Role of TLR4-Mediated PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β Signaling Pathway in Apoptosis of Rat Hepatocytes

Size- and duration-dependent toxicity of heavy vehicle tire wear particles in zebrafish

Tire wear particles (TWPs), as a pervasive environmental pollutant, pose significant risks to aquatic ecosystems. This study investigates the effects of small (HS) and large (HL) TWPs produced by heavy vehicles on zebrafish, focusing on physiological, microbial, and transcriptomic levels, as well as their intergenerational consequences, under short-term (15 days) and long-term (90 days) exposure. Short-term exposure to small particles (HS15) significantly reduced body width and triggered widespread oxidative stress, while long-term exposure to large particles (HL90) increased gut weight and decreased gill weight, reflecting respiratory and digestive disruptions. Tissue-level analyses revealed that smaller particles accumulated more readily in internal organs, whereas larger particles caused localized physiological stress. Gut microbiota profiling indicated a marked decline in microbial diversity, compositional shifts, and network simplification, with HL15 enriched in Acinetobacter and xenobiotic metabolism pathways, and HS15 exhibiting Proteobacteria-dominated dysbiosis and enrichment of LPS biosynthesis genes. Liver transcriptomics revealed group-specific responses: HL15 exposure activated innate immunity via the NOD-MAPK axis, while HS15 induced atypical PI3K-NF-κB signaling, potentially linked to microbial LPS. Notably, all TWP-exposed groups showed enrichment of the herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection pathway, suggesting a conserved antiviral-like host response. Transgenerational effects were evidenced by impaired growth and significant downregulation of GH/IGF signaling and upregulation of apoptotic genes in offspring, despite only subtle transcriptomic changes in long-term exposed parents. These findings underscore the importance of particle size, exposure duration, and microbiota-gut-liver axis interactions in mediating TWP toxicity and highlight potential transgenerational risks associated with environmental microplastic exposure.

PD15, a steroidal saponin, induces apoptosis of HCT116 colorectal cancer cells via suppressing the Akt/GSK3β pathway

OBJECTIVES

PD15, a novel natural steroidal saponin extracted from the rhizomes of Paris delavayi Franchet, has demonstrated a strong cytotoxic effect against HepG2 and U87MG cells. However, its therapeutic effects on colorectal cancer (CRC) and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear.

METHODS

MTT assay, clonogenic assay, Hoechst 33258 staining, flow cytometry, molecular docking, and western blot were used to investigate the mechanism of PD15 in HCT116 cell lines. Additionally, the anti-CRC effects of PD15 were evaluated in vivo using HCT116 xenograft models.

KEY FINDINGS

PD15 significantly inhibited cell proliferation and induced G0/G1 phase arrest in HCT116 cells. Furthermore, PD15 upregulated cleaved Caspase 3 and 9, cleaved PARP, and Bax expression levels while downregulating Bcl-2, leading to apoptosis. Further experiments revealed that PD15 downregulated the protein expression of p-Akt and p-GSK3β, with LY294002 (a PI3K/Akt inhibitor) enhancing PD15-induced apoptosis and its effects on Akt/GSK3β-associated proteins. In addition, molecular docking demonstrated that PD15 exhibited strong binding affinity with Akt and GSK3β. Critically, PD15 inhibited CRC growth in vivo without causing apparent toxicity in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that PD15 could trigger apoptosis by suppressing the Akt/GSK3β signaling pathway in HCT116 cells.

Ouabain Ameliorates Alzheimer's Disease-Associated Neuropathology and Cognitive Impairment in FAD4T Mice

Background: Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common clinical neurodegenerative disorder, primarily characterized by progressive cognitive decline and behavioral abnormalities. The hallmark pathological changes of AD include widespread neuronal degeneration, plaques formed by the deposition of amyloid β-protein (Aβ), and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). With the acceleration of global aging, the incidence of AD is rising year by year, making it a major global public health concern. Due to the complex pathology of AD, finding effective interventions has become a key focus of research. Ouabain (OUA), a cardiac glycoside, is well-known for its efficacy in treating heart disease. Recent studies have also indicated its potential in AD therapy, although its exact mechanism of action remains unclear. Methods: This study integrates bioinformatics, multi-omics technologies, and in vivo and in vitro experiments to investigate the effects of OUA on the pathophysiological changes of AD and its underlying molecular mechanisms. Results: This study analyzed the expression of the triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) across different stages of AD using bioinformatics. Serum samples from patients were used to validate soluble TREM2 (sTREM2) levels. Using an Aβ1-42-induced microglial cell model, we confirmed that OUA enhances the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway activation by upregulating TREM2, which reduces neuroinflammation and promotes the transition of microglia from an M1 proinflammatory state to an M2 anti-inflammatory state. To evaluate the in vivo effects of OUA, we assessed the learning and memory capacity of FAD4T transgenic mice using the Morris water maze and contextual fear conditioning tests. We used real-time quantitative PCR, immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting to measure the expression of inflammation-associated cytokines and to assess microglia polarization. OUA enhances cognitive function in FAD4T mice and has been confirmed to modulate microglial M1/M2 phenotypes both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, through bioinformatics analysis, molecular docking, and experimental validation, TREM2 was identified as a potential target for OUA. It regulates PI3K/Akt signaling pathway activation, playing a crucial role in OUA-mediated M2 microglial polarization and its anti-inflammatory effects in models involving Aβ1-42-stimulated BV-2 cells and FAD4T mice. Conclusions: These findings indicate that OUA exerts anti-neuroinflammatory effects by regulating microglial polarization, reducing the production of inflammatory mediators, and activating the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Given its natural origin and dual effects on microglial polarization and neuroinflammation, OUA emerges as a promising therapeutic candidate for neuroinflammatory diseases such as AD.

Toll like receptor 4 mediates the inhibitory effect of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein on proximal tubule albumin endocytosis

Tubular proteinuria is a common feature in COVID-19 patients, even in the absence of established acute kidney injury. SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S protein) was shown to inhibit megalin-mediated albumin endocytosis in proximal tubule epithelial cells (PTECs). Angiotensin-converting enzyme type 2 (ACE2) was not directly involved. Since Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) mediates S protein effects in various cell types, we hypothesized that TLR4 could be participating in the inhibition of PTECs albumin endocytosis elicited by S protein. Two different models of PTECs were used: porcine proximal tubule cells (LLC-PK1) and human embryonic kidney cells (HEK-293). S protein reduced Akt activity by specifically inhibiting of threonine 308 (Thr308) phosphorylation, a process mediated by phosphoinositide-dependent kinase 1 (PDK1). GSK2334470, a PDK1 inhibitor, decreased albumin endocytosis and megalin expression mimicking S protein effect. S protein did not change total TLR4 expression but decreased its surface expression. LPS-RS, a TLR4 antagonist, also counteracted the effects of the S protein on Akt phosphorylation at Thr308, albumin endocytosis, and megalin expression. Conversely, these effects of the S protein were replicated by LPS, an agonist of TLR4. Incubation of PTECs with a pseudovirus containing S protein inhibited albumin endocytosis. Null or VSV-G pseudovirus, used as control, had no effect. LPS-RS prevented the inhibitory impact of pseudovirus containing the S protein on albumin endocytosis but had no influence on virus internalization. Our findings demonstrate that the inhibitory effect of the S protein on albumin endocytosis in PTECs is mediated through TLR4, resulting from a reduction in megalin expression.

Toll-like receptors (TLR2 and TLR4) antagonist mitigates the onset of cerebral small vessel disease through PI3K/Akt/GSK3β pathway in stroke-prone renovascular hypertensive rats

To examine the effect and mechanism of Toll-Like Receptors (TLR2, TLR4) antagonist in CSVD. The rat model of stroke-induced renovascular hypertension (RHRSP) was constructed. TLR2 and TLR4 antagonist was administrated by Intracranial injection. Morris water maze was used to observe the behavioral changes of rat models. HE staining, TUNEL staining and Evens Blue staining were performed to evaluate the permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and examine the CSVD occurrence and neuronal apoptosis. The inflammation and oxidative stress factors were detected by ELISA. Hypoxia-glucose-deficiency (OGD) ischemia model was constructed in cultured neurons. Western blot and ELISA were used to examine the related protein expression in TLR2/TLR4 signaling pathway and PI3K/Akt/GSK3β signaling pathway. The RHRSP rat model was successfully constructed, and the blood well and BBB permeability were altered. The RHRSP rats showed cogitative impairment and excessive immune response. After TLR2/TLR4 antagonist administration, the behavior of model rats were improved, cerebral white matter injury was reduced, and the expression of several key inflammatory factors including TLR4, TLR2, Myd88 and NF-kB were decreased, as well as the ICAM-1, VCAM-1, inflammation and oxidative stress factors. In vitro experiments showed that TLR4 and TLR2 antagonist increased the cell viability, inhibited the apoptosis, and decreased p-Akt and p-GSK3β expression. Moreover, the PI3K inhibitors resulted in decreased anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory effects of TLR4 and TLR2 antagonist. These results suggested that TLR4 and TLR2 antagonist achieved protective effect on the RHRSP through the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β pathway.

Ameliorative effects of androstenediol against acetic acid-induced colitis in male wistar rats via inhibiting TLR4-mediated PI3K/Akt and NF-κB pathways through estrogen receptor β activation

5-androstenediol (ADIOL) functions as a selective estrogen receptor β (ERβ) ligand with a protective effect against many diseases. So, we conducted a novel insight into its role in acetic acid (AA)-induced colitis and investigated its effect on TLR4-Mediated PI3K/Akt and NF-κB Pathways and the potential role of ERβ as contributing mechanisms.

METHODS

Rats were randomized into 5 Groups; Control, Colitis, Colitis + mesalazine (MLZ), Colitis + ADIOL, and Colitis + ADIOL + PHTPP (ER-β antagonist). The colitis was induced through a rectal enema of acetic acid (AA) on the 8th day. At the end of treatment, colons were collected for macroscopic assessment. Tissue levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), nuclear factor kappa b (NF-κB), toll-like receptor (TLR4), and phosphorylated Protein kinase B (pAKT) were measured. Besides, Gene expression of interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), metalloproteases 9 (Mmp9), inositol 3 phosphate kinase (PI3K), Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), ERβ and NLRP6 were assessed. Histopathological and immunohistochemical studies were also investigated.

RESULTS

Compared to the untreated AA group, the disease activity index (DAI) and macroscopic assessment indicators significantly decreased with ADIOL injections. Indeed, ADIOL significantly decreased colonic tissue levels of MDA, TLR4, pAKT, and NF-κB immunostainig while increased SOD activity and β catenin immunostainig. ADIOL mitigated the high genetic expressions of IL1β, NGAL, MMP9, and PI3K while increased ERβ and NLRP6 gene expression. Also, the pathological changes detected in AA groups were markedly ameliorated with ADIOL. The specific ERβ antagonist, PHTPP, largely diminished these protective effects of ADIOL.

CONCLUSION

ADIOL could be beneficial against AA-induced colitis mostly through activating ERβ.

Flavonoid diversity and roles in the lipopolysaccharide-mediated inflammatory response of monocytes and macrophages

Targeting lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/toll-like receptor 4 signaling in mononuclear phagocytes has been explored for the treatment of inflammation and inflammation-related disorders. However, only a few key targets have been translated into clinical applications. Flavonoids, a class of ubiquitous plant secondary metabolites, possess a privileged scaffold which serves as a valuable template for designing pharmacologically active compounds directed against diseases with inflammatory components. This perspective provides a general overview of the diversity of flavonoids and their multifaceted mechanisms that interfere with LPS-induced signaling in monocytes and macrophages. Focus is placed on flavonoids targeting MD-2, IκB kinases, c-Jun N-terminal kinases, extracellular signal-regulated kinase, p38 MAPK and PI3K/Akt or modulating LPS-related gene expression.

Modulation of Heme-Induced Inflammation Using MicroRNA-Loaded Liposomes: Implications for Hemolytic Disorders Such as Malaria and Sickle Cell Disease

Hemolytic disorders, like malaria and sickle cell disease (SCD), are responsible for significant mortality and morbidity rates globally, specifically in the Americas and Africa. In both malaria and SCD, red blood cell hemolysis leads to the release of a cytotoxic heme that triggers the expression of unique inflammatory profiles, which mediate the tissue damage and pathogenesis of both diseases. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), such as miR-451a and let-7i-5p, contribute to a reduction in the pro-inflammatory responses induced by circulating free hemes. MiR-451a targets both IL-6R (pro-inflammatory) and 14-3-3ζ (anti-inflammatory), and when this miRNA is present, IL-6R is reduced and 14-3-3ζ is increased. Let-7i-5p targets and reduces TLR4, which results in anti-inflammatory signaling. These gene targets regulate inflammation via NFκB regulation and increase anti-inflammatory signaling. Additionally, they indirectly regulate the expression of key heme scavengers, such as heme-oxygenase 1 (HO-1) (coded by the HMOX1 gene) and hemopexin, to decrease circulating cytotoxic heme concentration. MiRNAs can be transported within extracellular vesicles (EVs), such as exosomes, offering insights into the mechanisms of mitigating heme-induced inflammation. We tested the hypothesis that miR-451a- or let-7i-5p-loaded artificial EVs (liposomes) will reduce heme-induced inflammation in brain vascular endothelial cells (HBEC-5i, ATCC: CRL-3245) and macrophages (THP-1, ATCC: TIB-202) in vitro. We completed arginase and nitric oxide assays to determine anti- and pro-inflammatory macrophage presence, respectively. We also assessed the gene expression of IL-6R, TLR4, 14-3-3ζ, and NFκB by RT-qPCR for both cell lines. Our findings revealed that the exposure of HBEC-5i and THP-1 to liposomes loaded with miR-451a or let-7i-5p led to a reduced mRNA expression of IL-6R, TLR4, 14-3-3ζ, and NFκB when treated with a heme. It also resulted in the increased expression of HMOX1 and hemopexin. Finally, macrophages exhibited a tendency toward adopting an anti-inflammatory differentiation phenotype. These findings suggest that miRNA-loaded liposomes can modulate heme-induced inflammation and can be used to target specific cellular pathways, mediating inflammation common to hematological conditions, like malaria and SCD.

Multimodality imaging of hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma are the two most common primary malignant tumors of the liver. The similarities and variations in imaging characteristics that may aid in distinguishing between these two primary tumors will be discussed and outlined in this review. Knowledge of imaging techniques that are currently available would assist in the differentiation between these primary malignancies.

Toll-like Receptors as Pro-Thrombotic Drivers in Viral Infections: A Narrative Review

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have a critical role in the pathogenesis and disease course of viral infections. The induced pro-inflammatory responses result in the disturbance of the endovascular surface layer and impair vascular homeostasis. The injury of the vessel wall further promotes pro-thrombotic and pro-coagulatory processes, eventually leading to micro-vessel plugging and tissue necrosis. Moreover, TLRs have a direct role in the sensing of viruses and platelet activation. TLR-mediated upregulation of von Willebrand factor release and neutrophil, as well as macrophage extra-cellular trap formation, further contribute to (micro-) thrombotic processes during inflammation. The following review focuses on TLR signaling pathways of TLRs expressed in humans provoking pro-thrombotic responses, which determine patient outcome during viral infections, especially in those with cardiovascular diseases.

S100A8 and S100A9 in Cancer

S100A8 and S100A9 are Ca²⁺ binding proteins that belong to the S100 family. Primarily expressed in neutrophils and monocytes, S100A8 and S100A9 play critical roles in modulating various inflammatory responses and inflammation-associated diseases. Forming a common heterodimer structure S100A8/A9, S100A8 and S100A9 are widely reported to participate in multiple signaling pathways in tumor cells. Meanwhile, S100A8/A9, S100A8, and S100A9, mainly as promoters, contribute to tumor development, growth and metastasis by interfering with tumor metabolism and the microenvironment. In recent years, the potential of S100A8/A9, S100A9, and S100A8 as tumor diagnostic or prognostic biomarkers has also been demonstrated. In addition, an increasing number of potential therapies targeting S100A8/A9 and related signaling pathways have emerged. In this review, we will first expound on the characteristics of S100A8/A9, S100A9, and S100A8 in-depth, focus on their interactions with tumor cells and microenvironments, and then discuss their clinical applications as biomarkers and therapeutic targets. We also highlight current limitations and look into the future of S100A8/A9 targeted anti-cancer therapy.

Partially hydrolyzed guar gum alleviates hepatic steatosis and alters specific gut microbiota in a murine liver injury model

PURPOSE

The gut microbiota, via the gut-liver axis, plays an important role in the development of intestinal failure-associated liver disease. Here, we investigated whether partially hydrolyzed guar gum (PHGG), a dietary fiber could alleviate liver damage and modulate the gut microbiota in a murine liver injury (LI) model.

METHODS

Liver injury was induced in 6-week-old male C57BL/6 mice using an enteral liquid diet composed of parenteral nutrition (LI group) and treated with 5% PHGG (LI/PHGG group). Liver histopathology was examined using oil red O and a tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) labeling. The gut microbiota was examined using 16S rRNA gene sequencing.

RESULTS

Lipid accumulation was significantly decreased in the LI /PHGG group when compared with that of the LI group. The area of TNF-α-positive cells was significantly higher in the LI group when compared with that of the control. The principal coordinate analysis (PCoA) revealed pronounced changes in the gut microbiota after PHGG treatment. Linear discriminant analysis of effect size showed that PHGG treatment significantly increased cecal abundance of Parabacteroides.

CONCLUSIONS

PHGG alleviated hepatic steatosis following liver injury in mice. The protective effect of PHGG treatment could be associated with increased abundance of Parabacteroides in the cecum.

miR-23b-3p rescues cognition in Alzheimer's disease by reducing tau phosphorylation and apoptosis via GSK-3β signaling pathways

Dysregulated microRNA (miRNA) expression in the brain can contribute to cognitive dysfunction and aberrant tau hyperphosphorylation in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Several studies have reported a role for microRNA-23b-3p (miR-23b-3p) in various neurologic disorders; however, its involvement in cognition-related functions remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the potential therapeutic effects and mechanisms of miR-23b-3p in AD. miRNA profiles in the cortex of amyloid precursor protein (APP)/presenilin 1 (PS1) double transgenic mice (APP/PS1 mice) demonstrated that miR-23b-3p was reduced. This decrease was verified in APPswe cells, SAMP8 mouse brains, and plasma from AD patients. Furthermore, glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), a major tau kinase implicated in tau pathology, was identified as a target of miR-23b-3p. Functional in vivo studies demonstrated that intracerebroventricular delivery of miR-23b-3p in APP/PS1 mice ameliorated cognitive deficits, histopathological changes, and tau phosphorylation immunoreactivity at several sites by inhibiting GSK-3β expression and activation. Similarly, the upregulation of miR-23b-3p in APPswe cells inhibited GSK-3β-mediated tau hyperphosphorylation, Aβ_1-42 generation, and neuronal apoptosis, resulting in the suppression of the GSK-3β/p-tau and Bax/caspase-3 pathways. Collectively, our findings strongly support the hypothesis that miR-23b-3p plays a neuroprotective role in AD, thereby identifying miR-23b-3p as a promising therapeutic target for AD.

Aloe-Emodin-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy Attenuates Sepsis-Associated Toxins in Selected Gram-Positive Bacteria In Vitro

Sepsis is an acute inflammatory response that leads to life-threatening complications if not quickly and adequately treated. Cytolysin, hemolysin, and pneumolysin are toxins produced by gram-positive bacteria and are responsible for resistance to antimicrobial drugs, cause virulence and lead to sepsis. This work assessed the effects of aloe-emodin (AE) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) on sepsis-associated gram-positive bacterial toxins. Standard and antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus pneumonia bacterial strains were cultured in the dark with varying AE concentrations and later irradiated with 72 J/cm-2 light. Colony and biofilm formation was determined. CCK-8, Griess reagent reaction, and ELISA assays were done on bacteria-infected RAW264.7 cells to determine the cell viability, NO, and IL-1β and IL-6 pro-inflammatory cytokines responses, respectively. Hemolysis and western blot assays were done to determine the effect of treatment on hemolysis activity and sepsis-associated toxins expressions. AE-mediated PDT reduced bacterial survival in a dose-dependent manner with 32 μg/ml of AE almost eliminating their survival. Cell proliferation, NO, IL-1β, and IL-6 cytokines production were also significantly downregulated. Further, the hemolytic activities and expressions of cytolysin, hemolysin, and pneumolysin were significantly reduced following AE-mediated PDT. In conclusion, combined use of AE and light (435 ± 10 nm) inactivates MRSA, S. aureus (ATCC 29213), S. pneumoniae (ATCC 49619), MDR-S. pneumoniae, E. faecalis (ATCC 29212), and VRE (ATCC 51299) in an AE-dose dependent manner. AE and light are also effective in reducing biofilm formations, suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines, hemolytic activities, and inhibiting the expressions of toxins that cause sepsis.

The anticarcinogenic and anticancer effects of the dietary flavonoid, morin: Current status, challenges, and future perspectives

Flavonoids constitute one of the most important classes of polyphenols, which have been found to have a wide range of biological activities such as anticancer effects. A large body of evidence demonstrates that morin as a pleiotropic dietary flavonoid possesses potent anticarcinogenic and anticancer activities with minimal toxicity against normal cells. The present review comprehensively elaborates the molecular mechanisms underlying antitumorigenic and anticancer effects of morin. Morin exerts its anticarcinogenic effects through multiple cancer preventive mechanisms, including reduction of oxidative stress, activation of phase II enzymes, induction of apoptosis, attenuation of inflammatory mediators, and downregulation of p-Akt and NF-κB expression. A variety of molecular targets and signaling pathways such as apoptosis, cell cycle, reactive oxygen species (ROS), matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and microRNAs (miRNAs) as well as signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), NF-κB, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and Hippo pathways have been found to be involved in the anticancer effects of morin. In the adjuvant therapy, morin has been shown to have synergistic anticancer effects with several chemotherapeutic drugs. The findings of this review indicate that morin can act as a promising chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agent.

Current Study of RhoA and Associated Signaling Pathways in Gastric Cancer

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fourth-most common cancer in the world, with an estimated 1.034 million new cases in 2015, and the third-highest cause of cancer deaths, estimated at 785,558, in 2014. Early diagnosis and treatment greatly affect the survival rate in patients with GC: the 5-year survival rate of early GC reaches 90%-95%, while the mortality rate significantly increases if GC develops to the late stage. Recently, studies for the role of RhoA in the diseases have become a hot topic, especially in the development of tumors. A study found that RhoA can regulate actin polymerization, cell adhesion, motor-myosin, cell transformation, and the ability to participate in the activities of cell movement, proliferation, migration, which are closely related to the invasion and metastasis of tumor cells. However, the specific role of RhoA in tumor cells remains to be studied. Therefore, our current study aimed to briefly review the role of RhoA in GC, especially for its associated signaling pathways involved in the GC progression.

Toxic Effects of Docosahexaenoic Acid Treatment in the Rat Liver BRL-3A Cell

The cytotoxicity of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on normal cells is still unclear. This study investigated the effects of DHA on the cytotoxicity and possible mechanism in the BRL-3A cell. The cultured rat liver BRL-3A cell line was treated with 50, 100 and 200 μM DHA for 24 h. The cell viability was increased in the 50 and 100 μM DHA treatments, but decreased in the 200 μM DHA treatment. The 50, 100 and 200 μM DHA treatments increased the proportion of the apoptotic cells, the levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alkaline phosphatase (AKP) and IL-6 in the supernatant, and the ratio of the phosphonated p38MAPK to the p38MAPK (p-p38/p38) protein in the cells. The expression of TGF beta-activated kinase 1 (TAK1), nuclear transcription factor-κB p65 (NF-κB p65) and the inhibitor of NF-κB alpha (IκBα) mRNA, and the ratio of the phosphonated IκBα (p-IκBα) to IκBα protein were increased in the 200 μM DHA treatment, while the ratio of phosphonated extracellular regulated protein kinases (p-ERK) to ERK protein was decreased in the 200 μM DHA treatment. These results indicate that DHA-treated (50, 100 and 200 μM) BRL-3A cells for 24 h promotes cell apoptosis and inflammatory response, and the p38 MAPK, ERK and NF-κB signal pathways were involved in mediating the apoptosis and inflammatory response.

MicroRNA: Could It Play a Role in Bovine Endometritis?

Endometritis in dairy cows is a major economic problem worldwide; without advances in lifestyle management and drug treatment, it causes high morbidity and death. Micro ribonucleic acid (miRNAs) these days is seen as an important part of gene control networks. It is a class of small nucleotides 20-25, single-stranded RNA molecules. In endometritis, the inflammatory response caused by the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli (E. coli) alters the expression of miRNA which can regulate the innate immune system. This manuscript reviews (1) the interaction of miRNAs with the signaling of NF-κB and dysregulation of miRNAs and NF-κB activity in endometritis and (2) the activity of miR-let-7c, miR-148a, and miR-488 in NF-κB activation and their effect on endometritis. Cows with reduced immunity are more vulnerable to transition diseases, such as endometritis. During post-partum, cows undergo stress, metabolic disorders, hormonal imbalance, negative energy balance, and changes in diet. One of the many categories of regulatory molecules, which explain its natural function and pathological impact on NF-κB dysregulation, is important to inform the complexity of the immune system and to develop treatments for endometritis. It shows that miRNAs could have multiple applications in veterinary medicine. Nevertheless, a comprehensive study of is essential which should be aimed at exploring the role of microRNA at physiological level and its effect due to dysfunction and dysregulation.

PP9, a steroidal saponin, induces G2/M arrest and apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/GSK3β pathway

Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents one of the commonest malignancies around the world. PP9, a natural steroidal saponin, was firstly isolated from the rhizomes of Paris polyphylla var. latifolia. However, the therapeutic effects of PP9 on CRC and the underlying molecular mechanism remain undefined. Here, we demonstrated that treatment with PP9 time- and dose-dependently inhibited HT-29 and HCT116 cells without significantly inhibiting normal NCM460 cells. Furthermore, our results indicated that PP9 effectively induced G2/M phase arrest by upregulating p21 and suppressing cdc25C, Cyclin B1 and cdc2. Meanwhile, PP9 upregulated cleaved Caspase 3, cleaved Caspase 9 and cleaved PARP and Bax, while downregulating Bcl-2 to stimulate cell apoptosis. Mechanistically, PP9-suppressed PI3K/Akt/GSK3β signaling, while the PI3K inhibitor LY294002 augmented PP9-mediated apoptosis, G2/M arrest and effects on PI3K/Akt/GSK3β related proteins. Finally, we showed that PP9 (10 mg/kg) significantly reduced tumor growth in nude mouse CRC xenografts, more potently than 5-Fu (20 mg/kg). Jointly, these data firstly demonstrated that PP9 promotes G2/M arrest and apoptotic death in CRC cells through PI3K/Akt/GSK3β signaling suppression, suggesting that PP9 could be considered a new and promising candidate for CRC therapy.

WBSCR22 confers cell survival and predicts poor prognosis in glioma

Human WBSCR22 is involved in cancer proliferation, invasion and metastasis; however, its function in glioma remains unexplored. In our research, we aimed to investigate the role of WBSCR22 in the development of glioma and its possible molecular mechanisms. Using bioinformatic analysis of public datasets, we determined that WBSCR22 overexpression in glioma specimens was correlated with an unfavorable patient prognosis. Our results revealed that WBSCR22 was highly expressed in glioma cell lines. The loss of WBSCR22 inhibited the growth, invasion and migration of glioma cells, while WBSCR22 overexpression produced the opposite effects. Moreover, we found that WBSCR22 downregulation reduced the phosphorylation of Akt and GSK3β and decreased the levels of β-catenin and CyclinD1 in glioma cells. The opposite effects were observed when WBSCR22 was overexpressed. Additionally, we verified with a dual-luciferase reporter assay that WBSCR22 was a direct target of miR-146b-5p. Furthermore, overexpression of miR-146b-5p suppressed WBSCR22 mRNA and protein expression. Notably, the restoration of WBSCR22 expression remarkably reversed the effects of miR-146b-5p overexpression on cell survival, apoptosis and the cell cycle in glioma cells. Collectively, our findings revealed a tumor-promoting role for WBSCR22 in glioma cells, thus providing molecular evidence for WBSCR22 as a novel therapeutic target in glioma.

Inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3β improves cognitive function in aged mice by upregulating claudin presences in cerebral endothelial cells

Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK-3β), a serine/threonine protein kinase, is widely distributed in mammalian brains. Since GSK-3β plays a vital role in the development of neurodegenerative disorders, the present study was designed to investigate the role of GSK-3β in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability in aged mice. Morris water maze test was used to examine mouse cognitive function. BBB permeability was examined by the leakage of fluorescence signals of low-molecular weight dextran. GSK-3β inhibitor, 4-benzyl-2-methyl-1,2,4-thiadiazolidine-3,5-dione (TDZD-8), was administrated in aged mice and in cultured mouse brain microvascular endothelial cells (bEnd.3). Compared with young mice, aged mice had increased leftover signals of dextran in the hippocampus and a lower score in the maze test, suggesting that aged mice have abnormal leakage of BBB and cognitive dysfunction. The protein expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) was increased, whereas the protein expressions of junction proteins (claudin1 and claudin5) were reduced in endothelial cells of BBB in aged mice. Phosphorylated level of serine 9, an inhibitory residue in GSK-3β protein, was decreased. TDZD-8 treatment downregulated TLR4 protein expression, upregulated claudin1 and claudin5 protein expressions, and significantly improved cognitive function in aged mice. In bEnd.3 cells, TDZD-8 treatment reduced TLR4 expression and increased claudin5 expression in cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharides. In conclusion, the inhibition of GSK-3β activity downregulates aging-induced TLR4 expression and restores the BBB integrity, resulting in the improvement of cognitive function in aged mice.

Profilin 2 Promotes Proliferation and Metastasis of Head and Neck Cancer Cells by Regulating PI3K/AKT/β-Catenin Signaling Pathway

Profilin 2 (PFN2) was found to be mainly expressed in neurons and involved in the development of the brain. In recent years, emerging evidence indicated that PFN2 is also significantly upregulated in various cancers including head and neck cancer (HNSC) and influences cancer cell proliferation, migration, and invasion. However, the role of PFN2 in HNSC development and progression remains unclear. The aim of our study was to investigate the role of PFN2 in the development of HNSC and its possible molecular mechanisms. Bioinformatics showed that increased expression of PFN2 in tumors correlated highly with poor prognosis of HNSC patients. Our results indicated that PFN2 was highly expressed in HNSC tissues and in HNSC cell lines. Knockdown of PFN2 inhibited proliferation, invasion, and migration of HNSC cells, while PFN2 overexpression produced the opposite effects. Using a nude mouse xenograft model, we substantiated the tumor-promoting effect of PFN2 on HNSC in vivo. Furthermore, we found that PFN2 downregulation reduced the phosphorylation of Akt and GSK-3β and reduced the expression of β-catenin in HNSC cells. The opposite was observed when PFN2 was overexpressed. Collectively, these results suggest that PFN2 promotes the proliferation and metastasis of HNSC by activating the PI3K/Akt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Although further validation is needed, we speculate that PFN2 plays a crucial role in HNSC and may be a promising therapeutic target and prognostic biomarker.

Neuroprotective potential of ketamine prevents developing brain structure impairment and alteration of neurocognitive function induced via isoflurane through the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β pathway

Background

The aim of the current experimental study was to scrutinize the neuroprotective effect of ketamine on the isoflurane (iso)-induced cognitive dysfunction in rats via phosphoinositide 3 kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) pathway.

Materials and methods

Sprague-Dawley rats were used for the current experimental study. The rats were divided into six groups and rats were treated with ketamine and memantine. For the estimation of cognitive function study, we used the Morris water test. Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and caspase-6; the antioxidant parameters malondialdehyde, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and protein carbonyl; acetylcholinesterase, amyloid β, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor were estimated, respectively. The protein expression of AKT, GSK-3β, p21WAF1/CIP1, and p53 was also estimated, respectively.

Results

Ketamine significantly enhanced cognitive function and showed anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, and exhibited the neuroprotective effect of ketamine against the isoflurane-induced cognitive impairment. Additionally, ketamine significantly (P<0.005) suppressed IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, caspase-6 and p21WAF1/CIP1, p53 expression and up-regulated the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β expression in the group of iso-induced rats.

Conclusion

We can conclude that ketamine prevented the cognitive impairment induced by isoflurane anesthesia through anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects via the PI3K/AKT/GSK-3β pathway.

Isoliquiritigenin protects against blood‑brain barrier damage and inhibits the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in mice after traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) caused by an external mechanical force acting on the brain is a serious neurological condition. Inflammation plays an important role in prolonging secondary tissue injury after TBI, leading to neuronal cell death and dysfunction. Isoliquiritigenin (ILG) is a flavonoid monomer with anti-inflammatory characteristic. Thus, we had investigated the potential protective effects of ILG on TBI-induced injuries and identified the mechanisms underlying it. Here, we have demonstrated that ILG preserves blood brain barrier (BBB) integrity in vivo, suppresses the activation of microglia and inflammatory responses in mice after TBI, consequently leading to neurofunctional deficits, brain oedema, structural damage, and macrophage infiltration. In vitro, ILG exerts anti-inflammatory effect, and upregulates tight junction proteins 120‑β‑catenin and occludin in SH‑SY5Y cells under oxygen glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/D) condition. Additionally, we found that PI3K/AKT/GSK‑3β signalling pathway is involved in ILG treatment for TBI. To further confirm it, we had used SC79 (ethyl 2‑amino‑6‑chloro‑4‑(1‑cyano‑2‑ethoxy‑2‑oxoethyl)‑4H‑chromene‑3‑carboxylate), an Akt specific activator, to activate Akt, we found that SC79 partially reduces the protective effect of ILG for TBI. Overall, our current study reveals the neuroprotective role of ILG on TBI-induced BBB damage, downregulated tight junction proteins via PI3K/AKT/GSK‑3β signalling pathway. Furthermore, ILG suppresses the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines after TBI through inhibiting the PI3K/AKT/GSK‑3β/NF‑κB signalling pathway. Our findings suggest that GSK‑3β is a key regulatory factor during TBI-induced secretion of inflammatory cytokines, neuronal apoptosis and destruction of BBB.

Possible mechanisms mediating apoptosis of bronchial epithelial cells in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease - A next-generation sequencing approach

PURPOSE

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a chronic inflammatory airway disease characterized by persistent airflow limitation. Apoptosis of pulmonary structural cells contributes to pulmonary destruction and dysfunction. This study aimed to explore the possible mechanisms underlying decreased cell proliferation and increased apoptosis of bronchial epithelial cells of COPD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The expression profiles of mRNAs and microRNAs in bronchial epithelial cells from a COPD patient and a normal subject were identified using next-generation sequencing (NGS) and analyzed using bioinformatic tools.

RESULTS

We identified 233 significantly upregulated and 204 significantly downregulated genes in COPD bronchial epithelial cells. The PI3K-Akt pathway was one of the most important dysregulated pathways in bronchial epithelial cells. We further identified that 3 genes involved in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, including IL6, F2R, and FGFR3, might be associated with inhibition of cell proliferation in bronchial epithelial cells, while 5 genes involved in the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, including TLR4, IL6, F2R, FGFR3, and FGFR1, might be associated with apoptosis of bronchial epithelial cells. FGFR1 was also a predicted target for some up-regulated miRNAs in COPD bronchial epithelial cells, including hsa-miR-195-5p, hsa-miR-424-5p, and hsa-miR-6724-5p.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest PI3K-Akt signaling pathway plays an important role in COPD. We observed altered expression of apoptosis and cell proliferation-related genes that might contribute to the pathogenesis of COPD.

Systemic inflammation induced by lipopolysaccharide aggravates inherited retinal dystrophy

Retinal neurodegenerative diseases involve a scenario of inflammation and cell death that leads to morphological alterations and visual impairment. Non-ocular inflammatory processes could affect neurodegenerative retinal disorders and their progression, at least in part by activating microglial cells and releasing pro-inflammatory cytokines. Our purpose was to study the consequences of a systemic inflammatory process in the progression of retinal degeneration in P23H rats, a retinitis pigmentosa (RP) model. In order to induce a mild chronic systemic inflammation, we administered low doses of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from age P20 to P60 to dystrophic P23H rats and healthy SD rats. Visual responsiveness was assessed by electroretinography (ERG). The morphological state of the retinas was analyzed by fluorescent immunohistochemistry (IHC), evaluating the number, morphology, and connectivity of different neuronal populations by means of cell type-specific markers. Microglia density, distribution, and degree of activation were evaluated by IHC and flow cytometry. The expression levels of inflammation- and apoptosis-related genes were analyzed by qRT-PCR arrays. Low-dose LPS administration did not induce significant functional or morphological changes in the retina of SD rats, although at the molecular level, we detected expression changes in genes related to apoptosis. Otherwise, systemic injection of LPS into P23H rats induced a further deterioration in the ERG response, with greater loss of photoreceptors and worsening of synaptic connectivity, accompanied by increasing numbers of microglial cells, which also showed a more intense activation state. Several inflammation- and apoptosis-related genes were upregulated. Our results indicate that chronic exacerbation of the inflammatory response in response to LPS accelerates neurodegeneration in dystrophic P23H rats, suggesting that in patients with ocular neurodegenerative diseases, peripheral damage, as a systemic infection or chronic inflammatory process, could accelerate disease progression, and should be taken into account in order to select an appropriate therapy to revert, block or slow-down the degenerative process.

Nogo receptor knockdown and ciliary neurotrophic factor attenuate diabetic retinopathy in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a common complication of diabetes mellitus (DM). We investigated whether Nogo receptor (NgR) knockdown and ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) treatment, either alone or in combination, ameliorated diabetic retinopathy (DR) in diabetic rat model. STZ‑induced diabetic rats were administrated for a total of 12 weeks with 3 µM siRNA (5 µl) once every 6 weeks and/or 1 µg CNTF weekly. The retinal tissues were excised. We measured cell number in ganglion cell layer (GCL) using H&E staining and cell apoptosis using TUNEL assay. Bax, Bcl‑2, Caspase‑3, F‑actin, GAP‑43, NgR, RhoA and Rock1 levels were then analyzed by Western blotting, Immunohistochemistry or Real‑time PCR. We found that NgR siRNA or CNTF injection alone significantly increased cell count in GCL in diabetic rats, inhibited ganglion cell apoptosis, elevated Bcl‑2, F‑actin and GAP‑43, and decreased Bax, Caspase‑3, NgR, RhoA and Rock1 levels. Combination treatment further prevented retinal ganglion cell loss, enhanced growth cone cytoskeleton and axonal regeneration, and suppressed NgR/RhoA/Rock1. Our results indicate that combination therapy has therapeutic potential for the treatment of DR.

MicroRNA-1284 Inhibits Cell Viability and Induces Apoptosis of Ovarian Cancer Cell Line OVCAR3

Ovarian cancer is a malignancy with high mortality among women. Multiple reports show that microRNAs (miRs) act as regulators in ovarian cancer inhibition, while the role of miR-1284 in ovarian cancer is still unknown. This study aimed to investigate the effects of miR-1284 on ovarian cancer cells. Human ovarian cancer cell line OVCAR3 was cultured and transfected with miR-1284 mimics, inhibitors, or control. Viability and apoptosis of transfected cells were then determined by MTT assay, BrdU assay, and flow cytometry. Expression changes of p27, p21, and PI3K/Akt pathway-related proteins were measured by Western blot. Results showed that miR-1284 overexpression suppressed cell viability while increasing the apoptosis in OVCAR3 cells. Moreover, the expression level of p27 was upregulated by miR-1284 overexpression. Furthermore, miR-1284 overexpression and Akt inhibitor GSK690693 downregulated the levels of p-Akt and Bcl-2 while upregulating the levels of Bax and caspase 3. However, miR-1284 suppression attenuated the regulatory effects of GSK690693 on these proteins. In conclusion, miR-1284 could inhibit cell viability via regulating the expression of p27 and induce apoptosis via regulating the PI3K/Akt pathway in OVCAR3 cells.