Emerging roles of focal adhesion kinase in cancer. Biomed Res Int. 2015;2015:690690. [PMID: 25918719 PMCID: PMC4396139 DOI: 10.1155/2015/690690]

Integrins as the pivotal regulators of cisplatin response in tumor cells

Cisplatin (CDDP) is a widely used first-line chemotherapeutic drug in various cancers. However, CDDP resistance is frequently observed in cancer patients. Therefore, it is required to evaluate the molecular mechanisms associated with CDDP resistance to improve prognosis among cancer patients. Integrins are critical factors involved in tumor metastasis that regulate cell-matrix and cell-cell interactions. They modulate several cellular mechanisms including proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, polarity, and chemo resistance. Modification of integrin expression levels can be associated with both tumor progression and inhibition. Integrins are also involved in drug resistance of various solid tumors through modulation of the tumor cell interactions with interstitial matrix and extracellular matrix (ECM). Therefore, in the present review we discussed the role of integrin protein family in regulation of CDDP response in tumor cells. It has been reported that integrins mainly promoted the CDDP resistance through interaction with PI3K/AKT, MAPK, and WNT signaling pathways. They also regulated the CDDP mediated apoptosis in tumor cells. This review paves the way to suggest the integrins as the reliable therapeutic targets to improve CDDP response in tumor cells.

A clinical prognostic model of oxidative stress-related genes linked to tumor immune cell infiltration and the prognosis of ovarian cancer patients

Background

According to statistics, ovarian cancer (OV) is the most prevalent type of gynecologic malignancy and has the highest mortality rate of all gynecologic tumors. Although several studies have shown that oxidative stress (OS) contributes significantly to the onset and progression of cancer, the role of OS in OV needs to be investigated further. Thus, it is critical to comprehend the function of OS-related genes in OV.

Methods

In this study, all data related to the transcriptome and clinical status of the patients were retrieved from "The Cancer Genome Atlas" (TCGA) and "Gene Expression Omnibus" (GEO) databases. Using the unsupervised cluster analysis technique, all patients with OV were classified into two different subtypes (categories) based on the OS gene. All hub genes were screened using the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA). Since the hub genes and the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in both categories were found to intersect, the univariate Cox regression analysis was implemented. A multivariate Cox analysis was also performed to construct a novel clinical prognosis model, which was validated using data from the GEO cohort. In addition, the relationship between risk score and immune cell infiltration level was evaluated using CIBERSORT. Finally, qRT-PCR was used to confirm the expression of the genes used to construct the model.

Results

Two subtypes of OS were obtained. The findings indicated that OS-C1 had a better survival outcome than OS-C2. The results of WGCNA yielded 112 hub genes. For univariate COX regression analyses, 49 OS-related trait genes were obtained. Finally, a clinical prognostic model containing two genes was constructed. This model could differentiate between patients with OV having varying years of survival in the TCGA and GEO cohorts. The model risk score was verified as an independent prognostic indicator. According to the results of CIBERSORT, many tumor-infiltrating immune cells were found to be significantly related to the risk score. Furthermore, the results revealed that patients with low-risk OV in the CTLA4 treatment group had a high likelihood of benefiting from immunotherapy. qRT-PCR results also showed that the expression of MARVELD1 and VSIG4 was high in the OV samples.

Conclusions

Analysis of the results suggested that the newly developed model, which contained two characteristic OS-related genes, could successfully predict the survival outcomes of all patients with OV. The findings of this study could offer valuable information and insights into the refinement of personalized therapy and immunotherapy for OV in the future.

Emerging roles of prominin-1 (CD133) in the dynamics of plasma membrane architecture and cell signaling pathways in health and disease

Prominin-1 (CD133) is a cholesterol-binding membrane glycoprotein selectively associated with highly curved and prominent membrane structures. It is widely recognized as an antigenic marker of stem cells and cancer stem cells and is frequently used to isolate them from biological and clinical samples. Recent progress in understanding various aspects of CD133 biology in different cell types has revealed the involvement of CD133 in the architecture and dynamics of plasma membrane protrusions, such as microvilli and cilia, including the release of extracellular vesicles, as well as in various signaling pathways, which may be regulated in part by posttranslational modifications of CD133 and its interactions with a variety of proteins and lipids. Hence, CD133 appears to be a master regulator of cell signaling as its engagement in PI3K/Akt, Src-FAK, Wnt/β-catenin, TGF-β/Smad and MAPK/ERK pathways may explain its broad action in many cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration or intercellular communication. Here, we summarize early studies on CD133, as they are essential to grasp its novel features, and describe recent evidence demonstrating that this unique molecule is involved in membrane dynamics and molecular signaling that affects various facets of tissue homeostasis and cancer development. We hope this review will provide an informative resource for future efforts to elucidate the details of CD133's molecular function in health and disease.

Comprehensive pan-cancer analysis of 33 human cancers reveals immunotherapeutic value of focal adhesion tyrosine kinase

The immune environment in tumors is the key factor affecting the survival and immunotherapeutic response of patients. This research aimed to explore the underlying association between focal adhesion tyrosine kinase (FAK/PTK2) and cancer immunotherapy in 33 human cancers. Gene expression data and clinical features of 33 cancers were retrieved from the Cancer Genome Atlas Database. The immunotherapy cohorts included GSE67501, GSE78220, and IMVIGOR210, which were derived from the comprehensive gene expression database or from previous studies. Clinical parameters including patient age, gender, survival rate, and tumor stage were analyzed to evaluate the prognostic value of FAK/PTK2. FAK/PTK2 activity was detected by single-sample gene set enrichment analysis and used to compare the difference between FAK/PTK2 transcriptome and protein expression levels. To better understand the role of FAK/PTK2 in cancer immunotherapy, we analyzed its correlations with tumor microenvironment and with immune processes/elements (e.g., immune cell infiltration, immunosuppressants, and stimulants) and major histocompatible complexes. Potential pathways associated with FAK/PTK2 signaling in cancers were also explored. Correlations between FAK/PTK2 and 2 immunotherapeutic biomarkers (tumor mutation load and microsatellite instability) were studied. Finally, the 3 independent immunotherapy cohorts were used to study the relationship between FAK/PTK2 and immunotherapeutic response. Although FAK/PTK2 is not closely associated with age (13/33), gender (5/33), or tumor stage (5/33) in any of the studied human cancers, it has potential prognostic value for predicting patient survival. Consistency between FAK/PTK2 activity and expression exists in some cancers (3/33). Generally, FAK/PTK2 is robustly correlated with immune cell infiltration, immune modulators, and immunotherapeutic markers. Moreover, high FAK/PTK2 expression is significantly related to immune-relevant pathways. However, FAK/PTK2 is not significantly correlated with the immunotherapeutic response. Research on the immunotherapeutic value of FAK/PTK2 in 33 human cancers provides evidence regarding the function of FAK/PTK2 and its role in clinical treatment. However, given the use of a bioinformatics approach, our results are preliminary and require further validation.

Decoding the synergistic potential of MAZ-51 and zingerone as therapy for melanoma treatment in alignment with sustainable development goals

Melanoma, an invasive class of skin cancer, originates from mutations in melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells. Globally, approximately 132,000 new cases are reported each year, and in South Africa, the incidence stands at 2.7 per 100,000 people, signifying a worrisome surge in melanoma rates. Therefore, there is a need to explore treatment modalities that will target melanoma's signalling pathways. Melanoma metastasis is aided by ligand activity of transforming growth factor-beta 1 (TGF-β1), vascular endothelial growth factor-C (VEGF-C) and C-X-C chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) which bind to their receptors and promote tumour cell survival, lymphangiogenesis and chemotaxis. (3-(4-dimethylaminonaphthelen-1-ylmethylene)-1,3-dihydroindol-2-one) MAZ-51 is an indolinone-based molecule that inhibits VEGF-C induced phosphorylation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 3 (VEGFR-3). Despite the successful use of conventional cancer therapies, patients endure adverse side effects and cancer drug resistance. Moreover, conventional therapies are toxic to the environment and caregivers. The use of medicinal plants and their phytochemical constituents in cancer treatment strategies has become more widespread because of the rise in drug resistance and the development of unfavourable side effects. Zingerone, a phytochemical derived from ginger exhibits various pharmacological properties positioning it as a promising candidate for cancer treatment. This review provides an overview of melanoma biology and the intracellular signalling pathways promoting cell survival, proliferation and adhesion. There is a need to align health and environmental objectives within sustainable development goals 3 (good health and well-being), 13 (climate action) and 15 (life on land) to promote early detection of skin cancer, enhance sun-safe practices, mitigation of environmental factors and advancing the preservation of biodiversity, including medicinal plants. Thus, this review discusses the impact of cytostatic cancer drugs on patients and the environment and examines the potential use of phytochemicals as adjuvant therapy.

Combining QSAR techniques, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations to explore anti-tumor inhibitors targeting Focal Adhesion Kinase

Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) is an important target for tumor therapy and is closely related to tumor cell genesis and progression. In this paper, we selected 46 FAK inhibitors with anticancer activity in the pyrrolo pyrimidine backbone to establish 3D/2D-QSAR models to explore the relationship between inhibitory activity and molecular structure. We have established two ideal models, namely, the Topomer CoMFA model (q 2 = 0.715, r 2 = 0.984) and the Holographic Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (HQSAR) model (q 2 = 0.707, r 2 = 0.899). Both models demonstrate excellent external prediction capabilities.Based on the QSAR results, we designed 20 structurally modified novel compounds, which were subjected to molecular docking and molecular dynamics studies, and the results showed that the new compounds formed many robust interactions with residues within the active pocket and could maintain stable binding to the receptor proteins. This study not only provides a powerful screening tool for designing novel FAK inhibitors, but also presents a series of novel FAK inhibitors with high micromolar activity that can be used for further characterization. It provides a reference for addressing the shortcomings of drug metabolism and drug resistance of traditional FAK inhibitors, as well as the development of novel clinically applicable FAK inhibitors.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Human amniotic membrane inhibits migration and invasion of muscle-invasive bladder cancer urothelial cells by downregulating the FAK/PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway

Bladder cancer is the 10th most commonly diagnosed cancer with the highest lifetime treatment costs. The human amniotic membrane (hAM) is the innermost foetal membrane that possesses a wide range of biological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and anticancer properties. Despite the growing number of studies, the mechanisms associated with the anticancer effects of human amniotic membrane (hAM) are poorly understood. Here, we reported that hAM preparations (homogenate and extract) inhibited the expression of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition markers N-cadherin and MMP-2 in bladder cancer urothelial cells in a dose-dependent manner, while increasing the secretion of TIMP-2. Moreover, hAM homogenate exerted its antimigratory effect by downregulating the expression of FAK and proteins involved in actin cytoskeleton reorganisation, such as cortactin and small RhoGTPases. In muscle-invasive cancer urothelial cells, hAM homogenate downregulated the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signalling pathway, the key cascade involved in promoting bladder cancer. By using normal, non-invasive papilloma and muscle-invasive cancer urothelial models, new perspectives on the anticancer effects of hAM have emerged. The results identify new sites for therapeutic intervention and are prompt encouragement for ongoing anticancer drug development studies.

Hyaluronic acid: More than a carrier, having an overpowering extracellular and intracellular impact on cancer

Hyaluronic acid (HA), also named hyaluronan, is an omnipresent component of the tissue microenvironment. It is extensively used to formulate targeted drug delivery systems for cancer. Although HA itself has pivotal influences in various cancers, its calibers are somewhat neglected when using it as delivering platform to treat cancer. In the last decade, multiple studies revealed roles of HA in cancer cell proliferation, invasion, apoptosis, and dormancy through pathways like mitogen-activated protein kinase-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (MAPK/ERK), P³⁸, and nuclear factor kappa-light chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB). A more fascinating fact is that the distinct molecular weight (MW) of HA exerts disparate effects on the same type of cancer. Its overwhelming use in cancer therapy and other therapeutic products make collective research on the sundry impact of it on various types of cancer, an essential aspect to be considered in all of these domains. Even the development of new therapies against cancer needed meticulous studies on HA because of its divergence of activity based on MW. This review will provide painstaking insight into the extracellular and intracellular bioactivity of HA, its modified forms, and its MW in cancers, which may improve the management of cancer.

Xanol Promotes Apoptosis and Autophagy and Inhibits Necroptosis and Metastasis via the Inhibition of AKT Signaling in Human Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Angelica keiskei Koidzumi (A. keiskei) is used as a traditional medicine, anti-aging agent, and health food, as well as to restore vitality. Xanthoangelol (xanol), a prenylated chalcone, is the predominant constituent of A. keiskei. Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC), the most common malignancy, has a high proliferation rate and frequent metastasis. However, it is unknown whether xanol has anti-OSCC effects on apoptosis, autophagy, and necroptosis. In the present study, we purified xanol from A. keiskei and demonstrated that it suppressed cell proliferation and induced cytotoxicity in human OSCC. Xanol triggered apoptotic cell death by regulating apoptotic machinery molecules but inhibited necroptotic cell death by dephosphorylating the necroptotic machinery molecules RIP1, RIP3, and MLKL in human OSCC. We also found that xanol inhibited the PI3K/AKT/mTOR/p70S6K pathway and induced autophagosome formation by enhancing beclin-1 and LC3 expression levels and reducing p62 expression levels. Furthermore, we showed that xanol prevented the metastatic phenotypes of human OSCC by inhibiting migration and invasion via the reduction of MMP13 and VEGF. Finally, we demonstrated that xanol exerted anticancer effects on tumorigenicity associated with its transformed properties. Taken together, these findings demonstrate the anticancer effects and biological mechanism of action of xanol as an effective phytomedicine for human OSCC.

Machilin D Promotes Apoptosis and Autophagy, and Inhibits Necroptosis in Human Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cells

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) accounts for about 90% of all head and neck cancers, the prognosis is very poor, and there are no effective targeted therapies. Herein, we isolated Machilin D (Mach), a lignin, from the roots of Saururus chinensis (S. chinensis) and assessed its inhibitory effects on OSCC. Herein, Mach had significant cytotoxicity against human OSCC cells and showed inhibitory effects against cell adhesion, migration, and invasion by inhibiting adhesion molecules, including the FAK/Src pathway. Mach suppressed the PI3K/AKT/mTOR/p70S6K pathway and MAPKs, leading to apoptotic cell death. We investigated other modes of programmed cell death in these cells and found that Mach increased LC3I/II and Beclin1 and decreased p62, leading to autophagosomes, and suppressed the necroptosis-regulatory proteins RIP1 and MLKL. Our findings provide evidence that the inhibitory effects of Mach against human YD-10B OSCC cells are related to the promotion of apoptosis and autophagy and inhibition of necroptosis and are mediated via focal adhesion molecules.

Peptide deregulated in hypertrophic scar-1 alleviates hypertrophic scar fibrosis by targeting focal adhesion kinase and pyruvate kinase M2 and remodeling the metabolic landscape

Hypertrophic scarring is a fibrotic skin disease characterized by excessive deposition of collagens. Emerging evidence has suggested important roles for peptides in fibrosis-related diseases. Here, we demonstrate that a skin-derived endogenous peptide, peptide deregulated in hypertrophic scar-1 (PDHS1), with the sequence IATTTASAATAAAIGATPRAK, inhibits cell proliferation, promotes apoptosis, decreases the proportion of cells in S phase, and decreases collagen synthesis in hypertrophic scar fibroblasts. Additionally, treatment with PDHPS1 alleviates hypertrophic scarring in a rabbit ear model. PDHPS1 was found to bind to focal adhesion kinase (FAK) and to decrease its activity. PDHPS1 was also shown to bind to pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2) and to decreased its expression. Smad2 phosphorylation is also inhibited by treatment with PDHPS1. Overexpression of FAK rescues the decreased expression of COL3A1 induced by PDHPS1 treatment. Targeted metabolomics revealed that PDHPS1 reprogramed metabolism that related to amino acid synthesis, leading to decreases of the key glycolysis intermediates glucose-6-phosphate and fructose-6-phosphate. These results demonstrated that the endogenous peptide PDHPS1 alleviates hypertrophic scar fibrosis in vitro and in vivo by targeting FAK and PKM2 and remodeling the metabolic landscape. Overall, treatment with PDHPS1 is a potential therapeutic strategy for hypertrophic scarring.

Cycloartocarpin Inhibits Migration through the Suppression of Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition and FAK/AKT Signaling in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Cells

Lung cancer metastasis is a multifaceted process that accounts for 90% of cancer deaths. According to several studies, the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) plays an essential role in lung cancer metastasis. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the potential pharmacological effect of cycloartocarpin on the suppression of metastasis-related behaviors and EMT. An MTT assay was used to examine cell viability. Cell migration was determined using a wound healing assay. Anchorage-independent cell growth was also performed. Western blot analysis was used to identify the key signaling proteins involved in the regulation of EMT and migration. The results found that non-toxic concentrations of cycloartocarpin (10-20 μM) effectively suppressed cell migration and attenuated anchorage-independent growth in H292, A549, and H460 cells. Interestingly, these effects were consistent with the findings of Western blot analysis, which revealed that the level of phosphorylated focal adhesion kinase (p-FAK), phosphorylated ATP-dependent tyrosine kinase (p-AKT), and cell division cycle 42 (Cdc42) were significantly reduced, resulting in the inhibition of the EMT process, as evidenced by decreased N-cadherin, vimentin, and slug expression. Taken together, the results suggest that cycloartocarpin inhibits EMT by suppressing the FAK/AKT signaling pathway, which is involved in Cdc42 attenuation. Our findings demonstrated that cycloartocarpin has antimetastatic potential for further research and development in lung cancer therapy.

Latifolin, a Natural Flavonoid, Isolated from the Heartwood of Dalbergia odorifera Induces Bioactivities through Apoptosis, Autophagy, and Necroptosis in Human Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the most common malignant neoplasm with frequent metastasis and high mortality in the oral cavity. Plant-derived natural compounds are actively progressing as a trend for cancer treatment. Latifolin (Latif), is a natural flavonoid isolated from the heartwood of Dalbergia odorifera T. Chen (D. odorifera) has been known to have beneficial effects on anti-aging, anti-carcinogenic, anti-inflammatory, and cardio-protective activities. However, the anti-cancer effects of Latif are unknown in OSCC. Herein, as a result of analysis in terms of the aggressive features of OSCCs, we found that Latif significantly inhibited the cell proliferation of human YD-8 and YD-10B OSCCs, and caused the anti-metastatic activities by effectively blocking cell migration, invasion, and adhesion via the inactivation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK)/non-receptor tyrosine kinase (Src). Moreover, we found that Latif induced apoptotic cell death to suppress the cell survival and proliferation of YD-10B OSCCs by targeting PI3K/AKT/mTOR/p70S6K signaling. Finally, we analyzed in terms of autophagy and necroptosis, which are other mechanisms of programmed cell death and survival compared to apoptosis in YD-10B OSCCs. We found that Latif suppressed autophagic-related proteins and autophagosome formation, and also Latif inhibited necroptosis by dephosphorylating necroptosis-regulatory proteins (RIP1, RIP3, and MLKL). Given these findings, our results provided new evidence for Latif's biological effect and mechanism in YD-10B OSCCs, suggesting that Latif may be a new candidate for patients with OSCCs.

Potential Focal Adhesion Kinase Inhibitors in Management of Cancer: Therapeutic Opportunities from Herbal Medicine

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a multifunctional protein involved in cellular communication, integrating and transducing extracellular signals from cell-surface membrane receptors. It plays a central role intracellularly and extracellularly within the tumor microenvironment. Perturbations in FAK signaling promote tumor occurrence and development, and studies have revealed its biological behavior in tumor cell proliferation, migration, and adhesion. Herein we provide an overview of the complex biology of the FAK family members and their context-dependent nature. Next, with a focus on cancer, we highlight the activities of FAK signaling in different types of cancer and how knowledge of them is being used for screening natural compounds used in herbal medicine to fight tumor development.

Biology of cancer; from cellular and molecular mechanisms to developmental processes and adaptation

Cancer research has been largely focused on the cellular and molecular levels of investigation. Recent data show that not only the cell but also the extracellular matrix plays a major role in the progression of malignancy. In this way, the cells and the extracellular matrix create a specific local microenvironment that supports malignant development. At the same time, cancer implies a systemic evolution which is closely related to developmental processes and adaptation. Consequently, there is currently a real gap between the local investigation of cancer at the microenvironmental level, and the pathophysiological approach to cancer as a systemic disease. In fact, the cells and the matrix are not only complementary structures but also interdependent components that act synergistically. Such relationships lead to cell-matrix integration, a supracellular form of biological organization that supports tissue development. The emergence of this supracellular level of organization, as a structure, leads to the emergence of the supracellular control of proliferation, as a supracellular function. In humans, proliferation is generally involved in developmental processes and adaptation. These processes suppose a specific configuration at the systemic level, which generates high-order guidance for local supracellular control of proliferation. In conclusion, the supracellular control of proliferation act as an interface between the downstream level of cell division and differentiation, and upstream level of developmental processes and adaptation. Understanding these processes and their disorders is useful not only to complete the big picture of malignancy as a systemic disease, but also to open new treatment perspectives in the form of etiopathogenic (supracellular or informational) therapies.

Systematic transcriptome analysis reveals molecular mechanisms and indications of bupleuri radix

Pharmacogenomic analysis based on drug transcriptomic signatures is widely used to identify mechanisms of action and pharmacological indications. Despite accumulating reports on the efficacy of medicinal herbs, related transcriptome-level analyses are lacking. The aim of the present study was to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms of action of Bupleuri Radix (BR), a widely used herbal medicine, through a systematic transcriptomic analysis. We analyzed the drug-responsive transcriptome profiling of A549 lung cancer cell line after treating them with multiple doses of BR water (W-BR) and ethanol (E-BR) extracts and their phytochemicals. In vitro validation experiments were performed using both A549 and the immortalized human keratinocyte line HaCaT. Pathway enrichment analysis revealed the anti-cancer effects of BR treatment via inhibition of cell proliferation and induction of apoptosis. Enhanced cell adhesion and migration were observed with the W-BR but not with the E-BR. Comparison with a disease signature database validated an indication of the W-BR for skin disorders. Moreover, W-BR treatment showed the wound-healing effect in skin and lung cells. The main active ingredients of BR showed only the anti-cancer effect of the E-BR and not the wound healing effect of the W-BR, suggesting the need for research on minor ingredients of BR.

Ethanolic extract of Origanum syriacum L. leaves exhibits potent anti-breast cancer potential and robust antioxidant properties

Background: Breast cancer (BC) is the second most common cancer overall. In women, BC is the most prevalent cancer and the leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Triple-negative BC (TNBC) is the most aggressive BC, being resistant to hormonal and targeted therapies. Hypothesis/Purpose: The medicinal plant Origanum syriacum L. is a shrubby plant rich in bioactive compounds and widely used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases. However, its therapeutic potential against BC remains poorly investigated. In the present study, we screened the phytochemical content of an ethanolic extract of O. syriacum (OSEE) and investigated its anticancer effects and possible underlying mechanisms of action against the aggressive and highly metastatic human TNBC cell line MDA-MB-231. Methods: MTT, trans-well migration, and scratch assays were used to assess cell viability, invasion, or migration, respectively. Antioxidant potential was evaluated in vitro using the DPPH radical-scavenging assay and levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) were assessed in cells in culture using DHE staining. Aggregation assays were used to determine cell-cell adhesion. Flow cytometry was used to analyze cell cycle progression. Protein levels of markers of apoptosis (BCL-2, pro-Caspase3, p53), proliferation (p21, Ki67), cell migration, invasion, or adhesion (FAK, E-cadherin), angiogenesis (iNOS), and cell signaling (STAT3, p38) were determined by immunoblotting. A chorioallantoic Membrane (CAM) assay evaluated in ovo angiogenesis. Results: We demonstrated that OSEE had potent radical scavenging activity in vitro and induced the generation of ROS in MDA-MB-231 cells, especially at higher OSEE concentrations. Non-cytotoxic concentrations of OSEE attenuated cell proliferation and induced G₀/G₁ cell cycle arrest, which was associated with phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, an increase in the levels of tumor suppressor protein p21, and a decrease of proliferation marker protein Ki67. Additionally, only higher concentrations of OSEE were able to attenuate inhibition of proliferation induced by the ROS scavenger N-acetyl cysteine (NAC), indicating that the anti-proliferative effects of OSEE could be ROS-dependent. OSEE stimulated apoptosis and its effector Caspase-3 in MDA-MB-231 cells, in correlation with activation of the STAT3/p53 pathway. Furthermore, the extract reduced the migration and invasive properties of MDA-MB-231 cells through the deactivation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK). OSEE also reduced the production of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and inhibited in ovo angiogenesis. Conclusion: Our findings reveal that OSEE is a rich source of phytochemicals and has robust anti-breast cancer properties that significantly attenuate the malignant phenotype of MD-MB-231 cells, suggesting that O. syriacum may not only act as a rich source of potential TNBC therapeutics but may also provide new avenues for the design of novel TNBC drugs.

The Role of ECM Remodeling, EMT, and Adhesion Molecules in Cancerous Neural Invasion: Changing Perspectives

Perineural invasion (PNI) refers to the cancerous invasion of nerves. It provides an alternative route for metastatic invasion and can exist independently in the absence of lymphatic or vascular invasion. It is a prominent characteristic of specific aggressive malignancies where it correlates with poor prognosis. The clinical significance of PNI is widely recognized despite a lack of understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying its pathogenesis. The interaction between the nerve and the cancer cells is the most pivotal PNI step which is mediated by the activation or inhibition of multiple signaling pathways that include chemokines, interleukins, nerve growth factors, and matrix metalloproteinases, to name a few. The nerve-cancer cell interaction brings about specific changes in the perineural niche, which not only affects the regular nerve functions, but also enhances the migratory, invasive, and adherent properties of the tumor cells. This review aims to elucidate the vital role of adhesion molecules, extracellular matrix, and epithelial-mesenchymal proteins that promote PNI, which may serve as therapeutic targets in the future.

ptk2 and mt2a Genes Expression in Gastritis and Gastric Cancer Patients with Helicobacter pylori Infection

BACKGROUND

ptk2 and mt2a genes contribute to the cell cycle during proliferation and apoptosis, respectively. Designing a case-control study including gastric adenocarcinoma and gastritis patients with and without Helicobacter pylori infection would lead to determinate of the correlations between ptk2 and mt2a genes expression with H. pylori infection in gastric antral epithelial cells.

METHODS

Overall, 50 and 30 gastric antral biopsy samples of gastric cancer (case group) and gastritis (control group) patients were included into study, respectively. All biopsy samples were collected considering the exclusion criteria including patients with a history of consumption of tobacco, alcohol, and anti-H. pylori drugs. Each patient group is divided into with and without H. pylori infection to detect cDNA fold changes of ptk2 and mt2a genes by using Real Time RT PCR. Furthermore, the presence of H. pylori virulence genes was detected directly by using specific primers and simple PCR on cDNA synthesized from total RNA of gastric antral biopsy samples.

RESULTS

A negative correlation was revealed between age and clinical manifestations with the ΔCt value of the ptk2 gene (P < 0.05). The H. pylori iceA1/2 and cagE genes revealed positive and negative correlations with the ΔCt value of the ptk2 gene (P < 0.05), respectively. Furthermore, a weak correlation was detectable between H. pylori babA2/B, oipA, and cagY genes and the ΔCt value of the mt2a gene in gastric antral epithelial cells of patients (P < 0.1).

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the current study opened a view for more investigation on the stunning roles of H. pylori infection in clinical outcomes through mt2a and ptk2 gene expression in gastric antral epithelial cells.

Scalable multiplex co-fractionation/mass spectrometry platform for accelerated protein interactome discovery

Co-fractionation/mass spectrometry (CF/MS) enables the mapping of endogenous macromolecular networks on a proteome scale, but current methods are experimentally laborious, resource intensive and afford lesser quantitative accuracy. Here, we present a technically efficient, cost-effective and reproducible multiplex CF/MS (mCF/MS) platform for measuring and comparing, simultaneously, multi-protein assemblies across different experimental samples at a rate that is up to an order of magnitude faster than previous approaches. We apply mCF/MS to map the protein interaction landscape of non-transformed mammary epithelia versus breast cancer cells in parallel, revealing large-scale differences in protein-protein interactions and the relative abundance of associated macromolecules connected with cancer-related pathways and altered cellular processes. The integration of multiplexing capability within an optimized workflow renders mCF/MS as a powerful tool for systematically exploring physical interaction networks in a comparative manner.

Co-fractionation/mass spectrometry (CF/MS) allows mapping protein interactomes but efficiency and quantitative accuracy are limited. Here, the authors develop a reproducible multiplexed CF/MS method and apply it to characterize interactome rewiring in breast cancer cells.

Glioblastoma: Current Status, Emerging Targets, and Recent Advances

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a highly malignant brain tumor characterized by a heterogeneous population of genetically unstable and highly infiltrative cells that are resistant to chemotherapy. Although substantial efforts have been invested in the field of anti-GBM drug discovery in the past decade, success has primarily been confined to the preclinical level, and clinical studies have often been hampered due to efficacy-, selectivity-, or physicochemical property-related issues. Thus, expansion of the list of molecular targets coupled with a pragmatic design of new small-molecule inhibitors with central nervous system (CNS)-penetrating ability is required to steer the wheels of anti-GBM drug discovery endeavors. This Perspective presents various aspects of drug discovery (challenges in GBM drug discovery and delivery, therapeutic targets, and agents under clinical investigation). The comprehensively covered sections include the recent medicinal chemistry campaigns embarked upon to validate the potential of numerous enzymes/proteins/receptors as therapeutic targets in GBM.

Recent progress on FAK inhibitors with dual targeting capabilities for cancer treatment

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK, also known as PTK2) is a tyrosine kinase that regulates integrin and growth factor signaling pathways and is involved in the migration, proliferation and survival of cancer cells. FAK is a promising target for cancer treatment. Many small molecule FAK inhibitors have been identified and proven in both preclinical and clinical studies to be effective inhibitors of tumor growth and metastasis. There are many signaling pathways, such as those involving FAK, Src, AKT, MAPK, PI3K, and EGFR/HER-2, that provide survival signals in cancer cells. Dual inhibitors that simultaneously block FAK and another factor can significantly improve efficacy and overcome some of the shortcomings of single-target inhibitors, including drug resistance. In this review, the antitumor mechanisms and research status of dual inhibitors of FAK and other targets, such as Pyk2, IGF-IR, ALK, VEGFR-3, JAK2, EGFR, S6K1, and HDAC2, are summarized, providing new ideas for the development of effective FAK dual-target preparations.

The Development of FAK Inhibitors: A Five-Year Update

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a non-receptor tyrosine kinase over-expressed in different solid cancers. In recent years, FAK has been recognized as a new target for the development of antitumor agents, useful to contrast tumor development and metastasis formation. To date, studies on the role of FAK and FAK inhibitors are of great interest for both pharmaceutical companies and academia. This review is focused on compounds able to block FAK with different potencies and with different mechanisms of action, that have appeared in the literature since 2017. Furthermore, new emerging PROTAC molecules have appeared in the literature. This summary could improve knowledge of new FAK inhibitors and provide information for future investigations, in particular, from a medicinal chemistry point of view.

Repositioning of experimentally validated anti-breast cancer peptides to target FAK-PAX complex to halt the breast cancer progression: a biomolecular simulation approach

FAK (focal adhesin kinase), a tyrosine kinase, plays an imperative role in cell-cell communication, particularly in cell signaling systems. It is a multi-functional signaling protein, which integrates and transduces signals into cancer cells through growth factor receptors or integrin and its interaction with Paxillin (PAX). The molecular processes by which FAK promotes the development and progression of cancer have progressively established the possible relationship between FAK-PAX complex in many types of cancer. The interaction of FAX and PAX is very important in breast cancer and thus acts as an essential biomarker for drugs, vaccines or peptide inhibitor designing. In this regard, computational approaches, particularly peptide designing to target the binding interface of the interacting partners, would greatly assist the design of peptide inhibitors against various cancer. Accordingly, in this present study, we screened 236 experimentally validated anti-breast cancer peptides using computational drugs repositioning approach to design peptides targeting the FAK-PAX complex. Using protein-peptide docking the binding site for the HP1 was confirmed and a total of 236 anti-breast cancer peptides were screened. Among the 236, only 12 peptides reported a docking score better than the control. From these 12, Magainin with the docking score - 103.8 ± 10.3 kcal/mol, NRC-07 with the docking score - 100.8 ± 16.5 kcal/mol, and Indolicidin with the docking score - 101.7 ± 3.9 kcal/mol, peptides potentially inhibit the FAX-PAX binding. Calculation of protein's motion and FEL revealed the binding and inhibitory behavior. Moreover, binding free energy (MM/GBSA) confirmed that Magainin exhibited the total binding energy - 53.28 kcal/mol, NRC-07 possessed the TBE - 44.16 kcal/mol, and Indolicidin reported the TBE of - 40.48 kcal/mol, thus explaining the inhibitory potential of these peptides. In conclusion, these peptides exhibit strong inhibitory potential and could abrogate the FAK-PAX complex in in vitro models and thus may relieve the burden of breast cancer.

Truncated O-Glycan-Bearing MUC16 Enhances Pancreatic Cancer Cells Aggressiveness via α4β1 Integrin Complexes and FAK Signaling

Elevated levels of Mucin-16 (MUC16) in conjunction with a high expression of truncated O-glycans is implicated in playing crucial roles in the malignancy of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). However, the mechanisms by which such aberrant glycoforms present on MUC16 itself promote an increased disease burden in PDAC are yet to be elucidated. This study demonstrates that the CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genetic deletion of MUC16 in PDAC cells decreases tumor cell migration. We found that MUC16 enhances tumor malignancy by activating the integrin-linked kinase and focal adhesion kinase (ILK/FAK)-signaling axis. These findings are especially noteworthy in truncated O-glycan (Tn and STn antigen)-expressing PDAC cells. Activation of these oncogenic-signaling pathways resulted in part from interactions between MUC16 and integrin complexes (α4β1), which showed a stronger association with aberrant glycoforms of MUC16. Using a monoclonal antibody to functionally hinder MUC16 significantly reduced the migratory cascades in our model. Together, these findings suggest that truncated O-glycan containing MUC16 exacerbates malignancy in PDAC by activating FAK signaling through specific interactions with α4 and β1 integrin complexes on cancer cell membranes. Targeting these aberrant glycoforms of MUC16 can aid in the development of a novel platform to study and treat metastatic pancreatic cancer.

Nobiletin as an inducer of programmed cell death in cancer: a review

Cancer resistance to therapy is a big issue in cancer therapy. Tumours may develop some mechanisms to reduce the induction of cell death, thus stimulating tumour growth. Cancer cells may show a low expression and activity of tumour suppressor genes and a low response to anti-tumour immunity. These mutations can increase the resistance of cancer cells to programmed cell death mechanisms such as apoptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, autophagic cell death, and some others. The upregulation of some mediators and transcription factors such as Akt, nuclear factor of κB, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, Bcl-2, and others can inhibit cell death in cancer cells. Using adjuvants to induce the killing of cancer cells is an interesting strategy in cancer therapy. Nobiletin (NOB) is a herbal-derived agent with fascinating anti-cancer properties. It has been shown to induce the generation of endogenous ROS by cancer cells, leading to damage to critical macromolecules and finally cell death. NOB may induce the activity of p53 and pro-apoptosis mediators, and also inhibit the expression and nuclear translocation of anti-apoptosis mediators. In addition, NOB may induce cancer cell killing by modulating other mechanisms that are involved in programmed cell death mechanisms. This review aims to discuss the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the programmed cell death in cancer by NOB via modulating different types of cell death in cancer.

The Complex Biology of the Obesity-Induced, Metastasis-Promoting Tumor Microenvironment in Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent cancers in women contributing to cancer-related death in the advanced world. Apart from the menopausal status, the trigger for developing breast cancer may vary widely from race to lifestyle factors. Epidemiological studies refer to obesity-associated metabolic changes as a critical risk factor behind the progression of breast cancer. The plethora of signals arising due to obesity-induced changes in adipocytes present in breast tumor microenvironment, significantly affect the behavior of adjacent breast cells. Adipocytes from white adipose tissue are currently recognized as an active endocrine organ secreting different bioactive compounds. However, due to excess energy intake and increased fat accumulation, there are morphological followed by secretory changes in adipocytes, which make the breast microenvironment proinflammatory. This proinflammatory milieu not only increases the risk of breast cancer development through hormone conversion, but it also plays a role in breast cancer progression through the activation of effector proteins responsible for the biological phenomenon of metastasis. The aim of this review is to present a comprehensive picture of the complex biology of obesity-induced changes in white adipocytes and demonstrate the relationship between obesity and breast cancer progression to metastasis.

Elucidating the role of the kinase activity of endothelial cell focal adhesion kinase in angiocrine signalling and tumour growth

A common limitation of cancer treatments is chemotherapy resistance. We have previously identified that endothelial cell (EC)-specific deletion of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) sensitises tumour cells to DNA-damaging therapies, reducing tumour growth in mice. The present study addressed the kinase activity dependency of EC FAK sensitisation to the DNA-damaging chemotherapeutic drug, doxorubicin. FAK is recognised as a therapeutic target in tumour cells, leading to the development of a range of inhibitors, the majority being ATP competitive kinase inhibitors. We demonstrate that inactivation of EC FAK kinase domain (kinase dead; EC FAK-KD) in established subcutaneous B16F0 tumours improves melanoma cell sensitisation to doxorubicin. Doxorubicin treatment in EC FAK-KD mice reduced the percentage change in exponential B16F0 tumour growth further than in wild-type mice. There was no difference in tumour blood vessel numbers, vessel perfusion or doxorubicin delivery between genotypes, suggesting a possible angiocrine effect on the regulation of tumour growth. Doxorubicin reduced perivascular malignant cell proliferation, while enhancing perivascular tumour cell apoptosis and DNA damage in tumours grown in EC FAK-KD mice 48 h after doxorubicin injection. Human pulmonary microvascular ECs treated with the pharmacological FAK kinase inhibitors defactinib, PF-562,271 or PF-573,228 in combination with doxorubicin also reduced cytokine expression levels. Together, these data suggest that targeting EC FAK kinase activity may alter angiocrine signals that correlate with improved acute tumour cell chemosensitisation. © 2021 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

Identification of a Subset of Stage I Colorectal Cancer Patients With High Recurrence Risk

BACKGROUND

A challenge in early-stage colorectal cancer (CRC) is identifying biomarkers that predict an increased risk for recurrence. A potential clinically adaptable biomarker is focal adhesion kinase (FAK), a tyrosine kinase that promotes invasion and metastasis.

METHODS

An initial, single-institution, 298-patient cohort with all stages of CRC and long-term follow-up was assessed for FAK with tissue microarrays using immunohistochemistry. FAK expression was scored and dichotomized into high and low. Subsequently, a validation cohort of 517 early-stage CRCs from a separate institution was evaluated. All statistical tests were 2-sided.

RESULTS

FAK overexpression did not correlate with any known histologic feature and was an early event in CRC, increasing from normal colon to stage I, and stage I to II, but not different at higher stages. High FAK was associated with decreased 10-year recurrence-free survival (RFS) among stage I patients (70.2% for high FAK vs 94.1% for low, P = .02), but not among higher stages in the initial cohort. The same finding was seen in the validation cohort (73.1% for high FAK vs 93.1% for low, P = .004). Multivariable survival analysis for stage I patients showed only two statistically significant factors predicting RFS: FAK (hazard ratio = 5.27, 95% confidence interval = 1.81 to 15.33, P = .002) and perineural invasion (hazard ratio = 7.38, 95% confidence interval = 1.01 to 53.96, P = .049). FAK was the only statistically significant factor in multivariable analysis across RFS, overall, and disease-specific survivals.

CONCLUSIONS

High FAK expression identified a subset of stage I CRC patients with high incidence of recurrence and reduced survival, suggesting that FAK has important prognostic value. These patients would immediately benefit from more rigorous surveillance protocols for recurrent disease.

Functional analysis of MET exon 14 skipping alteration in cancer invasion and metastatic dissemination

MET exon 14 skipping alteration (MET∆14Ex) is an actionable oncogenic driver that occurs in 2-4% of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cases. The precise role of MET∆14Ex in tumor progression of NSCLC is poorly understood. Using multiple isogenic MET∆14Ex cell models established with CRISPR editing, we demonstrate that MET∆14Ex expression increases receptor kinase activity and downstream signaling by impairing receptor internalization and endocytic degradation, significantly boosting cell scatter, migration, and invasion capacity in vitro as well as metastasis in vivo. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that MET∆14Ex preferentially activates biological processes associated with cell movement, providing novel insights into its unique molecular mechanism of action. Activation of PI3K/Akt/Rac1 signaling and upregulation of multiple matrix metallopeptidases (MMPs) by MET∆14Ex induced cytoskeleton remodeling and extracellular matrix disassembly, which are critical functional pathways that facilitate cell invasion and metastasis. Therapeutically, MET inhibitors dramatically repressed MET∆14Ex-mediated tumor growth and metastasis in vivo, indicating potential therapeutic options for MET∆14Ex-altered NSCLC patients. These mechanistic insights into MET∆14Ex-mediated invasion and metastasis provide a deeper understanding of the role of MET∆14Ex in NSCLC.

Focal adhesion kinase plays a dual role in TRAIL resistance and metastatic outgrowth of malignant melanoma

Despite remarkable advances in therapeutic interventions, malignant melanoma (MM) remains a life-threating disease. Following high initial response rates to targeted kinase-inhibition metastases quickly acquire resistance and present with enhanced tumor progression and invasion, demanding alternative treatment options. We show 2nd generation hexameric TRAIL-receptor-agonist IZI1551 (IZI) to effectively induce apoptosis in MM cells irrespective of the intrinsic BRAF/NRAS mutation status. Conditioning to the EC50 dose of IZI converted the phenotype of IZI-sensitive parental MM cells into a fast proliferating and invasive, IZI-resistant metastasis. Mechanistically, we identified focal adhesion kinase (FAK) to play a dual role in phenotype-switching. In the cytosol, activated FAK triggers survival pathways in a PI3K- and MAPK-dependent manner. In the nucleus, the FERM domain of FAK prevents activation of wtp53, as being expressed in the majority of MM, and consequently intrinsic apoptosis. Caspase-8-mediated cleavage of FAK as well as FAK knockdown, and pharmacological inhibition, respectively, reverted the metastatic phenotype-switch and restored IZI responsiveness. FAK inhibition also re-sensitized MM cells isolated from patient metastasis that had relapsed from targeted kinase inhibition to cell death, irrespective of the intrinsic BRAF/NRAS mutation status. Hence, FAK-inhibition alone or in combination with 2nd generation TRAIL-receptor agonists may be recommended for treatment of initially resistant and relapsed MM, respectively.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of novel covalent inhibitors targeting focal adhesion kinase

Forty-one new focal adhesion kinase (FAK) covalent inhibitors were designed and synthesized based on FAK inhibitor TAE226. Compound 11w displayed the highest inhibition of FAK with an IC₅₀ value of 35 nM and exhibited potent anticancer activity against Hela, HCT116 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 0.41, 0.01 and 0.11 μM respectively, compared to TAE226 (2.68, 0.64 and 4.19 μM respectively). 11w also inhibited the clone formation and migration of HCT-116 cells and stimulated cell cycle arrest in the G₂/M phase, inducing tumor cell apoptosis. Compound 11w formed a covalent bond with the Cys427 residue of FAK in a docking model, inhibiting the autophosphorylation of FAK and downstream proteins in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, 11w showed adequate oral bioavailability of 21.02%. A 74.20% inhibition of tumor growth in the HCT116 xenograft model was also observed. These data indicate that 11w is a promising covalent inhibitor of FAK.

LIM domain-containing 2 (LIMD2) promotes the progress of ovarian cancer via the focal adhesion signaling pathway

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the leading cause of death from gynecological cancer. In this study, we aimed to explore the role and potential mechanism of LIMD2 during the progression of OC. The expression of LIMD2 was analyzed by GEPIA (Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis) database. Western blot and real-time PCR were applied to detect the gene expression of LIMD2 in OC cell lines. Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, transwell, wound healing assays, and tumor xenograft experiments were used to evaluate the function of LIMD2 in vitro and vivo. Further, the LIMD2-associated pathways in OC were predicted by RNA-seq analysis, and the involvement of the corresponding cell signaling activities were confirmed by Western blot. We found that LIMD2 was high expressed in OC. Additionally, we found that silencing of LIMD2 inhibited OC cell proliferation in vitro and reduced the growth of its xenograft tumors. Moreover, knockdown of LIMD2 significantly decreased the migration of OC cells. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis revealed that pathways regulating extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interactions and focal adhesion signaling, were deregulated by LIMD2. Particularly, we confirmed that reducing LIMD2 could decrease the expression of Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) pathway related molecules. In conclusion, LIMD2 promotes the proliferation and invasion of ovarian cancer in vitro and in vivo, potentially through regulating the focal adhesion signaling pathway.

Focal adhesion kinase splicing and protein activation in papillary thyroid carcinoma progression

Papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), a common endocrine malignancy, presents a challenge from a prognostic standpoint. Molecular alterations underlying PTC progression include deregulation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) at post-transcriptional and post-translational levels. Searching for candidate markers of PTC progression, we investigated the prognostic significance of FAK alterations on mRNA/protein level. The expression levels and subcellular localisation of auto-phosphorylated FAK (pY397-FAK) were determined by western blot (WB) and immunohistochemistry. The quantity of total FAK mRNA, alternatively spliced FAK-Del26 and FAK-Del33 variants were analysed by RT-qPCR and related to pY397-FAK expression and subcellular distribution. The results were correlated with clinicopathological parameters of the patients. The expression of pY397-FAK was significantly elevated in malignant samples. Active FAK showed predominant cytoplasmic distribution with co-occurrence along the membrane, while nuclear staining was found less frequently. Expression of pY397-FAK in separate cellular compartments correlated with adverse clinicopathological parameters, but the strongest association was found when their mean scores were calculated. Alternatively spliced FAK-Del33 and total FAK transcripts positively correlated to pY397-FAK protein levels as well as to characteristics of PTC advancement. Over-expression of FAK on mRNA (total and Del-33) and activated protein (pY397-FAK) levels is a feature of PTC advanced stages. Of the analysed alterations, the mean pY397-FAK IHC score showed the best predictive performance. Correlation between mRNA FAK-Del33 and pY397-FAK expression implies a regulatory role of alternative splicing in PTC patients.

A Role of CXCL1 Drives Osteosarcoma Lung Metastasis via VCAM-1 Production

Osteosarcoma, a common aggressive and malignant cancer, appears in the musculoskeletal system among young adults. The major cause of mortality in osteosarcoma was the recurrence of lung metastases. However, the molecular mechanisms of metastasis involved in osteosarcomas remain unclear. Recently, CXCL1 and CXCR2 have been crucial indicators for lung metastasis in osteosarcoma by paracrine releases, suggesting the involvement of directing neutrophils into tumor microenvironment. In this study, overexpression of CXCL1 has a positive correlation with the migratory and invasive activities in osteosarcoma cell lines. Furthermore, the signaling pathway, CXCR2/FAK/PI3K/Akt, is activated through CXCL1 by promoting vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) via upregulation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) expression and nuclear translocation. The in vivo animal model further demonstrated that CXCL1 serves as a critical promoter in osteosarcoma metastasis to the lung. The correlated expression of CXCL1 and VCAM-1 was observed in the immunohistochemistry staining from human osteosarcoma specimens. Our findings demonstrate the cascade mechanism regulating the network in lung metastasis osteosarcoma, therefore indicating that the CXCL1/CXCR2 pathway is a worthwhile candidate to further develop treatment schemas.

Oleanolic Acid's Semisynthetic Derivatives HIMOXOL and Br-HIMOLID Show Proautophagic Potential and Inhibit Migration of HER2-Positive Breast Cancer Cells In Vitro

Approximately 20–30% of the diagnosed breast cancers overexpress the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2). This type of cancer is associated with a more aggressive phenotype; thus, there is a need for the discovery of new compounds that would improve the survival in HER2-positive breast cancer patients. It seems that one of the most promising therapeutic cancer strategies could be based on the biological activity of pentacyclic triterpenes’ derivatives and the best-known representative of this group, oleanolic acid (OA). The biological activity of oleanolic acid and its two semisynthetic derivatives, methyl 3-hydroxyimino-11-oxoolean-12-en-28-oate (HIMOXOL) and 12α-bromo-3-hydroxyimonoolean-28→13-olide (Br-HIMOLID), was assessed in SK-BR-3 breast cancer cells (HER2-positive). Viability tests, cell cycle assessment, evaluation of apoptosis, autophagy, and adhesion/migration processes were performed using MTT, clonogenic, cytofluorometry, Western blot, and qPCR. Both derivatives revealed higher cytotoxicity in studied breast cancer cells than the maternal compound, OA. They also decreased cell viability, induced autophagy, and (when applied in sub-cytotoxic concentrations) decreased the migration of SK-BR-3 cells.This study is the first to report the cytostatic, proautophagic (mTOR/LC3/SQSTM/BECN1 pathway), and anti-migratory (integrin β1/FAK/paxillin pathway) activities of HIMOXOL and Br-HIMOLID in HER2-positive breast cancer cells.

Dissecting the Inorganic Nanoparticle-Driven Interferences on Adhesome Dynamics

Inorganic nanoparticles have emerged as an attractive theranostic tool applied to different pathologies such as cancer. However, the increment in inorganic nanoparticle application in biomedicine has prompted the scientific community to assess their potential toxicities, often preventing them from entering clinical settings. Cytoskeleton network and the related adhesomes nest are present in most cellular processes such as proliferation, migration, and cell death. The nanoparticle treatment can interfere with the cytoskeleton and adhesome dynamics, thus inflicting cellular damage. Therefore, it is crucial dissecting the molecular mechanisms involved in nanoparticle cytotoxicity. This review will briefly address the main characteristics of different adhesion structures and focus on the most relevant effects of inorganic nanoparticles with biomedical potential on cellular adhesome dynamics. Besides, the review put into perspective the use of inorganic nanoparticles for cytoskeleton targeting or study as a versatile tool. The dissection of the molecular mechanisms involved in the nanoparticle-driven interference of adhesome dynamics will facilitate the future development of nanotheranostics targeting cytoskeleton and adhesomes to tackle several diseases, such as cancer.

The effect of iron on the expression levels of calcium related gene in cisplatin resistant epithelial ovarian cancer cells

Aim: Anticancer drugs (chemotherapeutics) used in cancer treatment (chemotherapy) lead to drug resistance. This study was conducted to investigate the possible effect of iron on calcium homeostasis in epithelial ovarian cancer cells (MDAH-2774) and cisplatin-resistant cells of the same cell line (MDAH-2774/DDP). Methods: To develop MDAH-2774/DDP cells, MDAH-2774 (MDAH) cells were treated with cisplatin in dose increases of 5 μM between 0 μM and 70 μM. The effect of iron on the viability of MDAH and MDAH/DDP cells was determined by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide test at the end of 24 h incubation. Results: At increasing iron concentrations in MDAH and MDAH/DDP cells, the mRNA gene of fifteen genes [inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor (IP3R)1/2/3, ryanodine receptor (RYR)1/2, sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase (SERCA)1/2/3, Na+/Ca2+ exchange (NCX)1/2/3, and plasma membrane Ca2+ ATPase (PMCA)1/2/3/4] associated with Ca2+ differences in expression were determined by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction. Changes in IP3R2, RYR1, SERCA2, NCX3, PMCA1, and PMCA3 gene expressions were observed in iron treatment of MDAH/DDP cells, while changes were detected in iron treatment of MDAH cells in IP3R1/2/3, RYR1/2, SERCA1/2/3, NCX2/3, and PMCA1 expressions. Conclusions: This changes in the expression of calcium channels, pumps, and exchange proteins in the epithelial ovarian cancer cell line and in cisplatin-resistant epithelial ovarian cancer cells suggest that iron may have an important role in regulating calcium homeostasis. Due to differences in the expression of genes that play of an important role in the regulation of calcium homeostasis in the effect of iron, drug resistance can be prevented by introducing a new perspective on the use of inhibitors and activators of these genes and thus cytostatic treatment strategies.

Evolutionary predictability of genetic versus nongenetic resistance to anticancer drugs in melanoma

Therapy resistance arises from heterogeneous drug-tolerant persister cells or minimal residual disease (MRD) through genetic and nongenetic mechanisms. A key question is whether specific molecular features of the MRD ecosystem determine which of these two distinct trajectories will eventually prevail. We show that, in melanoma exposed to mitogen-activated protein kinase therapeutics, emergence of a transient neural crest stem cell (NCSC) population in MRD concurs with the development of nongenetic resistance. This increase relies on a glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor-dependent signaling cascade, which activates the AKT survival pathway in a focal adhesion kinase (FAK)-dependent manner. Ablation of the NCSC population through FAK inhibition delays relapse in patient-derived tumor xenografts. Strikingly, all tumors that ultimately escape this treatment exhibit resistance-conferring genetic alterations and increased sensitivity to extracellular signal-regulated kinase inhibition. These findings identify an approach that abrogates the nongenetic resistance trajectory in melanoma and demonstrate that the cellular composition of MRD deterministically imposes distinct drug resistance evolutionary paths.

Phosphoproteomics Identifies Significant Biomarkers Associated with the Proliferation and Metastasis of Prostate Cancer

The spider peptide toxins HNTX-III and JZTX-I are a specific inhibitor and activator of TTX-S VGSCs, respectively. They play important roles in regulating MAT-LyLu cell metastasis in prostate cancer. In order to identify key biomarkers involved in the regulation of MAT-LyLu cell metastasis, iTRAQ-based quantitative phosphoproteomics analysis was performed on cells treated with HNTX-III, JZTX-I and blank. A total of 554 unique phosphorylated proteins and 1779 distinct phosphorylated proteins were identified, while 55 and 36 phosphorylated proteins were identified as differentially expressed proteins in HNTX-III and JZTX-I treated groups compared with control groups. Multiple bioinformatics analysis based on quantitative phosphoproteomics data suggested that the differentially expressed phosphorylated proteins and peptides were significantly associated with the migration and invasion of prostate tumors. Specifically, the toxins HNTX-III and JZTX-I have opposite effects on tumor formation and metastasis by regulating the expression and phosphorylation level of causal proteins. Herein, we highlighted three key proteins EEF2, U2AF2 and FLNC which were down-regulated in HNTX-III treated cells and up-regulated in JZTX-I treated cells. They played significant roles in cancer related physiological and pathological processes. The differentially expressed phosphorylated proteins identified in this study may serve as potential biomarkers for precision medicine for prostate cancer in the near future.

Drug Discovery Targeting Focal Adhesion Kinase (FAK) as a Promising Cancer Therapy

FAK is a nonreceptor intracellular tyrosine kinase which plays an important biological function. Many studies have found that FAK is overexpressed in many human cancer cell lines, which promotes tumor cell growth by controlling cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and survival. Therefore, targeting FAK is considered to be a promising cancer therapy with small molecules. Many FAK inhibitors have been reported as anticancer agents with various mechanisms. Currently, six FAK inhibitors, including GSK-2256098 (Phase I), VS-6063 (Phase II), CEP-37440 (Phase I), VS-6062 (Phase I), VS-4718 (Phase I), and BI-853520 (Phase I) are undergoing clinical trials in different phases. Up to now, there have been many novel FAK inhibitors with anticancer activity reported by different research groups. In addition, FAK degraders have been successfully developed through “proteolysis targeting chimera” (PROTAC) technology, opening up a new way for FAK-targeted therapy. In this paper, the structure and biological function of FAK are reviewed, and we summarize the design, chemical types, and activity of FAK inhibitors according to the development of FAK drugs, which provided the reference for the discovery of new anticancer agents.

Evidence That Tumor Microenvironment Initiates Epithelial-To-Mesenchymal Transition and Calebin A can Suppress it in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Background: Tumor microenvironment (TME) has a pivotal impact on tumor progression, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is an extremely crucial initial event in the metastatic process in colorectal cancer (CRC) that is not yet fully understood. Calebin A (an ingredient in Curcuma longa) has been shown to repress CRC tumor growth. However, whether Calebin A is able to abrogate TME-induced EMT in CRC was investigated based on the underlying pathways. Methods: CRC cell lines (HCT116, RKO) were exposed with Calebin A and/or a FAK inhibitor, cytochalasin D (CD) to investigate the action of Calebin A in TME-induced EMT-related tumor progression. Results: TME induced viability, proliferation, and increased invasiveness in 3D-alginate CRC cultures. In addition, TME stimulated stabilization of the master EMT-related transcription factor (Slug), which was accompanied by changes in the expression patterns of EMT-associated biomarkers. Moreover, TME resulted in stimulation of NF-κB, TGF-β1, and FAK signaling pathways. However, these effects were dramatically reduced by Calebin A, comparable to FAK inhibitor or CD. Finally, TME induced a functional association between NF-κB and Slug, suggesting that a synergistic interaction between the two transcription factors is required for initiation of EMT and tumor cell invasion, whereas Calebin A strongly inhibited this binding and subsequent CRC cell migration. Conclusion: We propose for the first time that Calebin A modulates TME-induced EMT in CRC cells, at least partially through the NF-κB/Slug axis, TGF-β1, and FAK signaling. Thus, Calebin A appears to be a potential agent for the prevention and management of CRC.

Gastric Cancer: Identification of microRNAs Inhibiting Druggable Targets and Mediating Efficacy in Preclinical In Vivo Models

In addition to chemotherapy, targeted therapies have been approved for treatment of locally advanced and metastatic gastric cancer. The therapeutic benefit is significant but more durable responses and improvement of survival should be achieved. Therefore, the identification of new targets and new approaches for clinical treatment are of paramount importance. In this review, we searched the literature for down-regulated microRNAs which interfere with druggable targets and exhibit efficacy in preclinical in vivo efficacy models. As druggable targets, we selected transmembrane receptors, secreted factors and enzymes. We identified 38 microRNAs corresponding to the criteria as outlined. A total of 13 miRs target transmembrane receptors, nine inhibit secreted proteins and 16 attenuate enzymes. These microRNAs are targets for reconstitution therapy of gastric cancer. Further target validation experiments are mandatory for all of the identified microRNAs.

Synthesis and evaluation of FAK inhibitors with a 5-fluoro-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidine scaffold as anti-hepatocellular carcinoma agents

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) is a ubiquitous intracellular non-receptor tyrosine kinase, which is involved in multiple cellular functions, including cell adhesion, migration, invasion, survival, and angiogenesis. In this study, a series of 7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidines were designed and synthesized according to the E-pharmacophores generated by docking a library of 667 fragments into the ATP pocket of the co-crystal complex of FAK and PF-562271 (PDB ID: 3BZ3). The 5-fluoro-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidine derivatives demonstrated excellent activity against FAK and the cell lines SMMC7721 and YY8103. 2-((2-((3-(Acetamidomethyl)phenyl)amino)-5-fluoro-7H-pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidin-4-yl)amino)-N-methylbenzamide (16c) was selected for further bioactivity evaluations in vivo, including preliminary pharmacokinetic profiling in rats and toxicity assays in mice, and tumor growth inhibition studies in a xenograft tumor model. The results showed that 16c did not affect the body weight gain of the animals up to a dose of 200 mg/kg, and significantly inhibited tumor growth with a tumor growth inhibition rate of 78.6% compared with the negative control group. Furthermore, phosphoantibody array analyses of a sample of the tumor suggested that 16c inhibited the malignant proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells through decreasing the phosphorylation in the FAK cascade.

Flavonoid-Based Cancer Therapy: An Updated Review

As cancers are one of the most important causes of human morbidity and mortality worldwide, researchers try to discover novel compounds and therapeutic approaches to decrease survival of cancer cells, angiogenesis, proliferation and metastasis. In the last decade, use of special phytochemical compounds and flavonoids was reported to be an interesting and hopeful tactic in the field of cancer therapy. Flavonoids are natural polyphenols found in plant, fruits, vegetables, teas and medicinal herbs. Based on reports, over 10,000 flavonoids have been detected and categorized into several subclasses, including flavonols, anthocyanins, flavanones, flavones, isoflavones and chalcones. It seems that the anticancer effect of flavonoids is mainly due to their antioxidant and anti inflammatory activities and their potential to modulate molecular targets and signaling pathways involved in cell survival, proliferation, differentiation, migration, angiogenesis and hormone activities. The main aim of this review is to evaluate the relationship between flavonoids consumption and cancer risk, and discuss the anti-cancer effects of these natural compounds in human cancer cells. Hence, we tried to collect and revise important recent in vivo and in vitro researches about the most effective flavonoids and their main mechanisms of action in various types of cancer cells.

Deciphering molecular mechanisms of metastasis: novel insights into targets and therapeutics

BACKGROUND

The transition of a primary tumour to metastatic progression is driven by dynamic molecular changes, including genetic and epigenetic alterations. The metastatic cascade involves bidirectional interactions among extracellular and intracellular components leading to disintegration of cellular junctions, cytoskeleton reorganization and epithelial to mesenchymal transition. These events promote metastasis by reprogramming the primary cancer cell's molecular framework, enabling them to cause local invasion, anchorage-independent survival, cell death and immune resistance, extravasation and colonization of distant organs. Metastasis follows a site-specific pattern that is still poorly understood at the molecular level. Although various drugs have been tested clinically across different metastatic cancer types, it has remained difficult to develop efficacious therapeutics due to complex molecular layers involved in metastasis as well as experimental limitations.

CONCLUSIONS

In this review, a systemic evaluation of the molecular mechanisms of metastasis is outlined and the potential molecular components and their status as therapeutic targets and the associated pre-clinical and clinical agents available or under investigations are discussed. Integrative methods like pan-cancer data analysis, which can provide clinical insights into both targets and treatment decisions and help in the identification of crucial components driving metastasis such as mutational profiles, gene signatures, associated pathways, site specificities and disease-gene phenotypes, are discussed. A multi-level data integration of the metastasis signatures across multiple primary and metastatic cancer types may facilitate the development of precision medicine and open up new opportunities for future therapies.

Inhibitory effects of terrein on lung cancer cell metastasis and angiogenesis

Cancer metastasis is the leading cause of mortality in cancer patients. Over 70% of lung cancer patients are diagnosed at advanced or metastatic stages, and this results in an increased incidence of mortality. Terrein is a secondary bioactive fungal metabolite isolated from Aspergillus terreus. Numerous studies have demonstrated that terrein has anticancer properties, but in the present study, the cellular mechanisms underlying the inhibition of lung cancer cell metastasis by terrein was investigated for the first time. Using MTT assays, the cytotoxic effects of terrein were first examined in human lung cancer cells (A549 cells) and then compared with its cytotoxic effects in three noncancer control cell lines (Vero kidney, L6 skeletal muscle and H9C2 cardiomyoblast cells). The results indicated that terrein significantly reduced the viability of all these cells but exhibited a different level of toxicity in each cell type; these results revealed a specific concentration range in which the effect of terrein was specific to A549 cells. This significant cytotoxic effect of terrein in A549 cells was verified using LDH assays. It was then demonstrated that terrein attenuated the proliferation of A549 cells using IncuCyte image analysis. Regarding its antimetastatic effects, terrein significantly inhibited A549 cell adhesion, migration and invasion. In addition, terrein suppressed the angiogenic processes of A549 cells, including vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion, capillary-like tube formation and VEGF/VEGFR2 interaction. These phenomena were accompanied by reduced protein levels of integrins, FAK, and their downstream mediators (e.g., PI3K, AKT, mTORC1 and P70S6K). All these data indicated that terrein was able to inhibit all the major metastatic processes in human lung cancer cells, which is crucial for cancer treatment.

hTERT Downregulation Attenuates Resistance to DOX, Impairs FAK-Mediated Adhesion, and Leads to Autophagy Induction in Breast Cancer Cells

Telomerase is known to contribute to telomere maintenance and to provide cancer cell immortality. However, numerous reports are showing that the function of the enzyme goes far beyond chromosome ends. The study aimed to explore how telomerase downregulation in MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells affects their ability to survive. Consequently, sensitivity to drug resistance, proliferation, and adhesion were assessed. The lentiviral-mediated human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) downregulation efficiency was performed at gene expression and protein level using qPCR and Western blot, respectively. Telomerase activity was evaluated using the Telomeric Repeat Amplification Protocol (TRAP) assay. The study revealed that hTERT downregulation led to an increased sensitivity of breast cancer cells to doxorubicin which was demonstrated in MTT and clonogenic assays. During a long-term doubling time assessment, a decreased population doubling level was observed. Interestingly, it did not dramatically affect cell cycle distribution. hTERT downregulation was accompanied by an alteration in β1-integrin- and by focal adhesion kinase (FAK)-driven pathways together with the reduction of target proteins phosphorylation, i.e., paxillin and c-Src. Additionally, autophagy activation was observed in MDA-MB-231 cells manifested by alternations in Atg5, Beclin 1, LC3II/I ratio, and p62. These results provide new evidence supporting the possible therapeutic potential of telomerase downregulation leading to induction of autophagy and cancer cells elimination.

CTGF regulates cell proliferation, migration, and glucose metabolism through activation of FAK signaling in triple-negative breast cancer

Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), also known as CCN2, is a member of the CCN protein family of secreted proteins with roles in diverse biological processes. CTGF regulates biological functions such as cell proliferation, migration, adhesion, wound healing, and angiogenesis. In this study, we demonstrate a mechanistic link between CTGF and enhanced aerobic glycolysis in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). We found that CTGF is overexpressed in TNBC and high CTGF expression is correlated with a poor prognosis. Also, CTGF was required for in vivo tumorigenesis and in vitro proliferation, migration, invasion, and adhesion of TNBC cells. Our results indicate that extracellular CTGF binds directly to integrin αvβ3, activating the FAK/Src/NF-κB p65 signaling axis, which results in transcriptional upregulation of Glut3. Neutralization of CTGF decreased cell proliferation, migration, and invasion through downregulation of Glut3-mediated glycolytic phenotypes. Overall, our work suggests a novel function for CTGF as a modulator of cancer metabolism, indicating that CTGF is a potential therapeutic target in TNBC.