors plus body weight changes and mortality for up to 14days post-infection. Consistent with the observations that influenza pathology is reduced in TLR3 KOs, we showed that hypothermia after post-infection day 5 and the total loss of body weight were attenuated in the TLR3 KOs. Sleep changes characteristic of this infection model [particularly increased non-rapid-eye-movement sleep (NREMS)] were also attenuated in TLR3 KOs and returned to baseline values more rapidly. Locomotor activity suppression was similar in both strains. Therefore virus-associated dsRNA detected by TLR3 appears to play a substantial role in mediating several aspects of the influenza syndrome in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeannine A. Majde
- Department of VCAPP, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6520
| | - Levente Kapás
- WWAMI Medical Education Program, Washington State University, Spokane, WA 99210-1495
| | - Stewart G. Bohnet
- Department of VCAPP, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6520
| | - Alok De
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine, Kansas City, MO 64108
| | - James M. Krueger
- Department of VCAPP, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6520
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Leyva-Grado VH, Churchill L, Wu M, Williams TJ, Taishi P, Majde JA, Krueger JM. Influenza virus- and cytokine-immunoreactive cells in the murine olfactory and central autonomic nervous systems before and after illness onset. J Neuroimmunol 2009; 211:73-83. [PMID: 19410300 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2009.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2008] [Revised: 03/02/2009] [Accepted: 03/25/2009] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Influenza virus invades the olfactory bulb (OB) and enhances cytokine mRNAs therein at the time of illness onset. Here we show that viral antigen immunoreactivity co-localized with glial markers in the OB but could not be detected in other brain areas. Interleukin 1beta- and tumor necrosis factor alpha-immunoreactivity co-localized with neuronal markers in olfactory and central autonomic systems, and the number of cytokine-immunoreactive neurons increased at the time of illness onset [15 h post-inoculation (PI)] but not before (10 h PI). These results suggest that the OB virus influences the brain cytokines and therefore the onset of illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor H Leyva-Grado
- Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-6520, United States
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Kapás L, Bohnet SG, Traynor TR, Majde JA, Szentirmai E, Magrath P, Taishi P, Krueger JM. Spontaneous and influenza virus-induced sleep are altered in TNF-alpha double-receptor deficient mice. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2008; 105:1187-98. [PMID: 18687977 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.90388.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is associated with sleep regulation in health and disease. Previous studies assessed sleep in mice genetically deficient in the TNF-alpha 55-kDa receptor. In this study, spontaneous and influenza virus-induced sleep profiles were assessed in mice deficient in both the 55-kDa and 75-kDa TNF-alpha receptors [TNF-2R knockouts (KO)] and wild-type (WT) strain controls. Under baseline conditions the TNF-2R KO mice had less non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS) than WTs during the nighttime and more rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) than controls during the daytime. The differences between nighttime maximum and daytime minimum values of electroencephalogram (EEG) delta power during NREMS were greater in the TNF-2R KO mice than in WTs. Viral challenge (mouse-adapted influenza X-31) enhanced NREMS and decreased REMS in both strains roughly to the same extent. EEG delta power responses to viral challenge differed substantially between strains; the WT animals increased, whereas the TNF-2R KO mice decreased their EEG delta wave power during NREMS. There were no differences between strains in body temperatures or locomotor activity in uninfected mice or after viral challenge. Analyses of cortical mRNAs confirmed that the TNF-2R KO mice lacked both TNF-alpha receptors; these mice also had higher levels of orexin mRNA and reduced levels of the purine P2X7 receptor compared with WTs. Results reinforce the hypothesis that TNF-alpha is involved in physiological sleep regulation but plays a limited role in the acute-phase response induced by influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Levente Kapás
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, Bronx, NY 10458, USA.
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Majde JA, Bohnet SG, Ellis GA, Churchill L, Leyva-Grado V, Wu M, Szentirmai E, Rehman A, Krueger JM. Detection of mouse-adapted human influenza virus in the olfactory bulbs of mice within hours after intranasal infection. J Neurovirol 2008; 13:399-409. [PMID: 17994424 DOI: 10.1080/13550280701427069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Influenza pneumonitis causes severe systemic symptoms in mice, including hypothermia and excess sleep. The association of extrapulmonary virus, particularly virus in the brain, with the onset of such disease symptoms has not been investigated. Mature C57BL/6 male mice were infected intranasally with mouse-adapted human influenza viruses (PR8 or X-31) under inhalation, systemic, or no anesthesia. Core body temperatures were monitored continuously by radiotelemetry, and tissues (lung, brain, olfactory bulb, spleen, blood) were harvested at the time of onset of hypothermia (13 to 24 h post infection [PI]) or at 4 or 7 h PI. Whole RNA from all tissues was examined by one or more of three reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) procedures using H1N1 nucleoprotein (NP) primers for minus polarity RNA (genomic or vRNA) or plus polarity RNA (replication intermediates). Selected cytokines were assayed at 4, 7, and 15 h in the olfactory bulb (OB). Minus and plus RNA strands were readily detected in OBs as early as 4 h PI by nested RT-PCR. Anesthesia was not required for viral invasion of the OB. Cytokine mRNAs were also significantly elevated in the OB at 7 and 15 h PI in infected mice. Controls receiving boiled virus expressed only input vRNA and that only in lung. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated localization of H1N1 and NP antigens in olfactory nerves and the glomerular layer of the OB. Therefore a mouse-adapted human influenza virus strain, not known to be neurotropic, was detected in the mouse OB within 4 h PI where it appeared to induce replication intermediates and cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeannine A Majde
- Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
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Kapsimalis F, Basta M, Varouchakis G, Gourgoulianis K, Vgontzas A, Kryger M. Cytokines and pathological sleep. Sleep Med 2007; 9:603-14. [PMID: 18024171 DOI: 10.1016/j.sleep.2007.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2007] [Revised: 07/30/2007] [Accepted: 08/19/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines are proteins produced by leukocytes and other cells that function as intercellular mediators acting on several target tissues, resulting in multiple biologic actions. Over the last decade, medical research has explored the interaction between cytokines and sleep disorders. The aim of this review is to illustrate recent advances in knowledge about the relationship between cytokines and disorders of excessive sleepiness. Cytokines may have an important role in mediating excessive daytime sleepiness in sleep loss or insomnia. Alterations of the immune system have also been associated with narcolepsy. The relationship between cytokines and hormonal regulatory mechanisms may explain symptoms like fatigue and sleepiness in chronic inflammatory diseases. Cytokines may play an important role in the pathogenesis of obstructive sleep apnea and cardiovascular consequences of this condition. New biologic treatments targeting cytokines have been investigated in conditions characterized by sleep disturbance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fotis Kapsimalis
- Pulmonology Department, Sleep Laboratory, Henry Dunant Hospital, Athens, Greece.
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Traynor TR, Majde JA, Bohnet SG, Krueger JM. Interferon type I receptor-deficient mice have altered disease symptoms in response to influenza virus. Brain Behav Immun 2007; 21:311-22. [PMID: 17098395 PMCID: PMC1820588 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2006.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2006] [Revised: 09/15/2006] [Accepted: 09/29/2006] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The role of type I interferons (IFNs) in mediation of acute viral symptoms (fever, somnolence, anorexia, etc.) is unknown. To determine the role of type I IFN in selected symptom development, body temperature and sleep responses to a marginally lethal dose of X-31 influenza virus were examined in mice with a targeted mutation of the IFN receptor type I (IFN-RI knockouts) and compared to wild-type 129 SvEv control mice. Mice were monitored for 48 h to determine baseline temperature and sleep profiles prior to infection, and then for 9 days following infection. Hypothermic responses to virus were perceptible beginning at 64 h post-infection (PI) and were more marked in KO mice until 108 h, when hypothermia became more exaggerated in wild-type controls. Temperatures of wild-type mice continued to decline through day 9 while temperatures in IFN-RI KO mice stabilized. Time spent in non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREMS) increased in KO mice when hypothermia was marked and then returned to baseline levels, while NREMS continued to increase in wild-type mice through day 9. Other sleep parameters [time spent in rapid eye movement sleep (REMS), relative NREMS EEG slow wave activity, NREMS EEG power density] were all reduced in wild-type mice compared to KOs from days 3 to 8 while REMS low frequency EEG power density increased in wild-type relative to KOs. In conclusion, our results indicate that the presence of functional type I IFN slightly ameliorates disease symptoms early in the X-31 infection while exacerbating disease symptoms later in the infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim R Traynor
- Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology, Washington State University, P.O. Box 646520, Pullman, WA 99164-6520, USA
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15
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Kalinchuk AV, Stenberg D, Rosenberg PA, Porkka-Heiskanen T. Inducible and neuronal nitric oxide synthases (NOS) have complementary roles in recovery sleep induction. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 24:1443-56. [PMID: 16987226 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.05019.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Sleep homeostasis is the process by which recovery sleep is generated by prolonged wakefulness. The molecular mechanisms underlying this important phenomenon are poorly understood. We have previously shown that nitric oxide (NO) generation increases in the basal forebrain (BF) during sleep deprivation (SD). Moreover, both NO synthase (NOS) inhibition and a NO scavenger prevented recovery sleep induction, while administration of a NO donor during the spontaneous sleep-wake cycle increased sleep, indicating that NO is necessary and sufficient for the induction of recovery sleep. Next we wanted to know which NOS isoform is involved in the production of recovery sleep. Using in vivo microdialysis we infused specific inhibitors of NOS into the BF of rats during SD, and found that an inhibitor of inducible NOS (iNOS), 1400W, prevented non-rapid eye movement (NREM) recovery, while an inhibitor of neuronal NOS (nNOS), L-N-propyl-arginine, decreased REM recovery but did not affect NREM recovery. Using immunoblot analysis we found that iNOS was not expressed during the spontaneous sleep-wake cycle, but was induced by prolonged wakefulness (increased by 278%). A known iNOS inducer, lipopolysaccharide, evoked an increase in sleep that closely resembled recovery sleep, and its effects were abolished by 1400W. These results suggest that the elevation of NO produced by induction of iNOS in the BF during prolonged wakefulness is a specific mechanism for producing NREM recovery sleep and that the two NOS isoforms have a complementary role in NREM and REM recovery induction.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Kalinchuk
- Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
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16
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Doherty PC. Challenged by complexity: my twentieth century in immunology. Annu Rev Immunol 2006; 25:1-19. [PMID: 17007586 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.25.022106.141644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
My research career has focused on complex experimental systems, principally virus-induced infectious processes. I have always run my own experimental program and never had a major mentor, although I have had many great colleagues. After graduating from the School of Veterinary Science at the University of Queensland, Australia, I worked for nine years on diseases of domestic animals. During that interval I completed a part-time PhD at the University of Edinburgh while employed as an experimental neuropathologist. Returning to the John Curtin School of Medical Research in Canberra, I focused on cell-mediated immunity, started to work seriously with mice, and thus became both an immunologist and a basic medical scientist. It was there in 1973 that Rolf Zinkernagel and I discovered MHC I-restricted CD8(+) T cell recognition, a finding that, together with the "single T cell receptor/altered self" hypothesis that we developed to explain our results, led to the 1996 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine. Part of my focus since then has been to communicate the societal value and power of science to the broader community. As my scientific life is not yet over, I confine the present historical account to the twentieth century.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter C Doherty
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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17
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Ribeiro AC, Kapás L. The effects of intracerebroventricular application of 8-Br-cGMP and LY-83,583, a guanylyl cyclase inhibitor, on sleep-wake activity in rats. Brain Res 2005; 1049:25-33. [PMID: 15922313 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.04.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2005] [Revised: 04/18/2005] [Accepted: 04/22/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic GMP is the second messenger that mediates most of the neuronal effects of nitric oxide (NO). Several lines of evidence suggest that NO-ergic mechanisms play an integral role in the regulation of vigilance. In the present study, we tested the effects of the activation of cGMP-receptive mechanisms and the inhibitor of guanylyl cyclase (GC), LY-83,583, on sleep in rats. Rats were injected intracerebroventricularly (icv) with 0.16, 4, 100, and 500 microg or 2.5 mg 8-Br-cGMP, a membrane-permeable analogue of cGMP, or 1 and 100 microg LY-83,583. Administration of 4 microg-2.5 mg 8-Br-cGMP increased wakefulness and suppressed rapid-eye-movement sleep (REMS) and non-REMS (NREMS) in rats when given before dark onset but not when given before the light period. The GC inhibitor LY-83,583 strongly promoted NREMS and suppressed REMS during the light period of the day. Furthermore, LY-83,583 induced striking increases in the delta-wave activity of the electroencephalogram (EEG) during NREMS, whereas EEG activity above the 4.5 Hz wave range was suppressed in all vigilance states. Our finding that cGMP has an arousal-promoting activity is in line with the hypothesis that NO/cGMP signaling pathway is involved in the regulation of vigilance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana C Ribeiro
- Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University, 441 E. Fordham Road, Bronx, NY 10458, USA
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18
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Colas D, Bezin L, Gharib A, Morales A, Cespuglio R, Sarda N. REM sleep control during aging in SAM mice: a role for inducible nitric oxide synthase. Neurobiol Aging 2005; 26:1375-84. [PMID: 16243608 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2004.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2004] [Revised: 09/17/2004] [Accepted: 11/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Evidence that nitric oxide (NO) is involved in the regulation of rapid-eye-movement sleep (REMS) is supported by recent studies. During aging, NO generation encounters marked changes mainly related to the activation of the inducible NO-synthase (iNOS). To investigate links existing between iNOS and REMS impairments related to aging, we examine the age-related variations occurring in: mRNA and activity of iNOS in brainstem and frontal cortex; sleep parameters under baseline and after treatment by a selective iNOS inhibitor (AMT) in Senescence Accelerated Mice (SAM). SAMR1 (control) mice are a model of aging while SAMP8 are adequate to study neurodegenerative processes. RT-PCR analysis does not reveal significant variation in iNOS mRNA expression in both strains. However, significant age-related increases in iNOS activity occur in SAMR1 but such variation is not observed in SAMP8. In baseline conditions, aging induces a slight increase in slow-wave sleep (SWS) amounts in both groups and deteriorates greatly REMS architecture in SAMP8 compared to SAMR1. AMT reduces REMS amounts for 4-6h after treatment in a dose and age-dependent manner in SAMR1. Almost no changes occur in SAMP8. Data reported suggest that NO derived from iNOS contributes to trigger and maintain REMS during aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien Colas
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale EA3734, Department of Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medecine, Claude Bernard University, Lyon Cedex 08 69373, France
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19
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Sjakste N, Sjakste J, Boucher JL, Baumane L, Sjakste T, Dzintare M, Meirena D, Sharipova J, Kalvinsh I. Putative role of nitric oxide synthase isoforms in the changes of nitric oxide concentration in rat brain cortex and cerebellum following sevoflurane and isoflurane anaesthesia. Eur J Pharmacol 2005; 513:193-205. [PMID: 15862801 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2005] [Accepted: 03/14/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We have previously observed an increase in nitric oxide (NO) content in rat brain cortex following halothane, sevoflurane or isoflurane anaesthesia. This study was undertaken in order to determine whether isoform-specific nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitors and inducers could modify these increases in NO contents. Rats were subjected to isoflurane and sevoflurane anaesthesia with concomitant administration of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) inhibitor 7-Nitro-indazole (7-NI), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) inhibitor 2-amino-5,6-dihydro-6-methyl-4H-1,3-thiazine (AMT) or lipopolysaccharide. NO concentration in different organs was measured by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. 7-NI significantly decreased NO concentration in cerebellum but not in brain cortex, whereas AMT decreased NO in all the organs studied. Anaesthesia significantly increased NO concentration in brain cortex and decreased that in cerebellum. AMT abolished the NO increase in brain cortex. Anaesthesia enhanced the drastic increase in NO concentration in brain cortex after intraventricular lipopolysaccharide administration. Isoflurane was found to inhibit recombinant nNOS and iNOS activities at high concentrations (EC50=20 mM). Our data suggest a putative role for iNOS in the increase in NO levels produced by isoflurane and sevoflurane, whereas nNOS activity is probably inhibited during anaesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolajs Sjakste
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, 21 Aizkraukles Street, Riga, LV-1006, Latvia.
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