Chloroquine Improves Deoxynivalenol-Induced Inflammatory Response and Intestinal Mucosal Damage in Piglets

Effects of Deoxynivalenol Detoxifier on Growth Performance, Blood Biochemical Indices, and Microbiota Composition of Piglets

Deoxynivalenol (DON), also known as vomitoxin, has a high detection and exceeding rate in feed and is prone to causing symptoms such as loss of appetite, weight loss, vomiting, and diarrhoea in animals, which brings great harm to the aquaculture industry. The common mycotoxin adsorbents have low adsorption rates for DON, and the use of biological methods to remove DON in feeds has gradually become a research trend. One hundred and twenty crossbred barrows were randomly divided into four groups, which included the normal diet group (CON), normal diet + detoxifier group (Det), DON-polluted diet group (DON), and DON-polluted diet + DON detoxifier group (DON + Det); the experiment lasted for 28 d. The results showed that, compared with piglets fed a normal diet, those piglets fed DON-polluted diets significantly decreased their average daily gain (ADG) and average daily feed intake (ADFI) during the 1-14 d and 1-28 d periods; the content of immunoglobulin G (IgG), catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-PX), interleukin-4 (IL-4), and interleukin-10 (IL-10) in serum was decreased; and the content of aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), malondialdehyde (MDA), diamine oxidase (DAO), and endotoxin (LPS) was increased in pigs fed DON-polluted diets; meanwhile, feeding piglets DON-polluted diets significantly reduced the levels of acetic acid, propionic acid, and total short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) as well as gut microbiota health index (GMHI) in piglet faeces, but increased the relative abundance of Treponema, Prevotellaceae_UGG-001, Lachnospiraceae_XPB1014_group, Frisingicoccus and Sphaerochaeta. In contrast, the addition of a composite detoxifier effectively ameliorated the reduction in ADG and ADFI in piglets caused by DON-polluted diets. It suppressed the reduction in CAT, SOD, GSH-PX, IL-4, and IL-10 and the elevation of TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6, IL-12, MDA, LPS, and DAO in serum; the composite detoxifier also restrained the decrease in SCFA in piglet faeces and increased the relative abundance of Ruminococcus, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, Lachnospiraceae_AC2044_group, UCG-009, and Eubacterium_siraeum_group bacteria. The composite detoxifier effectively mitigated the adverse effects of a DON-polluted diet on piglet growth performance, blood biochemical indices, and gut microbiota composition.

Lauric acid reduces apoptosis by inhibiting FOXO3a-signaling in deoxynivalenol-treated IPEC-J2 cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most common mycotoxin contaminant of food or feed worldwide and causes disease in animals. Lauric acid (LA) is a medium-chain fatty acid useful for barrier functions such as antimicrobial activity in the intestine of monogastric animals. However, the molecular mechanisms by which lauric acid exerts its effects on the deoxynivalenol-exposed small intestine have not been studied. We used an intestinal porcine epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2) as an in vitro model to explore the molecular mechanism of lauric acid in alleviating deoxynivalenol-induced damage. We found that lauric acid reversed deoxynivalenol-induced reduction in cell viability. Our quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction results indicated that lauric acid alleviated deoxynivalenol-induced apoptosis through Annexin-V. Additionally, immunofluorescence and Western blotting showed that lauric acid attenuated deoxynivalenol-induced forkhead box O3 (FOXO3a) translocation into the nucleus. These results suggest that lauric acid attenuates forkhead box O3 translocation in the small intestine damaged by deoxynivalenol, thereby reducing apoptosis. In conclusion, this study found that lauric acid alleviates deoxynivalenol-induced damage in intestinal porcine epithelial cell line through various molecular mechanisms.

Fusarium mycotoxins: The major food contaminants

Mycotoxins, which are secondary metabolites produced by toxicogenic fungi, are natural food toxins that cause acute and chronic adverse reactions in humans and animals. The genus Fusarium is one of three major genera of mycotoxin-producing fungi. Trichothecenes, fumonisins, and zearalenone are the major Fusarium mycotoxins that occur worldwide. Fusarium mycotoxins have the potential to infiltrate the human food chain via contamination during crop production and food processing, eventually threatening human health. The occurrence and development of Fusarium mycotoxin contamination will change with climate change, especially with variations in temperature, precipitation, and carbon dioxide concentration. To address these challenges, researchers have built a series of effective models to forecast the occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins and provide guidance for crop production. Fusarium mycotoxins frequently exist in food products at extremely low levels, thus necessitating the development of highly sensitive and reliable detection techniques. Numerous successful detection methods have been developed to meet the requirements of various situations, and an increasing number of methods are moving toward high-throughput features. Although Fusarium mycotoxins cannot be completely eliminated, numerous agronomic, chemical, physical, and biological methods can lower Fusarium mycotoxin contamination to safe levels during the preharvest and postharvest stages. These theoretical innovations and technological advances have the potential to facilitate the development of comprehensive strategies for effectively managing Fusarium mycotoxin contamination in the future.

Using network pharmacology and molecular docking to uncover the mechanism by which quercetin alleviates deoxynivalenol-induced porcine intestinal injury

Deoxynivalenol is a widespread feed contaminant that leads to vomit, which results in serious symptom such as increased intestinal permeability and even intestinal mucosal necrosis. Recent studies have reported the role of quercetin in alleviating deoxynivalenol-induced intestinal injury; however, the mechanisms and targets remain unclear. Thus, we aimed to identify the mechanisms of action by using a combination of network pharmacology and molecular docking. We identified 151 quercetin targets, 235 deoxynivalenol targets and 47 porcine intestinal injury targets by searching compound database and PubMed database, among which there were two common targets. The PPI network showed that the key proteins involved are NQO1 and PPAR-γ. The PPI network showed that the key proteins involved were NQO1 and PPARG. GO analysis found that genes were enriched primarily in response to oxidative stress. The PPI network showed that the key proteins involved are NQO1 and PPAR-γ. The genes are enriched primarily in response to oxidative stress. KEGG analysis showed enrichment of the HIF, reactive oxygen species and other signaling pathways. The molecular docking results indicated key binding activity between NQO1-quercetin and PPAR-γ-quercetin. By using network pharmacology, we have revealed the potential molecular mechanisms by which quercetin alleviates deoxynivalenol-induced porcine intestinal injury, which lays the foundation for the development of drugs to treat deoxynivalenol-induced intestinal injury in pigs.

Multi-omics reveals the protective effects of curcumin against AFB1-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory damage in duckling intestines

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most prevalent and toxic class of aflatoxins, which is considered a significant risk factor for food safety. Curcumin, a phytoconstituent with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, has potential therapeutic value for intestinal inflammatory diseases. In this study, the duckling model susceptible to AFB1 was selected for toxicity testing, aiming to explore the effect of curcumin on AFB1 enterotoxicity and its possible mechanism of action. The results showed that curcumin promoted the growth and development of ducklings and mitigated the changes in morphology and permeability serological index (DAO and D-LA) after AFB1 exposure. Curcumin also mitigated AFB1-induced oxidative stress by activating the Nrf2 pathway, and ameliorated intestinal inflammation by inhibiting the NF-κB/IκB signaling pathway and boosting intestinal autophagy. In terms of gut flora and their metabolites, we found that curcumin supplementation significantly increased the intestinal flora's abundance index and diversity index compared to the AFB1 group, mitigating the decline in the abundance of Actinobacteria and the rise in that of harmful bacteria Clostridia. Furthermore, untargeted metabolomic analysis revealed that the protective effect of curcumin on the intestine was mainly through the regulation of AFB1-induced disorders of lipid metabolism, involving linoleic acid metabolism, α-linolenic acid metabolism, and glycerolipid metabolism. Overall, the enteroprotective effects of curcumin may be of significant value in the future for treating chronic AFB1 poisoning and also provide new therapeutic ideas for other mycotoxicosis.

Effective protective agents against organ toxicity of deoxynivalenol and their detoxification mechanisms: A review

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most prevalent mycotoxins in feed, which causes organ toxicity in animals. Therefore, reducing DON-induced organ toxicity can now be accomplished effectively using protective agents. This review provides an overview of multiple studies on a wide range of protective agents and their molecular mechanisms against DON organ toxicity. Protective agents include plant extracts, yeast products, bacteria, peptides, enzymes, H2, oligosaccharides, amino acids, adsorbents, vitamins and selenium. Among these, biological detoxification of DON using microorganisms to reduce the toxicity of DON without affecting the growth performance of pigs may be the most promising detoxification strategy. This paper also evaluates future developments related to DON detoxification and discusses the detoxification role and application potential of protective agents. This paper provides new perspectives for future research and development of safe and effective feed additives.

A bio-inspired nanoparticle coating for vascular healing and immunomodulatory by cGMP-PKG and NF-kappa B signaling pathways

Drug-eluting stents (DESs) implantation is an effective method to tackle in-stent restenosis (ISR), which has been considered as an efficient treatment for coronary atherosclerosis. Although fruitful results have been achieved in treating coronary artery diseases (CAD), concern has arisen regarding the long-term safety and efficacy of DESs, primarily due to adverse events such as delayed re-endothelialization, persistent inflammatory response, and late stent thrombosis (LST). Taking inspiration from the immunomodulatory functions of camouflage strategies, this study designed a bio-inspired nanoparticle-coated stent. Briefly, the platelet membrane-coated poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)/Rapamycin nanoparticles (PNP) were sprayed onto stents, forming a homogenous nanoparticle coating. The bilayer of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and platelet membrane works synergistically to promote the sustained-release effect of rapamycin. In vitro studies revealed that the PNP-coated surfaces promoted the competitive adhesion of endothelia cells while inhibiting smooth muscle cells. Subsequent in vivo studies demonstrated that these surfaces expedite re-endothelialization and elicit immunomodulatory effects by regulating the cGMP-PKG and NF-kappa B signaling pathways, influencing the biosynthesis cofactors and immune system signaling. The study successfully deviced a novel and biomimetic drug-eluting stent system, unraveling its detailed functions and molecular mechanism of action for enhanced vascular healing.

Combination of glycyrrhizic acid and compound probiotics alleviates deoxynivalenol-induced damage to weaned piglets

Deoxynivalenol (DON) can affect health and growth performance of pigs, resulting in significant economic losses in swine production. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of glycyrrhizic acid combined with compound probiotics, i.e. Enterococcus faecalis plus Saccharomyces cerevisiae (GAP) on improving growth performance, intestinal health and its fecal microbiota composition change of piglets challenged with DON. A total of 160 42-day-old weaned piglets (Landrace × Large White) were used and the experimental period was 28 d. The results showed that supplementing GAP in the diet significantly improved the growth performance of piglets challenged with DON and alleviate DON-induced intestinal damage by reducing ALT, AST and LDH concentrations in serum, increasing the morphological parameters of jejunum, and decreasing DON residues in serum, liver and feces. Moreover, GAP could significantly decrease the expressions of inflammation and apoptosis genes and proteins (IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α, COX-2, Bax, Bcl-2 and Caspase 3), and increase the expressions of tight-junction proteins and nutrient transport factor genes and proteins (ZO-1, Occludin, Claudin-1, ASCT2 and PePT1). In addition, it was also found that GAP supplementation could significantly increase the diversity of gut microbiota, maintain microbial flora balance and promote piglet growth by significantly increasing the abundance of beneficial bacterium such as Lactobacillus and reducing the abundance of harmful bacterium such as Clostridium_sensu_stricto_1. In conclusion, GAP addition to piglet diets contaminated with DON could significantly promote the health and growth performance of piglets though alleviating DON-induced hazards. This study provided a theoretical basis for the application of GAP to alleviate DON toxicity for animals.

Deoxynivalenol triggers porcine intestinal tight junction disorder: Insights from mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is universally detected trichothecene in most cereal commodities, which is considered as a major hazardous material for human and animal health. Intestine is the most vulnerable organ with higher concentration of DON than other organs, owing to the first defense barrier function to exogenous substances. However, the underling mechanisms about DON-induced intestinal toxicity remain poorly understood. Here, DON poisoning models of IPEC-J2 cells was established to explore adverse effect and the potential mechanism of DON-induced enterotoxicity. Results showed that DON exposure destroyed IPEC-J2 cells morphology. Results showed that DON exposure destroyed IPEC-J2 cells morphology. Intestinal epithelial barrier injury was caused by DON with increasing LDH release, decreasing cell viability as well decreasing tight junction protein expressions (Occludin, N-Cad, ZO-1, Claudin-1 and Claudin-3). Moreover, DON caused mitochondrial dysfunction by opening mitochondrial permeability transition pore and eliminating mitochondrial membrane potential. DON exposure upregulated protein and mRNA expression of mitochondrial fission factors (Drp1, Fis1, MIEF1 and MFF) and mitophagy factors (PINK1, Parkin and LC3), downregulated mitochondrial fusion factors (Mfn1, Mfn2, except OPA1), resulting in mitochondrial dynamics imbalance and mitophagy. Overall, these findings suggested that DON induced tight junction dysfunction in IPEC-J2 cells was related to mitochondrial dynamics-mediated mitophagy.

Crosstalk between Mycotoxins and Intestinal Microbiota and the Alleviation Approach via Microorganisms

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungus. Due to their widespread distribution, difficulty in removal, and complicated subsequent harmful by-products, mycotoxins pose a threat to the health of humans and animals worldwide. Increasing studies in recent years have highlighted the impact of mycotoxins on the gut microbiota. Numerous researchers have sought to illustrate novel toxicological mechanisms of mycotoxins by examining alterations in the gut microbiota caused by mycotoxins. However, few efficient techniques have been found to ameliorate the toxicity of mycotoxins via microbial pathways in terms of animal husbandry, human health management, and the prognosis of mycotoxin poisoning. This review seeks to examine the crosstalk between five typical mycotoxins and gut microbes, summarize the functions of mycotoxins-induced alterations in gut microbes in toxicological processes and investigate the application prospects of microbes in mycotoxins prevention and therapy from a variety of perspectives. The work is intended to provide support for future research on the interaction between mycotoxins and gut microbes, and to advance the technology for preventing and controlling mycotoxins.

Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG ameliorates DON-induced intestinal damage depending on the enrichment of beneficial bacteria in weaned piglets

BACKGROUND

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most common environmental pollutants that induces intestinal inflammation and microbiota dysbiosis. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) is a probiotic that not only has anti-inflammatory effects, but also shows protective effect on the intestinal barrier. However, it is still unknown whether LGG exerts beneficial effects against DON-induced intestinal damage in piglets. In this work, a total of 36 weaned piglets were randomized to one of four treatment groups for 21 d. The treatment groups were CON (basal diet); LGG (basal diet supplemented with 1.77 × 10¹¹ CFU/kg LGG); DON (DON-contaminated diet) and LGG + DON (DON-contaminated diet supplemented with 1.77 × 10¹¹ CFU/kg LGG).

RESULT

Supplementation of LGG can enhance growth performance of piglets exposed to DON by improving intestinal barrier function. LGG has a mitigating effect on intestinal inflammation induced by DON exposure, largely through repression of the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway. Furthermore, supplementation of LGG increased the relative abundances of beneficial bacteria (e.g., Collinsella, Lactobacillus, Ruminococcus_torques_group and Anaerofustis), and decreased the relative abundances of harmful bacteria (e.g., Parabacteroides and Ruminiclostridium_6), and also promoted the production of SCFAs.

CONCLUSIONS

LGG ameliorates DON-induced intestinal damage, which may provide theoretical support for the application of LGG to alleviate the adverse effects induced by DON exposure.

mTOR-Mediated Autophagy Regulates Fumonisin B1-Induced Intestinal Inflammation via Pyroptosis In Vivo and In Vitro

Fumonisin B₁ (FB₁) is a fungal metabolite, which has an incremental detection rate in grains and feed worldwide. The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like pyrin domain containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a critical element in pyroptosis activation, which participates in regulating enteritis. Meanwhile, autophagy is also engaged in intestinal inflammation. However, the function of pyroptosis and autophagy in FB₁-mediated enterotoxicity remains unclear. In this study, we explored the effects of FB₁ on enteritis and the underlying mechanism in vivo and in vitro. Our data showed that FB₁ exposure damaged the intestinal epithelium and promoted the secretion of inflammatory cytokines. Meanwhile, FB₁ exposure significantly upregulated the expression of pyroptosis-related genes. Then, MCC950, an inhibitor of NLRP3, significantly blocked FB₁-induced pyroptosis in IPEC-J2 cells. In addition, FB₁ treatment elevated the levels of autophagy. Moreover, the phosphorylation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), an upstream protein of the autophagy pathway, was inhibited by FB₁ exposure. Notably, rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR, instead of MHY1485, an agonist of mTOR, could ameliorate FB₁-induced intestinal inflammatory injury and inhibit the upregulation of pyroptosis-related genes. In summary, we demonstrated that autophagy exhibited a protective effect against NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent pyroptosis on FB₁-induced enteritis. Our data clarify a favorable protective role for the activation of autophagy in FB₁ poisoning.

Resveratrol Improves Intestinal Morphology and Anti-Oxidation Ability in Deoxynivalenol-Challenged Piglets

Simple Summary

Deoxynivalenol (DON)-contaminated feed may cause anorexia, vomiting, immunosuppression, and intestinal dysfunction in pigs, which would lead to growth retardation and great losses in the pig industry. In this study, the effects of resveratrol (RES) on growth performance, the intestinal barrier, antioxidant capacity, and mitochondrial function in weaned pigs fed with DON-contaminated diets were investigated. Dietary supplementation with resveratrol increased the average daily feed intake of piglets. Diets supplemented with resveratrol increased the villus height and the ratio of the jejunum villus height to crypt depth, increased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), and increased the total antioxidant capacity in the jejunum mucosa. After being supplemented with RES, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mitochondria was decreased, while the mitochondrial membrane potential in the jejunum was increased. In conclusion, these results suggested that resveratrol effectively relieved DON-induced oxidative stress in weaned piglets, improved intestinal barrier function, enhanced mitochondrial function, and improved the growth performance of piglets.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the potential effects of resveratrol (RES) on intestinal function and oxidative stress in deoxynivalenol (DON)-challenged piglets. Twenty-four healthy Duroc × Yorkshire × Landrace weaned piglets at the age of 28 ± 1 days were randomly divided into four groups with six repetitions per group. The four groups were as follows: the control group (CON), fed with a basic diet; the RES group, fed with a basal diet + 300 mg/kg RES; the DON group, fed with a basal diet containing 2.65 mg/kg DON; and the DON + RES group, fed with a basal diet containing 2.65 mg/kg DON + 300 mg/kg RES. The results showed that the growth performance and intestinal function of DON-challenged piglets were significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Compared with the DON group, the average daily feed intake of piglets in the DON + RES group was significantly increased (p < 0.05). Additionally, dietary RES ameliorated DON-induced intestinal morphology impairment, as indicated by the increased (p < 0.05) jejunal villi height and the ratio of the jejunal villi height/crypt depth. Furthermore, after the addition of RES, the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) in the jejunum mucosa were significantly increased, and the content of malondialdehyde (MDA) was significantly declined (p < 0.05). In addition, the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the mitochondria was significantly reduced by RES, while the mitochondrial membrane potential in jejunum was significantly increased by RES (p < 0.05). However, there was no obvious difference between DON + RES and DON groups on average daily gain and the ratio of feed togain, except for the significant inhibition of average daily feed intake (p < 0.05). In conclusion, RES could effectively alleviate the DON-induced oxidative stress on weaned piglets, and reduce the damage to mitochondria and intestinal morphology, so as to improve the growth performance of piglets.

MicroRNA Expression Profiling in Porcine Liver, Jejunum and Serum upon Dietary DON Exposure Reveals Candidate Toxicity Biomarkers

Deoxynivalenol (DON), a frequent mycotoxin worldwide, impairs human and animal health. The response of microRNAs, small non-coding RNAs, to DON has been scarcely investigated, but holds remarkable potential for biomarker applications. Hence, we aimed to investigate DON-induced changes in the microRNA expression in porcine liver, jejunum and serum by combining targeted and untargeted analyses. Piglets received uncontaminated feed or feed containing 900 µg/kg and 2500 µg/kg DON for four weeks, followed by a wash-out period. In tissue, only slight changes in microRNA expression were detected, with ssc-miR-10b being downregulated in liver of DON-exposed piglets. In serum, several microRNAs were differentially expressed upon DON exposure, four of which were validated by qPCR (ssc-miR-16, ssc-miR-128, ssc-miR-451, ssc-miR-205). The serum microRNA response to DON increased over time and declined after removal of contaminated diets. Receiver operating curve analyses for individual microRNAs were significant, and a combination of the four microRNAs increased the predictive capacity for DON exposure. Predicted microRNA target genes showed enrichment of several pathways including PIK3-AKT, Wnt/β-catenin, and adherens junctions. This study gives, for the first time, a comprehensive view of the porcine microRNA response to DON, providing a basis for future research on microRNAs as biomarkers for mycotoxins.

Fullerene C60 Protects Against Intestinal Injury from Deoxynivalenol Toxicity by Improving Antioxidant Capacity

Oxidative stress is involved in a wide variety of pathologies, and fullerene has been shown to have an antioxidant ability. Mycotoxins exert toxic effects through induction of excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here, we evaluated water-soluble fullerene C60 for its anti-mycotoxin and antioxidant effects in vitro and in vivo. Intestinal epithelial cells were cultured with fullerene during deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure. The results revealed that fullerene C60 significantly promoted cell viability, decreased apoptosis and necrotic cell number, and significantly reduced intracellular ROS levels during DON exposure (p < 0.05). To investigate the role of fullerene in antioxidant capacity in vivo further, 40 three-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into four groups. There were no significant differences between the control and fullerene groups (p > 0.05). In mice exposed to DON, supplementation with fullerene C60 significantly improved growth performance, and enhanced the total antioxidant status and the activities of SOD and GPX in the intestine and liver (p < 0.05). In addition, fullerene C60 supplementation improved intestinal morphology, as indicated by a higher villus height and tight junction protein expression (p < 0.05). Furthermore, fullerene supplementation decreased serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokine and lipopolysaccharide (LPS; a penetrability marker) compared to the DON-challenged group (p < 0.05). The current study suggests that fullerene C60 improves intestinal antioxidant status against DON-induced oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo.

Hypoxia, oxidative stress, and immune evasion: a trinity of the trichothecenes T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON)

T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol (DON) are type A and B trichothecenes, respectively. They widely occur as pollutants in food and crops and cause a series of toxicities, including immunotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, and neurotoxicity. Oxidative stress is the primary mechanistic basis of these toxic effects. Increasing amounts of evidence have shown that mitochondria are significant targets of apoptosis caused by T-2 toxin- and DON-induced oxidative stress via regulation of Bax/B-cell lymphoma-2 and caspase-3/caspase-9 signaling. DNA methylation and autophagy are involved in oxidative stress related to apoptosis, and hypoxia and immune evasion are related to oxidative stress in this context. Hypoxia induces oxidative stress by stimulating mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production and regulates the expression of cytokines, such as interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α. Programmed cell death-ligand 1 is upregulated by these cytokines and by hypoxia-inducible factor-1, which allows it to bind to programmed cell death-1 to enable escape of immune cell surveillance and achievement of immune evasion. This review concentrates on novel findings regarding the oxidative stress mechanisms of the trichothecenes T-2 toxin and DON. Importantly, we discuss the new evidence regarding the connection of hypoxia and immune evasion with oxidative stress in this context. Finally, the trinity of hypoxia, oxidative stress and immune evasion is highlighted. This work will be conducive to an improved understanding of the oxidative stress caused by trichothecene mycotoxins.