Andrographolide Ameliorates Liver Fibrosis in Mice: Involvement of TLR4/NF-κB and TGF-β1/Smad2 Signaling Pathways

Dachengqi decoction ameliorates sepsis-induced liver injury by inhibiting the TGF-β1/Smad3 pathways

Background

Sepsis-induced acute liver injury (ALI) is a major contributor to mortality in septic patients. Exploring the pathogenesis and developing effective treatment strategies for sepsis-induced ALI is critical for improving patient outcomes. Dachengqi decoction (DCQD), which is a classic Chinese herbal medicine, has been shown to possess potent anti-inflammatory properties. However, the protective effects and underlying mechanisms of DCQD against sepsis-induced ALI remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the protective effect of DCQD on sepsis-induced ALI and elucidate the involvement of the TGF-1β/Smad3 pathways.

Methods

A septic mouse model was established using caecal ligation and puncture (CLP) to evaluate the protective effect of DCQD on sepsis-induced ALI in vivo. An in vitro cellular inflammation model was established using LPS-stimulated LO2 cells to further investigate the underlying mechanism.

Results

DCQD (2.5, 5.0, and 10.0 g/kg body weight) was administered twice daily for 2 days and exerted a dose-dependent protective effect against sepsis-induced ALI. DCQD treatment significantly inhibited inappropriate inflammatory responses and oxidative stress in liver tissue. Moreover, DCQD maintained liver homeostasis by inhibiting hepatocyte apoptosis and improving sepsis-induced liver damage. In vivo and in vitro studies indicated that the TGF-β1/Smad3 signalling pathway played an important role in sepsis-induced ALI, and DCQD treatment significantly inhibited the activation of this pathway.

Conclusions

DCQD can effectively suppress excessive inflammatory responses and oxidative stress, leading to a substantial reduction in hepatocyte apoptosis in sepsis-induced ALI.

Wuling capsule modulates macrophage polarization by inhibiting the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway to relieve liver fibrosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Wuling capsule (WL) has good efficacy in the clinical treatment of chronic hepatitis B and liver injury. Liver fibrosis is a common pathological feature of chronic liver disease and may progress to irreversible cirrhosis and liver cancer. Accumulating evidence reveals that modulating macrophage polarization contribute to the therapy of liver fibrosis. However, the effects of WL on modulating macrophage polarization to relive liver fibrosis remain unclear. This study investigated the anti-liver fibrosis effects of WL in carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis in rats, and the modulation effects and underlying molecular mechanism on macrophage polarization.

METHODS

A rat liver fibrosis model was constructed by intraperitoneal injection of 40 % CCl4 olive oil mixture. At 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks, the histopathological status of the liver was assessed by hematoxylin-eosin (HE) and Masson staining; the liver biochemical indexes were measured in rat liver tissue. The expression levels of inflammatory cytokines in liver tissue were detected by ELISA. The mRNA levels and proteins expression of macrophage markers of different phenotypes, TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway indicators were detected independently by ELISA, immunofluorescence, RT-PCR and western blotting.

RESULTS

In vivo, WL treatment attenuated abnormal changes in weight, organ indices and biochemical indices, alleviated pathological changes, and reduced collagen fiber deposition as well as the expression of α-SMA in liver tissues. Further studies revealed that WL decreased the expression of the macrophage M1 polarization markers inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), TNF-α, IL-6, and CD86, promoted the expression of the M2 macrophage polarization markers IL-10, CD206, and arginase-1 (Arg-1), and inhibited the activation of the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway via several key signaling proteins. In vitro, WL significantly suppressed macrophage M1 polarization, and promoted M2 polarization while boosted M1 polarization transform to M2 polarization in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that WL modulated macrophage polarization against liver fibrosis mainly by inhibiting the activation of the TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathway.

Research Progress Regarding the Effect and Mechanism of Dietary Polyphenols in Liver Fibrosis

The development of liver fibrosis is a result of chronic liver injuries may progress to liver cirrhosis and liver cancer. In recent years, liver fibrosis has become a major global problem, and the incidence rate and mortality are increasing year by year. However, there are currently no approved treatments. Research on anti-liver-fibrosis drugs is a top priority. Dietary polyphenols, such as plant secondary metabolites, have remarkable abilities to reduce lipid metabolism, insulin resistance and inflammation, and are attracting more and more attention as potential drugs for the treatment of liver diseases. Gradually, dietary polyphenols are becoming the focus for providing an improvement in the treatment of liver fibrosis. The impact of dietary polyphenols on the composition of intestinal microbiota and the subsequent production of intestinal microbial metabolites has been observed to indirectly modulate signaling pathways in the liver, thereby exerting regulatory effects on liver disease. In conclusion, there is evidence that dietary polyphenols can be therapeutically useful in preventing and treating liver fibrosis, and we highlight new perspectives and key questions for future drug development.

Andrographolide attenuated MCT-induced HSOS via regulating NRF2-initiated mitochondrial biogenesis and antioxidant response

Hepatic sinusoidal obstruction syndrome (HSOS) is a death-dealing liver disease with a fatality rate of up to 67%. In the study present, we explored the efficacy of andrographolide (Andro), a diterpene lactone from Andrographis Herba, in ameliorating the monocrotaline (MCT)-induced HSOS and the underlying mechanism. The alleviation of Andro on MCT-induced rats HSOS was proved by biochemical index detection, electron microscope observation, and liver histological evaluation. Detection of hepatic ATP content, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number, and protein expression of nuclear respiratory factor-1 (NRF1) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1 alpha (PPARGC1A) demonstrated that Andro strengthened mitochondrial biogenesis in livers from MCT-treated rats. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay exhibited that Andro enhanced the occupation of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NFE2L2, also known as NRF2) in the promoter regions of both PPARGC1A and NRF1. Andro also activated the NRF2-dependent anti-oxidative response and alleviated liver oxidative injury. In Nrf2 knock-out mice, MCT induced more severe liver damage, and Andro showed no alleviation in it. Furthermore, the Andro-activated mitochondrial biogenesis and anti-oxidative response were reduced in Nrf2 knock-out mice. Contrastingly, knocking out Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1), a NRF2 repressor, reduced MCT-induced liver damage. Results from co-immunoprecipitation, molecular docking analysis, biotin-Andro pull-down, cellular thermal shift assay, and surface plasmon resonance assay showed that Andro hindered the NRF2-KEAP1 interaction via directly binding to KEAP1. In conclusion, our results revealed that NRF2-dependent liver mitochondrial biogenesis and anti-oxidative response were essential for the Andro-provided alleviation of the MCT-induced HSOS. Graphical Headlights: 1. Andro alleviated MCT-induced HSOS via activating antioxidative response and promoting mitochondrial biogenesis. 2. Andro-activated antioxidative response and mitochondrial biogenesis were NRF2-dependent. 3. Andro activated NRF2 via binding to KEAP1.

Understanding the Potential Role of Nanotechnology in Liver Fibrosis: A Paradigm in Therapeutics

The liver is a vital organ that plays a crucial role in the physiological operation of the human body. The liver controls the body's detoxification processes as well as the storage and breakdown of red blood cells, plasma protein and hormone production, and red blood cell destruction; therefore, it is vulnerable to their harmful effects, making it more prone to illness. The most frequent complications of chronic liver conditions include cirrhosis, fatty liver, liver fibrosis, hepatitis, and illnesses brought on by alcohol and drugs. Hepatic fibrosis involves the activation of hepatic stellate cells to cause persistent liver damage through the accumulation of cytosolic matrix proteins. The purpose of this review is to educate a concise discussion of the epidemiology of chronic liver disease, the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of liver fibrosis, the symptoms of liver fibrosis progression and regression, the clinical evaluation of liver fibrosis and the research into nanotechnology-based synthetic and herbal treatments for the liver fibrosis is summarized in this article. The herbal remedies summarized in this review article include epigallocathechin-3-gallate, silymarin, oxymatrine, curcumin, tetrandrine, glycyrrhetinic acid, salvianolic acid, plumbagin, Scutellaria baicalnsis Georgi, astragalosides, hawthorn extract, and andrographolides.

Structural characteristics of a novel Bletilla striata polysaccharide and its activities for the alleviation of liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis has proven to be the main predisposing factor for liver cirrhosis and liver cancer; however, an effective treatment remains elusive. Polysaccharides, with low toxicity and a wide range of bioactivities, are strong potential candidates for anti-hepatic fibrosis applications. For this study, a new low molecular weight neutral polysaccharide (B. striata glucomannan (BSP)) was extracted and purified from Bletilla striata. The structure of BSP was characterized and its activities for alleviating liver fibrosis in vivo were further evaluated. The results revealed that the structural unit of BSP was likely →4)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → 4)-β-D-Manp-(1 → 4)-β-D-2ace-Manp-(1 → 4)-β-D-Manp-(1 → 4)-β-D-Glcp-(1 → 4)-β-D-Manp-(1 → 4)-β-D-Manp-(1 → 4)-β-D-3ace-Manp-(1→, with a molecular weight of only 58.5 kDa. Additionally, BSP was observed to attenuate the passive impacts of liver fibrosis in a manner closely related to TLR2/TLR4-MyD88-NF-κB signaling pathway conduction. In summary, the results of this study provide theoretical foundations for the potential applications of BSP as an anti-liver fibrosis platform.

The role of Andrographolide in the prevention and treatment of liver diseases

BACKGROUND

The presence or absence of damage to the liver organ is crucial to a person's health. Nutritional disorders, alcohol consumption, and drug abuse are the main causes of liver disease. Liver transplantation is the last irrevocable option for liver disease and has become a serious economic burden worldwide. Andrographolide (AP) is one of the main active ingredients of Herba Andrographitis. It has several biological activities and has been reported to have protective and therapeutic effects against liver diseases. Earlier literature has been written on AP's role in treating inflammation and other diseases, and there has not been a systematic review on liver diseases. This review is dedicated to sorting out the research results of AP against liver diseases. Pharmacokinetics, toxicity, and nanotechnology to improve bioavailability are discussed. Finally, an outlook and assessment of its future are provided.

METHODS

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. PubMed and web of Science databases were used to search all relevant literature on AP for liver disease up to 2022.

RESULTS

Studies have shown that AP plays an important role in different liver disease phenotypes, mainly through anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. AP regulates HO-1 and inhibits hepatitis virus replication. It affects the NF-κB pathway, downregulates inflammatory factors such as IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and reduces liver damage. In preventing liver fibrosis, AP inhibits angiogenesis and activation of hepatic stellate cells and reduces oxidative stress involved in the Nrf2 and TGF-β1/Smad pathways. In addition, AP impedes the development of liver cancer by promoting apoptosis and autonomous phagocytosis in a cell-dependent way. Interestingly, miRNAs are involved in the therapeutic process of liver cancer and hepatic fibrosis. The poor solubility of AP limits the development of dosage forms. Therefore, the advent of nanoformulations has improved bioavailability. Although the effect of AP is dose- and time-dependent, the magnitude of its toxicity is not negligible. Some clinical trials have shown that AP has mild side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

AP, as an effective natural product, has a good effect on the liver disease through multiple pathways and targets. However, the dose reaches a certain level, leading to its toxicity and side effects. For better clinical application of AP, high-quality clinical and toxic intervention mechanisms are needed to validate current studies. In addition, modulation of miRNA-mediated hepatocellular carcinoma and liver fibrosis and synergistic action with drugs may be the future focus of AP. In conclusion, AP can be regarded as an important candidate for treating different liver diseases in the future.

Andrographolide, a natural anti-inflammatory agent: An Update

Botanicals have attracted much attention in the field of anti-inflammatory due to their good pharmacological activity and efficacy. Andrographis paniculata is a natural plant ingredient that is widely used around the world. Andrographolide is the main active ingredient derived from Andrographis paniculata, which has a good effect on the treatment of inflammatory diseases. This article reviews the application, anti-inflammatory mechanism and molecular targets of andrographolide in different inflammatory diseases, including respiratory, digestive, immune, nervous, cardiovascular, skeletal, and tumor system diseases. And describe its toxicity and explain its safety. Studies have shown that andrographolide can be used to treat inflammatory lesions of various systemic diseases. In particular, it acts on many inflammation-related signalling pathways. The future direction of andrographolide research is also introduced, as is the recent research that indicates its potential clinical application as an anti-inflammatory agent.

Xiyanping injection combined with acitretin for psoriasis vulgaris: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background: Psoriasis represents the chronic, recurrent and inflammatory disorder. The Traditional Chinese Medicine Xiyanping injection (XYP) is extensively applied in China for treating diverse inflammatory disorders, such as bronchitis, viral pneumonia or upper respiratory tract infection. XYP may offer a potential treatment for psoriasis vulgaris (PV). This study focused on analyzing whether XYP combined with acitretin was effective and safe.

Methods: The present meta-analysis was carried out in line with guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). This systematic review was registered in PROSPERO (CRD42022333273). Besides, relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compared XYP plus acitretin with acitretin alone for treating PV were searched from several databases from their inception till May 2022. In addition, this work utilized RevMan5.4 to conduct risk assessment as well as meta-analysis.

Results: This meta-analysis selected altogether 10 RCTs including 815 subjects. Upon quality assessment, the RCTs mainly had low or unclear risk. According to our meta-analysis results, relative to acitretin monotherapy, XYP plus acitretin increased the total clinical effective rate, as evidenced by Psoriasis area and severity index score (PASI)-20, PASI-30 and PASI-60 in patients with PV [risk ratio (RR) = 1.23 Z = 4.87, p < 0.00001, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.13–1.34; RR = 1.29, Z = 3.89, p = 0.009, 95% CI: 1.07 to 1.55; and RR = 1.31, Z = 3.89, p = 0.0001, 95% CI: 1.14–1.49]; the reduced levels of TNF-α, MCP-1 and RANTES, the alleviated side effects resulting from acitretin like itchiness (RR = 0.54, 95% CI: 0.4 to 0.74, Z = 3.94, p < 0.0001), and the increased levels of aminotransferases and dyslipidemia (RR = 0.5, 95%CI = 0.29, 0.86, p = 0.01; and RR = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.23, 0.75, p = 0.004).

Conclusion: As suggested in the present meta-analysis, XYP combined with acitretin effectively and safely treats PV.

Systematic Review Registration:https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42022333273, identifier PROSPERO 2022 CRD42022333273.

Perspectives on the mechanism of pyroptosis after intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a highly harmful neurological disorder with high rates of mortality, disability, and recurrence. However, effective therapies are not currently available. Secondary immune injury and cell death are the leading causes of brain injury and a poor prognosis. Pyroptosis is a recently discovered form of programmed cell death that differs from apoptosis and necrosis and is mediated by gasdermin proteins. Pyroptosis is caused by multiple pathways that eventually form pores in the cell membrane, facilitating the release of inflammatory substances and causing the cell to rupture and die. Pyroptosis occurs in neurons, glial cells, and endothelial cells after ICH. Furthermore, pyroptosis causes cell death and releases inflammatory factors such as interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, leading to a secondary immune-inflammatory response and further brain damage. The NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3)/caspase-1/gasdermin D (GSDMD) pathway plays the most critical role in pyroptosis after ICH. Pyroptosis can be inhibited by directly targeting NLRP3 or its upstream molecules, or directly interfering with caspase-1 expression and GSDMD formation, thus significantly improving the prognosis of ICH. The present review discusses key pathological pathways and regulatory mechanisms of pyroptosis after ICH and suggests possible intervention strategies to mitigate pyroptosis and brain dysfunction after ICH.

Isoandrographolide from Andrographis paniculata ameliorates tubulointerstitial fibrosis in ureteral obstruction-induced mice, associated with negatively regulating AKT/GSK-3β/β-cat signaling pathway

Tubulointerstitial fibrosis (TIF) is a prominent pathological manifestation for the progression of almost all chronic kidney diseases (CKDs) to end-stage renal failure. However, there exist few efficient therapies to cure TIF. Our recent results showed that (8R, 12S)-isoandrographolide (ISA), a diterpenoid lactone ingredient of traditional Chinese herbal Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f.) Nees, exhibited anti-pulmonary fibrosis in silica-induced mice. Herein, we investigated the therapeutic effect of ISA on TIF, using mice subjected to unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) and human kidney proximal tubular epithelial (HK-2) cells treated with transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). The pathological changes and collagen deposition results displayed that ISA administration significantly attenuated inflammatory response, ameliorated TIF, and protected the kidney injury. Interestingly, ISA revealed much lower cytotoxicity on HK-2 cells, but exhibited stronger inhibitory effect on tubular epithelial mesenchymal transformation (EMT) and inflammation, as compared to andrographolide (AD), the major ingredient of A. paniculata extract that has been reported to ameliorate TIF in diabetic nephropathy mice. It was further clarified that the amelioration of TIF by ISA was associated with suppressing the aberrant activation of AKT/GSK-3β/β-catenin pathway through network pharmacology analysis and experimental validation. Taken together, these findings indicate that ISA is a promising lead compound for development of anti-TIF, and even broad-spectrum anti-fibrotic drugs.

Arecae pericarpium water extract alleviates chronic pancreatitis by deactivating pancreatic stellate cells

Chronic pancreatitis (CP) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the pancreas with irreversible morphological changes. Arecae pericarpium (ARP), known to improve gastrointestinal disorders, has not yet been reported to inhibit fibrosis in CP. Therefore, we investigated the beneficial effects of ARP on cerulein-induced CP. Cerulein (50 μg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally to mice every hour, six times a day, four times a week for a total of 3 weeks to induce CP. To ascertain the prophylactic effects of ARP, ARP water extract (50, 100, or 200 mg/kg) or saline was administered intraperitoneally 1 h before the onset of CP. To determine the therapeutic effects of ARP, ARP water extract (200 mg/kg) or saline was administered for a total of 1 week or 2 weeks, starting 2 weeks or 1 week after the onset of CP. The pancreas was collected immediately for histological analysis. Additionally, to determine the effectiveness and mechanism of ARP in alleviating pancreatic fibrosis, pancreatic stellate cells (PSCs) were isolated. ARP treatment considerably improved glandular atrophy and inflammation and repressed collagen deposition in the pancreas. Furthermore, ARP water extract inhibited extracellular matrix (ECM) constituents such as alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), collagen I, and fibronectin 1 (FN1) in pancreatic tissue and PSCs. ARP also suppressed transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling by inhibiting Smad2 phosphorylation. Our study suggests that ARP exhibits anti-fibrotic effects in cerulein-induced CP by inhibiting TGF-β/Smad signaling.

Traditional Chinese medicine: An important source for discovering candidate agents against hepatic fibrosis

Hepatic fibrosis (HF) refers to the pathophysiological process of connective tissue dysplasia in the liver caused by various pathogenic factors. Nowadays, HF is becoming a severe threat to the health of human being. However, the drugs available for treating HF are limited. Currently, increasing natural agents derived from traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) have been found to be beneficial for HF. A systemic literature search was conducted from PubMed, GeenMedical, Sci-Hub, CNKI, Google Scholar and Baidu Scholar, with the keywords of “traditional Chinese medicine,” “herbal medicine,” “natural agents,” “liver diseases,” and “hepatic fibrosis.” So far, more than 76 natural monomers have been isolated and identified from the TCMs with inhibitory effect on HF, including alkaloids, flavones, quinones, terpenoids, saponins, phenylpropanoids, and polysaccharides, etc. The anti-hepatic fibrosis effects of these compounds include hepatoprotection, inhibition of hepatic stellate cells (HSC) activation, regulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis & secretion, regulation of autophagy, and antioxidant & anti-inflammation, etc. Natural compounds and extracts from TCMs are promising agents for the prevention and treatment of HF, and this review would be of great significance to development of novel drugs for treating HF.

Advances in ameliorating inflammatory diseases and cancers by andrographolide: Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and perspective

Andrographolide, a well-known natural lactone having a range of pharmacological actions in traditional Chinese medicine. It has long been used to cure a variety of ailments. In this review, we cover the pharmacokinetics and pharmacological activity of andrographolide which supports its further clinical application in cancers and inflammatory diseases. Growing evidence shows a good therapeutic effect in inflammatory diseases, including liver diseases, joint diseases, respiratory system diseases, nervous system diseases, heart diseases, inflammatory bowel diseases, and inflammatory skin diseases. As a result, the effects of andrographolide on immune cells and the processes that underpin them are discussed. The preclinical use of andrographolide to different organs in response to malignancies such as colorectal, liver, gastric, breast, prostate, lung, and oral cancers has also been reviewed. In addition, several clinical trials of andrographolide in inflammatory diseases and cancers have been summarized. This review highlights recent advances in ameliorating inflammatory diseases as well as cancers by andrographolide and its analogs, providing a new perspective for subsequent research of this traditional natural product.

Andrographolide: A review of its pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and clinical trials and pharmaceutical researches

Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees, a renowned herb medicine in China, is broadly utilized in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for the treatment of cold and fever, sore throat, sore tongue, snake bite with its excellent functions of clearing heat and toxin, cooling blood and detumescence from times immemorial. Modern pharmacological research corroborates that andrographolide, the major ingredient in this traditional herb, is the fundamental material basis for its efficacy. As the main component of Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall. ex Nees, andrographolide reveals numerous therapeutic actions, such as antiinflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic and so on. However, there are scarcely systematic summaries on the specific mechanism of disease treatment and pharmacokinetics. Moreover, it is also found that it possesses easily ignored security issues in clinical application, such as nephrotoxicity and reproductive toxicity. Thereby it should be kept a lookout over in clinical. Besides, the relationship between the efficacy and security issues of andrographolide should be investigated and evaluated scientifically. In this review, special emphasis is given to andrographolide, a multifunctional natural terpenoids, including its pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and pharmaceutical researches. A brief overview of its clinical trials is also presented. This review intends to systematically and comprehensively summarize the current researches of andrographolide, which is of great significance for the development of andrographolide clinical products. Noteworthy, those un-cracked issues such as specific pharmacological mechanisms, security issues, as well as the bottleneck in clinical transformation, which detailed exploration and excavation are still not to be ignored before achieving integration into clinical practice. In addition, given that current extensive clinical data do not have sufficient rigor and documented details, more high-quality investigations in this field are needed to validate the efficacy and/or safety of many herbal products.

Fallopian tubal infertility: the result of Chlamydia trachomatis-induced fallopian tubal fibrosis

Chlamydia trachomatis is one of the most common pathogens of sexually transmitted diseases, and its incidence in genital tract infections is now 4.7% in south China. Infertility is the end result of C. trachomatis-induced fallopian tubal fibrosis and is receiving intense attention from scientists worldwide. To reduce the incidence of infertility, it is important to understand the pathology-related changes of the genital tract where C. trachomatis infection is significant, especially the mechanism of fibrosis formation. During fibrosis development, the fallopian tube becomes sticky and occluded, which will eventually lead to tubal infertility. At present, the mechanism of fallopian tubal fibrosis induced by C. trachomatis infection is unclear. Our study attempted to summarize the possible mechanisms of fibrosis caused by C. trachomatis infection in the fallopian tube by reviewing published studies and further providing potential therapeutic targets to reduce the occurrence of infertility. This study also provides ideas for future research. Factors leading to fallopian tube fibrosis include inflammatory factors, miRNA, ECT, cHSP, and host factors. We hypothesized that C. trachomatis mediates the transcription and translation of EMT and ECM via upregulating TGF signaling pathway, which leads to the formation of fallopian tube fibrosis and ultimately to tubal infertility.

Role of tight junction-associated MARVEL protein marvelD3 in migration and epithelial-mesenchymal transition of hepatocellular carcinoma

MarvelD3, a recently identified tight junction membrane protein, could be associated with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). We aimed to investigate the role of marvelD3 in Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) and migration of HCC and explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. First, we assessed marvlD3 expression in HCC and normal liver tissues and found loss of marvelD3 expression was significantly correlated with the occurrence and TNM stage of HCC. Second, we detected that marvelD3 was downregulated in HCC cells with transforming growth factor β1 and snail/slug-induced EMT. Finally, we analyzed expression of marvelD3 protein was significantly associated with EMT and the NF-κB signaling pathway. Our study demonstrated that MarvelD3 inhibited EMT and migration of HCC cells along with inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway.Abbreviations: HCC, Hepatocellular carcinoma; TJ, Tight junction; MARVEL, MAL and related proteins for vesicle trafficking and membrane link; EMT, Epithelial-mesenchymal transition; NF-κB, Nuclear factor kappa B; TAMPs, Tight junction-associated marvel proteins; TGF-β1, Transforming growth factor-β1; MMP9, matrix metallopeptidase 9; RT-PCR, Real-time PCR; IHC, Immunohistochemistry; IF, Immunofluorescence.

The Combination Immunotherapy of TLR9 Agonist and OX40 Agonist via Intratumoural Injection for Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

The response rate of immunotherapy via immune checkpoint blockade in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is limited due to multiple immune evasion mechanisms. OX40 is a T cell co-stimulating molecule which suppresses the cancer immune evasion by activating effector T cells (Teffs) and counteracting regulatory T cells (Tregs). TLR9 belongs to the toll-like receptor superfamily which promotes tumour antigen presentation by stimulating the maturation of dendritic cells. Though the combination immunotherapy of TLR9 agonist (CpG) and OX40 agonist (anti-OX40 antibody) has shown encouraging efficacy in various tumours, its effect on HCC remains unknown.

Materials and Methods

Orthotopic and ectopic HCC models were constructed by implanting Hepa1-6 cells at different body sites of the mice. Immune agents were administrated via three ways, including intratumoural injection into one site of the tumour, intraperitoneal injection, and subcutaneous injection. The anti-tumour immune response was evaluated by the regression of both the local treated tumour and distant untreated tumour. The ratio and function of CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, Tregs and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) were analyzed by flow cytometry.

Results

CpG via intratumoural injection remarkably upregulated the weakly expressed OX40 of intratumoural T cells. The combination immunotherapy of CpG and anti-OX40 antibody via intratumoural injection significantly inhibited the growth of local and distant tumours, and also effectively prevented their recurrence. Excitingly, drug administration via intratumoural injection, rather than via intraperitoneal or subcutaneous injections, induced potent anti-tumour immune response. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the combination immunotherapy promoted CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, and inhibited Tregs and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, contributing to the effective inhibition on HCC. Noteworthily, the combination immunotherapy also induced an immune memory response.

Conclusion

The intratumoural administration of combined CpG and anti-OX40 antibody serves as a promising immunotherapy against HCC.

Antisense Tissue Factor Oligodeoxynucleotides Protected Diethyl Nitrosamine/Carbon Tetrachloride-Induced Liver Fibrosis Through Toll Like Receptor4-Tissue Factor-Protease Activated Receptor1 Pathway

Tissue factor (TF) is a blood coagulation factor that has several roles in many non-coagulant pathways involved in different pathological conditions such as angiogenesis, inflammation and fibrogenesis. Coagulation and inflammation are crosslinked with liver fibrosis where protease-activated receptor1 (PAR1) and toll-like receptor4 (TLR4) play a key role. Antisense oligodeoxynucleotides are strong modulators of gene expression. In the present study, antisense TF oligodeoxynucleotides (TFAS) was evaluated in treating liver fibrosis via suppression of TF gene expression. Liver fibrosis was induced in rats by a single administration of N-diethyl nitrosamine (DEN, 200 mg/kg; i. p.) followed by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4, 3 ml/kg; s. c.) once weekly for 6 weeks. Following fibrosis induction, liver TF expression was significantly upregulated along with liver enzymes activities and liver histopathological deterioration. Alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and transforming growth factor-1beta (TGF-1β) expression, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and hydroxyproline content and collagen deposition were significantly elevated in the liver. Blocking of TF expression by TFAS injection (2.8 mg/kg; s. c.) once weekly for 6 weeks significantly restored liver enzymes activities and improved histopathological features along with decreasing the elevated α-SMA, TGF-1β, TNF-α, hydroxyproline and collagen. Moreover, TFAS decreased the expression of both PAR1 and TLR4 that were induced by liver fibrosis. In conclusion, we reported that blockage of TF expression by TFAS improved inflammatory and fibrotic changes associated with CCl4+DEN intoxication. In addition, we explored the potential crosslink between the TF, PAR1 and TLR4 in liver fibrogenesis. These findings offer a platform on which recovery from liver fibrosis could be mediated through targeting TF expression.

Impacts of n-acetyl cysteine on gibberellic acid-induced hepatorenal dysfunction through modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines, antifibrotic and antioxidant activity

The extensive usage of gibberellic acid (GA3) in agriculture and plant growth is generally associated with enormous human and public health hazards. The present research assesses the impact of n-acetyl cysteine (NAC) on the hepatorenal injury persuaded by GA3 for this purpose, After two weeks of adaptation twenty-four rats allocated into four groups (6 rats/group) as follows: control group, supplied with saline only; n-acetyl cysteine (NAC) group, provided with 150 mg/kg/bw by stomach tube (orally) dissolved in saline; Positive GA3 group, received GA3 (55 mg/kg/bw) orally; Protective group received NAC (150 mg/kg/bw) and GA3 (55 mg/kg/bw) as in NAC and GA3 groups. Rats received their treatments for consecutive 3 weeks. On day 22, rats were anesthetized, then euthanized. Blood and tissue samples were obtained for biochemical, antioxidants markers analysis, gene expression, and histopathological examination. Our results revealed significant changes in serum AST, ALT, urea, uric acid, total protein, and albumin levels with a substantial rise of MDA and NO concentration in GA3 treated rats along with a considerable decrease of the GSH and overexpression of the inflammatory hepatic and renal cytokines (IL-10, TNF-α, NOS) and fibrotic gene expression TGF-β1, and α-SMA, with boost expression of nuclear factor-kappa (NF_k B). NAC co-administered with GA3 significantly normalized the kidney and liver function and the antioxidant state, besides normal histological structure of both liver and kidney tissue and downregulated expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines as well as, fibrogenic gene expression. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The current study confirmed that GA3 induced hepto-renal dysfunction that was ameliorated by NAC administration. Moreover, our findings confirmed the antioxidant capability of n-acetyl cysteine and afford robust evidence about the ameliorative effect of the n-acetyl cysteine to attenuate the hepatorenal injury induced by gibberellic acid through modulation of the antioxidant defense system fibrogenic, and pro-inflammatory cytokines expression.

The NF-κB signalling pathway and TM7SF3 contribute to liver fibrosis caused by secreted phospholipase A2 of Clonorchis sinensis

Background

The NF-κB signalling pathway has been reported to be related to liver fibrosis, and we investigated whether the NF-κB signalling pathway is involved in liver fibrosis caused by secreted phospholipase A2 of Clonorchis sinensis (CssPLA2). Furthermore, expression of the receptor of CssPLA2 on the cell surface of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) may greatly contribute to liver fibrosis.

Methods

CssPLA2 was administered to BALB/c mice by abdominal injection. The levels of markers of NF-κB signalling pathway activation in mouse liver tissue were measured by quantitative RT-PCR, ELISA and western blot. Additionally, HSCs were incubated with CssPLA2, and an NF-κB signalling inhibitor (BAY 11-7082) was applied to test whether the NF-κB signalling pathway plays a role in the effect of CssPLA2. Then, the interaction between CssPLA2 and its receptor transmembrane 7 superfamily member 3 (TM7SF3) was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) and GST pull-down. To determine how TM7SF3 influences the ability of CssPLA2 to cause liver fibrosis, a TM7SF3 antibody was used to block TM7SF3.

Results

The levels of the NF-ΚB signalling pathway activation markers TNF-α, IL-1β and phospho-p65 were increased by CssPLA2 in the context of liver fibrosis. In addition, the interaction between TM7SF3 and CssPLA2 was confirmed by co-IP and GST pull-down. When TM7SF3 was blocked by an antibody targeting 1–295 amino acids of TM7SF3, activation of HSCs caused by CssPLA2 was alleviated.

Conclusions

The NF-ΚB signalling pathway is involved in the activation of HSCs by CssPLA2. TM7SF3, the receptor of CssPLA2, plays important roles in liver fibrosis caused by CssPLA2.

Toll-Like Receptors Recognize Intestinal Microbes in Liver Cirrhosis

Liver cirrhosis is one major cause of mortality in the clinic, and treatment of this disease is an arduous task. The scenario will be even getting worse with increasing alcohol consumption and obesity in the current lifestyle. To date, we have no medicines to cure cirrhosis. Although many etiologies are associated with cirrhosis, abnormal intestinal microbe flora (termed dysbiosis) is a common feature in cirrhosis regardless of the causes. Toll-like receptors (TLRs), one evolutional conserved family of pattern recognition receptors in the innate immune systems, play a central role in maintaining the homeostasis of intestinal microbiota and inducing immune responses by recognizing both commensal and pathogenic microbes. Remarkably, recent studies found that correction of intestinal flora imbalance could change the progress of liver cirrhosis. Therefore, correction of intestinal dysbiosis and targeting TLRs can provide novel and promising strategies in the treatment of liver cirrhosis. Here we summarize the recent advances in the related topics. Investigating the relationship among innate immunity TLRs, intestinal flora disorders, and liver cirrhosis and exploring the underlying regulatory mechanisms will assuredly have a bright future for both basic and clinical research.

Depletion of serotonin relieves concanavalin A-induced liver fibrosis in mice by inhibiting inflammation, oxidative stress, and TGF-β1/Smads signaling pathway

Serotonin exerts important functions in several liver pathophysiological processes. In this study, we investigated the role of serotonin in concanavalin A (Con A)-induced liver fibrosis (LF) in mice and the underlying mechanisms. To establish the mouse model of LF, mice of wild-type (WT) and tryptophan hydroxylase 1 (Tph1) knockout (serotonin depletion) received Con A for 8 successive weeks. Degree of fibrosis was assessed by Sirius red staining, as well as the measurements of alpha smooth muscle actin (α- SMA), hydroxyproline (Hyp) and type I collagen in liver tissues. To elucidate the potential mechanisms, we assessed the effect of serotonin depletion on inflammatory, oxidative stress as well as TGF-β1/Smads signaling pathway. We found that serotonin depletion significantly inhibited collagen deposition as evaluated by less collagenous fiber in Sirus Red staining and reduced contents of Hyp and type I collagen. In addition, the absence of serotonin significantly inhibited the release of several inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis-alpha (TNF-α), and transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1). Oxidative stress was also largely mitigated in LF mice with serotonin deficiency as manifested by the decreases of oxidative stress markers (malonaldehyde (MDA) and myeloperoxidase (MPO)), as well as the increases of antioxidant stress indicators (glutathione (GSH), and GSH-px, catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD)) in liver tissues. Moreover, the lack of serotonin may provide an antifibrotic role by inhibiting the intrahepatic expressions of TGF-β1, phosphorylated-smad2 (p-smad2), and phosphorylated-smad3 (p-smad3). These results indicated that, serotonin depletion attenuates Con A-induced LF through the regulation of inflammatory response, oxidative stress injury, and TGF-β1/Smads signaling pathway.

Hepatic stellate cells specific liposomes with the Toll-like receptor 4 shRNA attenuates liver fibrosis

The hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) play a significant role in the onset of liver fibrosis, which can be treated by the inhibition and reversal of HSC activation. The RNA interference-mediated TLR4 gene silencing might be a potential therapeutic approach for liver fibrosis. The crucial challenge in this method is the absence of an efficient delivery system for the RNAi introduction in the target cells. HSCs have an enhanced capacity of vitamin A intake as they contain retinoic acid receptors (RARs). In the current study, we developed cationic liposomes modified with vitamin A to improve the specificity of delivery vehicles for HSCs. The outcome of this study revealed that the VitA-coupled cationic liposomes delivered the TLR4 shRNA to aHSCs more efficiently, as compared to the uncoupled cationic liposomes, both in the in vitro and in vivo conditions. Besides, as evident from the outcome of this study, the TLR4 gene silencing inhibited the HSCs activation and attenuated the liver fibrosis via the NF-κB transcriptional inactivation, pro-inflammatory cytokines secretion and reactive oxygen species (ROS) synthesis. Thus, the VitA-coupled liposomes encapsulated with the TLR4-shRNA might prove as an efficient therapeutic agent for liver fibrosis.

Scoparone alleviates hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting the TLR-4/NF-κB pathway

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of scoparone (SCO) in hepatic fibrosis. For this, we conducted in vivo and in vitro experiments. In vivo rats that were divided into six groups, control, carbon tetrachloride, and colchicine, as well as SCO groups, SCO50, SCO100, and SCO200 treated with 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg SCO doses, respectively. Furthermore, SCO was shown to inhibit Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4)/nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB; TLR-4/NF-κB) signals by inhibiting TLR-4, which in turn downregulates the expression of MyD88, promotes NF-κB inhibitor-α, NF-κB inhibitor-β, and NF-κB inhibitor-ε activation, while inhibiting NF-κB inhibitor-ζ. Subsequently, the decrease of phosphorylation of nuclear factor-κB levels leads to the downregulation of the downstream inflammatory factors' tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-1 beta, thus weakening hepatic fibrosis. Notably, the SCO200 treated group presented the most significant improvement. Hence, we conclude that SCO alleviates hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting TLR-4/NF-κB signals.

A comprehensive review of natural products to fight liver fibrosis: Alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, coumarins and other compounds

The discovery of drugs to treat liver fibrosis has long been a challenge over the past decades due to its complicated pathogenesis. As a primary approach for drug development, natural products account for 30% of clinical drugs used for disease treatment. Therefore, natural products are increasingly important for their medicinal value in liver fibrosis therapy. In this part of the review, special focus is placed on the effect and mechanism of natural compounds, including alkaloids, terpenoids, glycosides, coumarins and others. A total of 36 kinds of natural compounds demonstrate significant antifibrotic effects in various liver fibrosis models in vivo and in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) in vitro. Revealing the mechanism will provide further basis for clinical conversion, as well as accelerate drug discovery. The mechanism was further summarized with the finding of network regulation by several natural products, such as oxymatrine, paeoniflorin, ginsenoside Rg1 and taurine. Moreover, there are still improvements needed in investigating clinical efficacy, determining mechanisms, and combining applications, as well as semisynthesis and modification. Therefore, natural products area promising resource for agents that protect against liver fibrosis.

MicroRNA-326 attenuates hepatic stellate cell activation and liver fibrosis by inhibiting TLR4 signaling

Hepatic fibrosis is a chronic inflammatory and reversible repair reaction of the liver under the continuous action of virus or various injuries. In this study, we aimed at identifying the role of miR-326 in the hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation and liver fibrosis and its potential mechanism. In this study, the liver fibrosis mouse model was developed by injecting CCl₄ . Liver tissue morphology was observed and the expression level of α-smooth muscle actin, collagen1α1 and miR-326 was measured. Target gene identification was performed by loss-of-function and gain-of-function. The effect of miR-326 on the expression level of the cytokines associated with the TLR4/MyD88/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway was assessed in vitro and in vivo. We show that miR-326 was downregulated in CCl₄ -induced fibrotic mice and activated HSCs. The target gene of miR-326 is TLR4. Moreover, miR-326 inhibited the activation of HSCs in vitro through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling. miR-326 attenuated hepatic fibrosis and inflammation of CCl₄ -induced mice in vivo. Our results demonstrate for the first time that miR-326 inhibits HSC activation through TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling. Furthermore, miR-326 plays critical roles in attenuating liver fibrosis and inflammation, suggesting the therapeutic potential of miRNAs.

Oridonin ameliorates carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis in mice through inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome

Liver fibrosis is characterized by the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and accumulation of the extracellular matrix. There are limitations in the current therapies for liver fibrosis. Recently, oridonin was shown to induce apoptosis in HSCs. Thus, we aimed to determine the roles of oridonin in chronic liver injury and fibrosis. Liver fibrosis was induced by CCl4 in mice injected intraperitoneally with oridonin for 6 weeks. The administration of oridonin significantly attenuated liver injury and reduced ALT levels. In addition, Sirius Red staining and the expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) were significantly reduced by oridonin in murine livers with fibrosis. The expression of NLRP3, caspase-1, and IL-1β was downregulated with the oridonin treatment. Furthermore, the expression of F4/80 in liver tissues was also decreased by oridonin treatment. These results demonstrate that oridonin ameliorates chronic liver injury and fibrosis. Mechanically, oridonin may inhibit the activity of the NLRP3 inflammasome and inflammation in the liver. These results highlight the potential of oridonin as a therapeutic agent for liver fibrosis.

Clonorchis sinensis ESPs enhance the activation of hepatic stellate cells by a cross-talk of TLR4 and TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway

Excretory/Secretory products (ESPs) from Clonorchis sinensis-a fluke dwelling on the biliary ducts-promote the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and lead to hepatic fibrosis ultimately, although the mechanisms that are responsible for CsESPs-induced activation of HSCs are largely unknown. In the present study, we investigated the underlying mechanism of TLR4 in the regulation of the activation of HSCs caused by CsESPs. We found that the expression of TLR4 was significantly increased in the HSCs with CsESPs for 24 h, compared to the control group. However, the activation of HSCs induced by CsESPs was inhibited by interfering with TGF-β/Smad pathway using a TGF-β receptor I inhibitor LY2157299, indicating that TGF-β induced signaling pathway was involved in CsESPs-caused the activation of HSCs. In addition, the activation of HSCs caused by CsESPs was remarkably inhibited by a TLR4 specific inhibitor (VIPER), and phosphorylation of Smad2/3 was significantly attenuated but the expression of the pseudoreceptor of TGF-β-type I receptor (BAMBI) was obviously increased when TLR4 signaling pathway was blocked. The results of the present study demonstrate that activation of HSCs caused by CsESPs is mediated by a cross-talk between TLR4 and TGF-β/Smads signaling pathway, and may provide a potential treatment strategy to interrupt the process of liver fibrosis caused by C. sinensis.

Down-regulation of GLT25D1 inhibited collagen secretion and involved in liver fibrogenesis

Collagen β (1-O) galactosyltransferase 1 (GLT25D1) has been reported to transfer galactose to hydroxylysine residues via β (1-O) linkages in collagen. However, the role of Glt25d1 in liver fibrogenesis is still unknow. Recently, we generated a Glt25d1 knockout mouse to elucidate the role of Glt25d1 in vivo. However, we found that complete deletion of the Glt25d1 gene resulted in embryonic lethality at E11.5. Histopathological analysis revealed that dysplasia in Glt25d1^-/- labyrinth with defects of the vascular network. Immunohistochemical showed that the decrease in proliferation of Glt25d1^-/- liver and the developing central nervous system (CNS). The role of Glt25d1 in liver fibrogenesis was explored by Glt25d1^+/- mice. Glt25d1^+/- mice and wild-type (WT) mice were injected intraperitoneally with the same dose of CCl₄. The higher level of serum alanine aminotransferase was observed in Glt25d1^+/- mice. Reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chainreaction demonstrated that the mRNA expression levels of the inflammatory cytokines such as, Tnf-α, Cxcl-1 and Mcp-1, showed a significantly increase in CCl₄-treated Glt25d1^+/- mice. Collagen-I, collagen-III and α-SMA transcripts accumulation was markedly increased in the Glt25d1^+/- mice. However, Masson's trichrome staining revealed a trend to decrease in the ECM proteins deposition of Glt25d1^+/- liver. Immunohistochemistry and Western blots revealed that the protein expression of Collagen-III was reduced and a trend to a decrease in collagen-I was observed in the Glt25d1^+/- liver compared with those of WT mice. Our results demonstrate that Glt25d1 knockout results in embryonic lethality and down-regulation of Glt25d1 may inhibit collagen secretion during liver fibrogenesis.

Melatonin Inhibits Transforming Growth Factor-β1-Induced Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in AML12 Hepatocytes

Recent studies showed that melatonin, a well-known pineal hormone that modulates the circadian rhythm, exerts beneficial effects against liver fibrosis. However, mechanisms for its protective action against the fibrotic processes remain incompletely understood. Here, we aimed to explore the effects of the hormone on transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-stimulated epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in AML12 hepatocytes. Pretreatment with melatonin dose-dependently reversed downregulation of an epithelial marker and upregulation of mesenchymal markers after TGF-β1 stimulation. Additionally, melatonin dose-dependently suppressed an increased phosphorylation of Smad2/3 after TGF-β1 treatment. Besides the canonical Smad signaling pathway, an increase in phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and p38 was also dose-dependently attenuated by melatonin. The suppressive effect of the hormone on EMT stimulated by TGF-β1 was not affected by luzindole, an antagonist of melatonin membrane receptors, suggesting that its membrane receptors are not required for the inhibitory action of melatonin. Moreover, melatonin suppressed elevation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in TGF-β1-treated cells. Finally, TGF-β1-stimulated EMT was also inhibited by the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine. Collectively, these results suggest that melatonin prevents TGF-β1-stimulated EMT through suppression of Smad and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascades by deactivating ROS-dependent mechanisms in a membrane receptor-independent manner.

Andrographolide stimulates osteoblastogenesis and bone formation by inhibiting nuclear factor kappa-Β signaling both in vivo and in vitro

Osteoporosis is a bone disease that is associated with a decrease in bone mineral density, deterioration of bone microarchitecture and increased fracture risk. Currently, available treatments mainly focus on either inhibiting osteoclast function, such as administration of bisphosphonate, calcitonin, oestrogen, selective oestrogen receptor modulator and so on, or stimulating osteoblasts, such as parathyroid hormone, to improve bone mass and skeletal microarchitecture. However, there is no option that is completely satisfactory because of the limitations of monotherapy with either class. Thus, it is highly appealing to investigate novel drugs with both antiresorptive and osteoanabolic activities that have the potential to be more beneficial than monotherapy because of the different mechanism of action. As has been proven in previous study that andrographolide (AP), as a key herbal medicine, could suppress osteoclast formation and function both in vivo and in vitro. The purpose of this present study was to identify the effect of AP on osteoblast differentiation and oestrogen deficiency-induced osteoporosis. It was concluded that AP significantly reduced oestrogen deficiency-induced bone loss in vivo. Furthermore, it was proved that tumor necrosis factor alpha severely impaired bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2)-induced osteoblast differentiation, and this inhibition could be greatly attenuated by AP. This was further supported by the fact that AP significantly increases the expression of osteoblast-specific markers, including runt-related transcription factor-2, osteocalcin and osteopontin. In addition, molecular analysis revealed that AP greatly ceased tumor necrosis factor alpha-mediated stimulation of nuclear factor kappa-Β activity, whereas overexpression of the nuclear factor kappa-Β subunit p65 reversed the stimulatory effects of AP on osteoblast differentiation. Thus, combined with previous study, AP was demonstrated to be a novel agent with both antiresorptive and osteoanabolic activities and had the potential to be developed as an antiosteoporosis alternative.

THE TRANSLATIONAL POTENTIAL OF THIS ARTICLE

This study provides strong evidence for the identification that AP has both antiresorptive and osteoanabolic activities and thus has great potential to be developed as a novel antiosteoporosis agent.

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate promotes hepatic fibrosis by regulation of oxidative stress and inflammation responses in rats

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an environmental pollutant that is widely used in medical and consumer products. An epidemiological study has suggested that a large daily intake of DEHP from phthalate-contaminated food may be a risk factor for liver dysfunction. Long-term exposure to DEHP is associated with liver disease and exacerbates the progression of chronic liver injury. However, the effect of DEHP on hepatic fibrosis is rarely studied. In the present study, we sought to determine the effect of DEHP on carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis, and to further examine the molecular mechanisms. We found that DEHP exposure remarkably promoted liver inflammation, necrosis and fibrosis, and increased expression of the protein associated with liver inflammation and fibrogenesis, including α-SMA, COL-Ⅰ, COL-Ⅲ, TGF-β1, P-Smad2, P-Smad3, P-p38 and P-p65. The similar trend was observed in the LX-2 cells. Furthermore, DEHP exposure induced oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokine production. Taken together, DEHP might play a fibrotic role in hepatic fibrosis rats and TGF-β1-stimulated LX-2 cells in vitro which was related to TGF-β1/Smad and p38MAPK/NF-κB signal pathway.

Interleukin 10 Gene-Modified Bone Marrow-Derived Dendritic Cells Attenuate Liver Fibrosis in Mice by Inducing Regulatory T Cells and Inhibiting the TGF-β/Smad Signaling Pathway

Aim

To explore the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of interleukin 10 gene-modified bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DC-IL10) on liver fibrosis.

Methods

In vitro, BMDCs were transfected with lentiviral-interleukin 10-GFP (LV-IL10-GFP) at the MOI of 1 : 40. Then, the phenotype (MHCII, CD80, and CD86) and allo-stimulatory ability of DC-IL10 were identified by flow cytometry, and the levels of IL-10 and IL-12 (p70) secreted into the culture supernatants were quantified by ELISA. In vivo, DC-IL10 was injected into mice with CCl4-induced liver fibrosis through the tail vein. Lymphocytes were isolated to investigate the differentiation of T cells, and serum and liver tissue were collected for biochemical, cytokine, histopathologic, immune-histochemical, and Western blot analyzes.

Results

In vitro, the expressions of MHCII, CD80, and CD86 in DC-IL10 were significantly suppressed, allogeneic CD4⁺T cells incubated with DC-IL10 showed a lower proliferative response, and the levels of IL-10 and IL-12 (p70) secreted into the DC-IL10 culture supernatants were significantly increased and decreased, respectively. In vivo, regulatory T cells (Tregs) were significantly increased, while ALT, AST, and inflammatory cytokines were significantly reduced in the DC-IL10 treatment group, and the degree of hepatic fibrosis was obviously reversed. The TGF-β/smad pathway was inhibited following DC-IL10 treatment compared to the liver fibrosis group.

Conclusion

IL-10 genetic modification of BMDCs may maintain DC in the state of tolerance and allow DC to induce T cell hyporesponsiveness or tolerance. DC-IL10 suppressed liver fibrosis by inducing Treg production and inhibiting the TGF-β/smad signaling pathway.

Andrographolide ameliorates intracerebral hemorrhage induced secondary brain injury by inhibiting neuroinflammation induction

Microglia activation and neuroinflammation play important roles in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH)-induced secondary brain injury (SBI). In this study, we attempted to investigate the potential effects of Andrographolide (Andro) on ICH-induced SBI and the possible mechanisms behind these effects. Andro treatment effectively reduced neuronal cell death and degeneration and alleviated neurobehavioral disorders and brain edema in vivo. In an in vitro study, microglia activation-induced neuronal cell death was ameliorated by Andro treatment. In addition, microglia activation and neuroinflammation were induced by ICH, exhibiting elevated cytokine levels, which could be reversed with Andro treatment. The levels of TNF-α and IL-6 were significantly decreased after treatment with Andro, both in vivo and in vitro, due to the inhibition of nuclear transcription factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway activation. Meanwhile, Andro decreased the levels of IL-1β and LDH, as well as microglia pyroptosis induced by ICH by suppressing the assembly of the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. In summary, this study reveals an anti-inflammatory effect of Andro and its potential mechanisms, and it shows that Andro is a potential candidate for improving ICH-induced SBI.