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Thakur S, Yasmin R, Malhotra A, Lalremsanga HT, Santra V, Giri S, Doley R. Isolation and Functional Characterization of Erythrofibrase: An Alfa-Fibrinogenase Enzyme from Trimeresurus erythrurus Venom of North-East India. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:201. [PMID: 38668626 PMCID: PMC11054993 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Green pit viper bites induce mild toxicity with painful local swelling, blistering, cellulitis, necrosis, ecchymosis and consumptive coagulopathy. Several bite cases of green pit vipers have been reported in several south-east Asian countries including the north-eastern region of India. The present study describes isolation and characterization of a haemostatically active protein from Trimeresurus erythrurus venom responsible for coagulopathy. Using a two-step chromatographic method, a snake venom serine protease erythrofibrase was purified to homogeneity. SDS-PAGE of erythrofibrase showed a single band of ~30 kDa in both reducing and non-reducing conditions. The primary structure of erythrofibrase was determined by ESI LC-MS/MS, and the partial sequence obtained showed 77% sequence similarity with other snake venom thrombin-like enzymes (SVTLEs). The partial sequence obtained had the typical 12 conserved cysteine residues, as well as the active site residues (His57, Asp102 and Ser195). Functionally, erythrofibrase showed direct fibrinogenolytic activity by degrading the Aα chain of bovine fibrinogen at a slow rate, which might be responsible for causing hypofibrinogenemia and incoagulable blood for several days in envenomated patients. Moreover, the inability of Indian polyvalent antivenom (manufactured by Premium Serum Pvt. Ltd., Maharashtra, India) to neutralize the thrombin-like and plasmin-like activity of erythrofibrase can be correlated with the clinical inefficacy of antivenom therapy. This is the first study reporting an α-fibrinogenase enzyme erythrofibrase from T. erythrurus venom, which is crucial for the pathophysiological manifestations observed in envenomated victims.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susmita Thakur
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (S.T.); (R.Y.)
| | - Rafika Yasmin
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (S.T.); (R.Y.)
| | - Anita Malhotra
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution at Bangor, School of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor LL57 2UW, UK;
| | - Hmar Tlawmte Lalremsanga
- Developmental Biology and Herpetology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Mizoram University, Aizawl 796004, Mizoram, India;
| | - Vishal Santra
- Society for Nature Conservation, Research and Community Engagement (CONCERN), Nalikul 712407, West Bengal, India;
- Captive and Field Herpetology, 13 Hirfron, Anglesey LL65 1YU, UK
- Shree Sainath Surgical and Maternity Hospital, Valsad 396050, Gujrat, India
| | - Surajit Giri
- Demow Government Community Health Centre, Raichai, Konwar Dihingia Gaon, Sivasagar 785662, Assam, India;
| | - Robin Doley
- Molecular Toxinology Laboratory, Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Tezpur University, Tezpur 784028, Assam, India; (S.T.); (R.Y.)
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Jones L, Waite C, Neri-Castro E, Fry BG. Comparative Analysis of Alpha-1 Orthosteric-Site Binding by a Clade of Central American Pit Vipers (Genera Atropoides, Cerrophidion, Metlapilcoatlus, and Porthidium). Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:487. [PMID: 37624244 PMCID: PMC10467085 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15080487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The distribution and relative potency of post-synaptic neurotoxic activity within Crotalinae venoms has been the subject of less investigation in comparison with Elapidae snake venoms. No previous studies have investigated post-synaptic neurotoxic activity within the Atropoides, Metlapilcoatlus, Cerrophidion, and Porthidium clade. Given the specificity of neurotoxins to relevant prey types, we aimed to uncover any activity present within this clade of snakes that may have been overlooked due to lower potency upon humans and thus not appearing as a clinical feature. Using biolayer interferometry, we assessed the relative binding of crude venoms to amphibian, lizard, bird, rodent and human α-1 nAChR orthosteric sites. We report potent alpha-1 orthosteric site binding in venoms from Atropoides picadoi, Metlapilcoatlus occiduus, M. olmec, M. mexicanus, M. nummifer. Lower levels of binding, but still notable, were evident for Cerrophidion godmani, C. tzotzilorum and C. wilsoni venoms. No activity was observed for Porthidium venoms, which is consistent with significant alpha-1 orthosteric site neurotoxicity being a trait that was amplified in the last common ancestor of Atropoides/Cerrophidion/Metlapilcoatlus subsequent to the split by Porthidium. We also observed potent taxon-selective activity, with strong selection for non-mammalian targets (amphibian, lizard, and bird). As these are poorly studied snakes, much of what is known about them is from clinical reports. The lack of affinity towards mammalian targets may explain the knowledge gap in neurotoxic activity within these species, since symptoms would not appear in bite reports. This study reports novel venom activity, which was previously unreported, indicating toxins that bind to post-synaptic receptors may be more widespread in pit vipers than previously considered. While these effects appear to not be clinically significant due to lineage-specific effects, they are of significant evolutionary novelty and of biodiscovery interest. This work sets the stage for future research directions, such as the use of in vitro and in vivo models to determine whether the alpha-1 orthosteric site binding observed within this study confers neurotoxic venom activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lee Jones
- Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia;
| | - Callum Waite
- Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia;
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, Gómez Palacio 35010, Dgo., Mexico;
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Avenida Universidad 2001, Chamilpa, Cuernavaca 62210, Mor., Mexico
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Laboratory, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia;
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Nguyen GTT, O'Brien C, Wouters Y, Seneci L, Gallissà-Calzado A, Campos-Pinto I, Ahmadi S, Laustsen AH, Ljungars A. High-throughput proteomics and in vitro functional characterization of the 26 medically most important elapids and vipers from sub-Saharan Africa. Gigascience 2022; 11:6862934. [PMID: 36509548 PMCID: PMC9744630 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giac121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakes are important parts of the ecosystem, and their behavior and evolution have been shaped by their surrounding environments over the eons. This is reflected in their venoms, which are typically highly adapted for their biological niche, including their diet and defense mechanisms for deterring predators. Sub-Saharan Africa is rich in venomous snake species, of which many are dangerous to humans due to the high toxicity of their venoms and their ability to effectively deliver large amounts of venom into their victims via their bite. In this study, the venoms of 26 of sub-Saharan Africa's medically most relevant elapid and viper species were subjected to parallelized toxicovenomics analysis. The analysis included venom proteomics and in vitro functional characterization of whole venom toxicities, enabling a robust comparison of venom profiles between species. The data presented here corroborate previous studies and provide biochemical details for the clinical manifestations observed in envenomings by the 26 snake species. Moreover, two new venom proteomes (Naja anchietae and Echis leucogaster) are presented here for the first time. Combined, the presented data can help shine light on snake venom evolutionary trends and possibly be used to further improve or develop novel antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yessica Wouters
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Lorenzo Seneci
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alex Gallissà-Calzado
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Isabel Campos-Pinto
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Shirin Ahmadi
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Andreas H Laustsen
- Correspondence address. Andreas H. Laustsen, Technical University of Denmark, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Søltofts Plads 239, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby. E-mail:
| | - Anne Ljungars
- Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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Zhao KN, Masci P, Dimeski G, Johnson L, Grant M, de Jersey J, Lavin MF. Potential Application of Recombinant Snake Prothrombin Activator Ecarin in Blood Diagnostics. Biomolecules 2022; 12:1704. [PMID: 36421717 PMCID: PMC9687618 DOI: 10.3390/biom12111704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/30/2023] Open
Abstract
We describe here the purification and cloning of a codon-optimized form of the snake prothrombin activator ecarin from the saw scaled viper (Echis carinatus) expressed in mammalian cells. Expression of recombinant ecarin (rEcarin) was carried out in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK) cells under conditions for the development and performance of a novel and scalable recombinant snake ecarin to industry standards. Clotting performance of the rEcarin was established in recalcified citrated whole blood, plasma, and fresh whole blood and found to be comparable to native ecarin (N-Ecarin). Furthermore, hemolysis was observed with N-Ecarin at relatively high doses in both recalcified citrated and fresh whole blood, while clotting was not observed with rEcarin, providing an important advantage for the recombinant form. In addition, rEcarin effectively clotted both recalcified citrated whole blood and fresh whole blood containing different anticoagulants including heparin, warfarin, dabigatran, Fondaparinux, rivaroxaban and apixaban, forming firm clots in the blood collection tubes. These results demonstrate that rEcarin efficiently clots normal blood as well as blood spiked with high concentrations of anticoagulants and has great potential as an additive to blood collection tubes to produce high quality serum for analyte analysis in diagnostic medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kong-Nan Zhao
- Australian Institute of Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, St Lucia Campus, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- Centre for Kidney Disease Research-Venomics Research, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Paul Masci
- Centre for Kidney Disease Research-Venomics Research, School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Goce Dimeski
- Chemical Pathology, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Woolloongabba, Brisbane, QLD 4102, Australia
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, St Lucia Campus, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Lambro Johnson
- Australian Institute of Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, St Lucia Campus, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Michael Grant
- Q-Sera Pty Ltd., Level 9, 31 Queen St, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - John de Jersey
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, St Lucia Campus, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Martin F. Lavin
- Australian Institute of Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, St Lucia Campus, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- Centre for Clinical Research, RBWH Campus, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4029, Australia
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Diversity of Phospholipases A2 from Bothrops atrox Snake Venom: Adaptive Advantages for Snakes Compromising Treatments for Snakebite Patients. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080543. [PMID: 36006204 PMCID: PMC9414272 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolution of snake venoms resulted in multigene toxin families that code for structurally similar isoforms eventually harboring distinct functions. PLA2s are dominant toxins in viper venoms, and little is known about the impact of their diversity on human envenomings and neutralization by antivenoms. Here, we show the isolation of three distinct PLA2s from B. atrox venom. FA1 is a Lys-49 homologue, and FA3 and FA4 are catalytic Asp-49 PLA2s. FA1 and FA3 are basic myotoxic proteins, while FA4 is an acid non-myotoxic PLA2. FA3 was the most potent toxin, inducing higher levels of edema, inflammatory nociception, indirect hemolysis, and anticoagulant activity on human, rat, and chicken plasmas. FA4 presented lower anticoagulant activity, and FA1 had only a slight effect on human and rat plasmas. PLA2s presented differential reactivities with antivenoms, with an emphasis on FA3, which was not recognized or neutralized by the antivenoms used in this study. Our findings reveal the functional and antigenic diversity among PLA2s from B. atrox venom, highlighting the importance of assessing venom variability for understanding human envenomations and treatment with antivenoms, particularly evident here as the antivenom fails to recognize FA3, the most active multifunctional toxin described.
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Valenta J, Hlavackova A, Stach Z, Stikarova J, Havlicek M, Michalek P. Fibrinogenolysis in Venom-Induced Consumption Coagulopathy after Viperidae Snakebites: A Pilot Study. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080538. [PMID: 36006200 PMCID: PMC9415103 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Envenomations that are caused by Viperidae snakebites are mostly accompanied by venom-induced consumption coagulopathy (VICC) with defibrination. The clinical course of VICC is well described; however, reports about its detailed effects in the hemocoagulation systems of patients are sparse. In this pilot study, we prospectively analyzed the changes in plasma fibrinogen that were caused by the envenomation of six patients by five non-European Viperidae snakes. Western blot analysis was employed and fibrinogen fragments were visualized with the use of specific anti-human fibrinogen antibodies. All of the studied subjects experienced hypo- or afibrinogenemia. The western blot analysis demonstrated fibrinogenolysis of the fibrinogen chains in all of the cases. Fibrinogenolysis was considered to be a predominant cause of defibrination in Crotalus, Echis, and Macrovipera envenomation; while, in the cases of VICC that were caused by Atheris and Calloselasma envenomation, the splitting of the fibrinogen chains was present less significantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiri Valenta
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Medicine, Toxinology Center, First Medical Faculty, Charles University, General University Hospital, U Nemocnice 499/2, 128 08 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Alzbeta Hlavackova
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, U Nemocnice 2094/1, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: (A.H.); (P.M.); Tel.: +420-22197-7344 (A.H.); +420-22496-2666 (P.M.)
| | - Zdenek Stach
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Medicine, Toxinology Center, First Medical Faculty, Charles University, General University Hospital, U Nemocnice 499/2, 128 08 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Stikarova
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, U Nemocnice 2094/1, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Havlicek
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, U Nemocnice 2094/1, 128 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Michalek
- Department of Anaesthesiology and Intensive Medicine, Toxinology Center, First Medical Faculty, Charles University, General University Hospital, U Nemocnice 499/2, 128 08 Prague, Czech Republic
- Correspondence: (A.H.); (P.M.); Tel.: +420-22197-7344 (A.H.); +420-22496-2666 (P.M.)
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7
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Bourke LA, Zdenek CN, Tanaka-Azevedo AM, Silveira GPM, Sant’Anna SS, Grego KF, Rodrigues CFB, Fry BG. Clinical and Evolutionary Implications of Dynamic Coagulotoxicity Divergences in Bothrops (Lancehead Pit Viper) Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050297. [PMID: 35622544 PMCID: PMC9148167 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite coagulotoxicity being a primary weapon for prey capture by Bothrops species (lancehead pit vipers) and coagulopathy being a major lethal clinical effect, a genus-wide comparison has not been undertaken. To fill this knowledge gap, we used thromboelastography to compare 37 venoms, from across the full range of geography, taxonomy, and ecology, for their action upon whole plasma and isolated fibrinogen. Potent procoagulant toxicity was shown to be the main venom effect of most of the species tested. However, the most basal species (B. pictus) was strongly anticoagulant; this is consistent with procoagulant toxicity being a novel trait that evolved within Bothrops subsequent to their split from anticoagulant American pit vipers. Intriguingly, two of the arboreal species studied (B. bilineatus and B. taeniatus) lacked procoagulant venom, suggesting differential evolutionary selection pressures. Notably, some terrestrial species have secondarily lost the procoagulant venom trait: the Mogi Mirim, Brazil locality of B. alternatus; San Andres, Mexico locality of B. asper; B. diporus; and the São Roque of B. jararaca. Direct action on fibrinogen was extremely variable; this is consistent with previous hypotheses regarding it being evolutionary decoupled due to procoagulant toxicity being the primary prey-capture weapon. However, human patients live long enough for fibrinogen depletion to be clinically significant. The extreme variability may be reflective of antivenom variability, with these results thereby providing a foundation for such future work of clinical relevance. Similarly, the venom diversification trends relative to ecological niche will also be useful for integration with natural history data, to reconstruct the evolutionary pressures shaping the venoms of these fascinating snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lachlan Allan Bourke
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
- Correspondence: (L.A.B.); (B.G.F.)
| | - Christina N. Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Anita Mitico Tanaka-Azevedo
- Laboratrio de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (A.M.T.-A.); (G.P.M.S.); (S.S.S.); (K.F.G.); (C.F.B.R.)
| | - Giovanni Perez Machado Silveira
- Laboratrio de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (A.M.T.-A.); (G.P.M.S.); (S.S.S.); (K.F.G.); (C.F.B.R.)
| | - Sávio Stefanini Sant’Anna
- Laboratrio de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (A.M.T.-A.); (G.P.M.S.); (S.S.S.); (K.F.G.); (C.F.B.R.)
| | - Kathleen Fernandes Grego
- Laboratrio de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (A.M.T.-A.); (G.P.M.S.); (S.S.S.); (K.F.G.); (C.F.B.R.)
| | | | - Bryan Grieg Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
- Correspondence: (L.A.B.); (B.G.F.)
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Bernarde PS, Pucca MB, Mota-da-Silva A, da Fonseca WL, de Almeida MRN, de Oliveira IS, Cerni FA, Gobbi Grazziotin F, Sartim MA, Sachett J, Wen FH, Moura-da-Silva AM, Monteiro WM. Bothrops bilineatus: An Arboreal Pitviper in the Amazon and Atlantic Forest. Front Immunol 2021; 12:778302. [PMID: 34975866 PMCID: PMC8714932 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.778302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The two-striped forest-pitviper (Bothrops bilineatus) is an arboreal snake that is currently represented by two subspecies (B. b. bilineatus and B. b. smaragdinus) that comprise a species complex, and its distribution is in the Amazon and the Atlantic Forest. The rarity of encounters with this snake is reflected in the low occurrence of cases of snakebites throughout its geographic distribution and the resulting low number of published clinical reports. However, in some areas, B. bilineatus proves to be more frequent and causes envenomations in a greater proportion. Herein, we review the main aspects of the species complex B. bilineatus, including its biology, ecology, taxonomy, morphology, genetic and molecular studies, geographic distribution, conservation status, venom, pathophysiology and clinical aspects, and epidemiology. In addition, the different antivenoms available for the treatment of envenomations caused by B. bilineatus are presented along with suggestions for future studies that are needed for a better understanding of the snakebites caused by this snake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo Sérgio Bernarde
- Laboratório de Herpetologia, Universidade Federal do Acre, Cruzeiro do Sul, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Paulo Sérgio Bernarde, ; Wuelton M. Monteiro,
| | - Manuela Berto Pucca
- Curso de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Roraima, Boa Vista, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Roraima, Boa Vista, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Isadora Sousa de Oliveira
- Departamento de Ciências Biomoleculares, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
| | - Felipe Augusto Cerni
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Roraima, Boa Vista, Brazil
| | | | - Marco A. Sartim
- Departamento de Ensino e Pesquisa, Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Brazil
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
- Departamento de Pós-Graduação, Universidade Nilton Lins, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Jacqueline Sachett
- Escola Superior de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade do Estado do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
- Departamento de Ensino e Pesquisa, Fundação Alfredo da Matta, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Fan Hui Wen
- Núcleo Estratégico de Venenos e Antivenenos, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria Moura-da-Silva
- Departamento de Ensino e Pesquisa, Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Brazil
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Wuelton M. Monteiro
- Departamento de Ensino e Pesquisa, Fundação de Medicina Tropical Dr. Heitor Vieira Dourado, Manaus, Brazil
- Escola Superior de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade do Estado do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Paulo Sérgio Bernarde, ; Wuelton M. Monteiro,
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Sitprija S, Chanhome L, Reamtong O, Thiangtrongjit T, Vasaruchapong T, Khow O, Noiphrom J, Laoungbua P, Tubtimyoy A, Chaiyabutr N, Kumkate S. Proteomics and immunocharacterization of Asian mountain pit viper (Ovophis monticola) venom. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260496. [PMID: 34851989 PMCID: PMC8635378 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The venomic profile of Asian mountain pit viper Ovophis monticola is clarified in the present study. Using mass spectrometry-based proteomics, 247 different proteins were identified in crude venom of O. monticola found in Thailand. The most abundant proteins were snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP) (36.8%), snake venom serine proteases (SVSP) (31.1%), and phospholipases A2 (PLA2) (12.1%). Less abundant proteins included L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO) (5.7%), venom nerve growth factor (3.6%), nucleic acid degrading enzymes (3.2%), C-type lectins (CTL) (1.6%), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP) (1.2%) and disintegrin (1.2%). The immunoreactivity of this viper's venom to a monovalent antivenom against green pit viper Trimeresurus albolabris, or to a polyvalent antivenom against hemotoxic venom was investigated by indirect ELISA and two-dimensional (2D) immunoblotting. Polyvalent antivenom showed substantially greater reactivity levels than monovalent antivenom. A titer for the monovalent antivenom was over 1:1.28x107 dilution while that of polyvalent antivenom was 1:5.12x107. Of a total of 89 spots comprising 173 proteins, 40 spots of predominantly SVMP, SVSP and PLA2 were specific antigens for antivenoms. The 49 unrecognized spots containing 72 proteins were characterized as non-reactive proteins, and included certain types of CTLs and CRISPs. These neglected venom constituents could limit the effectiveness of antivenom-based therapy currently available for victims of pit viper envenomation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siravit Sitprija
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Lawan Chanhome
- Snake Farm, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
- * E-mail: (LC); (SK)
| | - Onrapak Reamtong
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tipparat Thiangtrongjit
- Department of Molecular Tropical Medicine and Genetics, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Taksa Vasaruchapong
- Snake Farm, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Orawan Khow
- Department of Research and Development, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jureeporn Noiphrom
- Department of Research and Development, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Panithi Laoungbua
- Snake Farm, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Arissara Tubtimyoy
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Narongsak Chaiyabutr
- Snake Farm, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
- Department of Research and Development, Queen Saovabha Memorial Institute, The Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Supeecha Kumkate
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Ratchathewi, Bangkok, Thailand
- * E-mail: (LC); (SK)
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10
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Lotto NP, de Albuquerque Modesto JC, Sant’Anna SS, Grego KF, Guarnieri MC, Lira-da-Silva RM, Santoro ML, Oguiura N. The absence of thrombin-like activity in Bothrops erythromelas venom is due to the deletion of the snake venom thrombin-like enzyme gene. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0248901. [PMID: 33905416 PMCID: PMC8078745 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Snake venom thrombin-like enzymes (SVTLEs) are serine proteinases that clot fibrinogen. SVTLEs are distributed mainly in venoms from snakes of the Viperidae family, comprising venomous pit viper snakes. Bothrops snakes are distributed throughout Central and South American and are responsible for most venomous snakebites. Most Bothrops snakes display thrombin-like activity in their venoms, but it has been shown that some species do not present it. In this work, to understand SVTLE polymorphism in Bothrops snake venoms, we studied individual samples from two species of medical importance in Brazil: Bothrops jararaca, distributed in Southeastern Brazil, which displays coagulant activity on plasma and fibrinogen, and Bothrops erythromelas, found in Northeastern Brazil, which lacks direct fibrinogen coagulant activity but shows plasma coagulant activity. We tested the coagulant activity of venoms and the presence of SVTLE genes by a PCR approach. The SVTLE gene structure in B. jararaca is similar to the Bothrops atrox snake, comprising five exons. We could not amplify SVTLE sequences from B. erythromelas DNA, except for a partial pseudogene. These genes underwent a positive selection in some sites, leading to an amino acid sequence diversification, mostly in exon 2. The phylogenetic tree constructed using SVTLE coding sequences confirms that they are related to the chymotrypsin/kallikrein family. Interestingly, we found a B. jararaca specimen whose venom lacked thrombin-like activity, and its gene sequence was a pseudogene with SVTLE structure, presenting nonsense and frameshift mutations. Our results indicate an association of the lack of thrombin-like activity in B. jararaca and B. erythromelas venoms with mutations and deletions of snake venom thrombin-like enzyme genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas P. Lotto
- Laboratory of Ecology and Evolution, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Sávio S. Sant’Anna
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Kathleen F. Grego
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Miriam C. Guarnieri
- Zoology Department, Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | | | - Marcelo L. Santoro
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Nancy Oguiura
- Laboratory of Ecology and Evolution, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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11
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Pan-American Lancehead Pit-Vipers: Coagulotoxic Venom Effects and Antivenom Neutralisation of Bothrops asper and B. atrox Geographical Variants. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13020078. [PMID: 33499001 PMCID: PMC7911261 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The toxin composition of snake venoms and, thus, their functional activity, can vary between and within species. Intraspecific venom variation across a species’ geographic range is a major concern for antivenom treatment of envenomations, particularly for countries like French Guiana that lack a locally produced antivenom. Bothrops asper and Bothrops atrox are the most medically significant species of snakes in Latin America, both producing a variety of clinical manifestations, including systemic bleeding. These pathophysiological actions are due to the activation by the venom of the blood clotting factors Factor X and prothrombin, thereby causing severe consumptive coagulopathy. Both species are extremely wide-ranging, and previous studies have shown their venoms to exhibit regional venom variation. In this study, we investigate the differential coagulotoxic effects on human plasma of six venoms (four B. asper and two B. atrox samples) from different geographic locations, spanning from Mexico to Peru. We assessed how the venom variation of these venom samples affects neutralisation by five regionally available antivenoms: Antivipmyn, Antivipmyn-Tri, PoliVal-ICP, Bothrofav, and Soro Antibotrópico (SAB). The results revealed both inter- and intraspecific variations in the clotting activity of the venoms. These variations in turn resulted in significant variation in antivenom efficacy against the coagulotoxic effects of these venoms. Due to variations in the venoms used in the antivenom production process, antivenoms differed in their species-specific or geographical neutralisation capacity. Some antivenoms (PoliVal-ICP, Bothrofav, and SAB) showed species-specific patterns of neutralisation, while another antivenom (Antivipmyn) showed geographic-specific patterns of neutralisation. This study adds to current knowledge of Bothrops venoms and also illustrates the importance of considering evolutionary biology when developing antivenoms. Therefore, these results have tangible, real-world implications by aiding evidence-based design of antivenoms for treatment of the envenomed patient. We stress that these in vitro studies must be backed by future in vivo studies and clinical trials before therapeutic guidelines are issued regarding specific antivenom use in a clinical setting.
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12
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Hatakeyama DM, Tasima LJ, Bravo-Tobar CA, Serino-Silva C, Tashima AK, Rodrigues CFB, Aguiar WDS, Galizio NDC, de Lima EOV, Kavazoi VK, Gutierrez-Marín JD, de Farias IB, Sant'Anna SS, Grego KF, de Morais-Zani K, Tanaka-Azevedo AM. Venom complexity of Bothrops atrox (common lancehead) siblings. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2020; 26:e20200018. [PMID: 33101399 PMCID: PMC7553035 DOI: 10.1590/1678-9199-jvatitd-2020-0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Variability in snake venoms is a well-studied phenomenon. However, sex-based variation of Bothrops atrox snake venom using siblings is poorly investigated. Bothrops atrox is responsible for the majority of snakebite accidents in the Brazilian Amazon region. Differences in the venom composition of Bothrops genus have been linked to several factors such as ontogeny, geographical distribution, prey preferences and sex. Thus, in the current study, venom samples of Bothrops atrox male and female siblings were analyzed in order to compare their biochemical and biological characteristics. Methods: Venoms were collected from five females and four males born from a snake captured from the wild in São Bento (Maranhão, Brazil), and kept in the Laboratory of Herpetology of Butantan Intitute. The venoms were analyzed individually and as a pool of each gender. The assays consisted in protein quantification, 1-DE, mass spectrometry, proteolytic, phospholipase A2, L-amino acid oxidase activities, minimum coagulant dose upon plasma, minimum hemorrhagic dose and lethal dose 50%. Results: Electrophoretic profiles of male’s and female’s venom pools were quite similar, with minor sex-based variation. Male venom showed higher LAAO, PLA2 and hemorrhagic activities, while female venom showed higher coagulant activity. On the other hand, the proteolytic activities did not show statistical differences between pools, although some individual variations were observed. Meanwhile, proteomic profile revealed 112 different protein compounds; of which 105 were common proteins of female’s and male’s venom pools and seven were unique to females. Despite individual variations, lethality of both pools showed similar values. Conclusion: Although differences between female and male venoms were observed, our results show that individual variations are significant even between siblings, highlighting that biological activities of venoms and its composition are influenced by other factors beyond gender.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Miki Hatakeyama
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Lídia Jorge Tasima
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Cesar Adolfo Bravo-Tobar
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Caroline Serino-Silva
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Keiji Tashima
- Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of São Paulo (Unifesp), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Caroline Fabri Bittencourt Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Weslei da Silva Aguiar
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Nathália da Costa Galizio
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Victor Koiti Kavazoi
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Juan David Gutierrez-Marín
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Iasmim Baptista de Farias
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Karen de Morais-Zani
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Anita Mitico Tanaka-Azevedo
- Laboratory of Herpetology, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Interinstitutional Graduate Program in Biotechnology (IPT, IBU and USP), University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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13
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Ghosh S, Tripathi A, Gayen P, Sinha Roy R. Peptide-based topical agents and intravenous hemostat for rapid hemostasis. RSC Med Chem 2020; 11:1100-1111. [PMID: 33479616 PMCID: PMC7651999 DOI: 10.1039/d0md00204f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic coagulopathy due to severe external injury and internal hemorrhage is life-threatening to accident victims and soldiers on the battlefield, causing considerable number of deaths worldwide. Patients with inherited bleeding disorders (such as haemophilia, von Willebrand disease, inherited qualitative platelet defects, and afibrinogenemia) also contribute to the vast number of deaths due to abnormal bleeding, and these patients are difficult to handle during surgery. Platelets and different plasma proteins play an essential role in blood coagulation and in the maintenance of the body's hemostatic balance. The improper function or deficiency of these factors cause abnormal bleeding. To address such bleeding disorders, external clotting agents (such as extracellular protein-inspired natural and synthetic peptide-based sealants and peptide-functionalized polymer/liposome-based sealants) have been developed by different groups of researchers. The primary focus of this review is to provide molecular insights into the existing biologically inspired peptide-based sealants, highlighting the advantages and limitations of such reported designed sealants to handle blood clotting, and also provide insights into the design of improved next-generation surgical sealants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Snehasish Ghosh
- Department of Chemical Sciences , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata , Mohanpur - 741246 , India
| | - Archana Tripathi
- Department of Biological Sciences , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata , Mohanpur - 741246 , India .
| | - Paramita Gayen
- Department of Biological Sciences , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata , Mohanpur - 741246 , India .
| | - Rituparna Sinha Roy
- Department of Biological Sciences , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata , Mohanpur - 741246 , India .
- Centre for Advanced Functional Materials , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata , Mohanpur - 741246 , India
- Centre for Climate and Environmental Studies , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata , Mohanpur - 741246 , India
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14
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Slagboom J, Mladić M, Xie C, Kazandjian TD, Vonk F, Somsen GW, Casewell NR, Kool J. High throughput screening and identification of coagulopathic snake venom proteins and peptides using nanofractionation and proteomics approaches. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0007802. [PMID: 32236099 PMCID: PMC7153897 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2019] [Revised: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite is a neglected tropical disease that results in a variety of systemic and local pathologies in envenomed victims and is responsible for around 138,000 deaths every year. Many snake venoms cause severe coagulopathy that makes victims vulnerable to suffering life-threating haemorrhage. The mechanisms of action of coagulopathic snake venom toxins are diverse and can result in both anticoagulant and procoagulant effects. However, because snake venoms consist of a mixture of numerous protein and peptide components, high throughput characterizations of specific target bioactives is challenging. In this study, we applied a combination of analytical and pharmacological methods to identify snake venom toxins from a wide diversity of snake species that perturb coagulation. To do so, we used a high-throughput screening approach consisting of a miniaturised plasma coagulation assay in combination with a venom nanofractionation approach. Twenty snake venoms were first separated using reversed-phase liquid chromatography, and a post-column split allowed a small fraction to be analyzed with mass spectrometry, while the larger fraction was collected and dispensed onto 384-well plates. After fraction collection, any solvent present in the wells was removed by means of freeze-drying, after which it was possible to perform a plasma coagulation assay in order to detect coagulopathic activity. Our results demonstrate that many snake venoms simultaneously contain both procoagulant and anticoagulant bioactives that contribute to coagulopathy. In-depth identification analysis from seven medically-important venoms, via mass spectrometry and nanoLC-MS/MS, revealed that phospholipase A2 toxins are frequently identified in anticoagulant venom fractions, while serine protease and metalloproteinase toxins are often associated with procoagulant bioactivities. The nanofractionation and proteomics approach applied herein seems likely to be a valuable tool for the rational development of next-generation snakebite treatments by facilitating the rapid identification and fractionation of coagulopathic toxins, thereby enabling specific targeting of these toxins by new therapeutics such as monoclonal antibodies and small molecule inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julien Slagboom
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Marija Mladić
- Animal Sciences and Health, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Chunfang Xie
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Taline D. Kazandjian
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Freek Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Govert W. Somsen
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Nicholas R. Casewell
- Centre for Snakebite Research & Interventions, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Amsterdam Institute for Molecules Medicines and Systems, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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15
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Evidence for Snake Venom Plasticity in a Long-Term Study with Individual Captive Bothrops atrox. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11050294. [PMID: 31137619 PMCID: PMC6563259 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Variability in snake venom composition has been frequently reported and correlated to the adaptability of snakes to environmental conditions. Previous studies report plasticity for the venom phenotype. However, these observations are not conclusive, as the results were based on pooled venoms, which present high individual variability. Here we tested the hypothesis of plasticity by influence of confinement and single diet type in the venom composition of 13 adult specimens of Bothrops atrox snakes, maintained under captivity for more than three years. Individual variability in venom composition was observed in samples extracted just after the capture of the snakes. However, composition was conserved in venoms periodically extracted from nine specimens, which presented low variability restricted to the less abundant components. In a second group, composed of four snakes, drastic changes were observed in the venom samples extracted at different periods, mostly related to snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs), the core function toxins of B. atrox venom, which occurred approximately between 400 and 500 days in captivity. These data show plasticity in the venom phenotype during the lifetime of adult snakes maintained under captive conditions. Causes or functional consequences involved in the phenotype modification require further investigations.
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16
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Urs AP, Rudresha GV, Manjuprasanna VN, Suvilesh KN, Gowda MDM, Yariswamy M, Hiremath V, Ramakrishnan C, Savitha MN, Jayachandra K, Sharanappa P, Vishwanath BS. Plant latex thrombin‐like cysteine proteases alleviates bleeding by bypassing factor VIII in murine model. J Cell Biochem 2019; 120:12843-12858. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.28555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2018] [Revised: 12/23/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amog P. Urs
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry University of Mysore, Manasagangothri Mysuru Karnataka India
| | - G. V. Rudresha
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry University of Mysore, Manasagangothri Mysuru Karnataka India
| | - V. N. Manjuprasanna
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry University of Mysore, Manasagangothri Mysuru Karnataka India
| | - K. N. Suvilesh
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry University of Mysore, Manasagangothri Mysuru Karnataka India
| | - M. D. Milan Gowda
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry University of Mysore, Manasagangothri Mysuru Karnataka India
| | - M. Yariswamy
- Department of Surgery University of Missouri Columbia Missouri
| | - Vilas Hiremath
- Vijayashree Diagnostics, Specialized Coagulation Lab Bengaluru India
| | - Chandrasekaran Ramakrishnan
- Department of Biotechnology Bhupat and Jyoti Mehta School of Biosciences Indian Institute of Technology Madras Chennai India
| | - M. N. Savitha
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry University of Mysore, Manasagangothri Mysuru Karnataka India
| | - K. Jayachandra
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry University of Mysore, Manasagangothri Mysuru Karnataka India
| | - P. Sharanappa
- Department of Studies in Botany University of Mysore Hassan Karnataka India
| | - B. S. Vishwanath
- Department of Studies in Biochemistry University of Mysore, Manasagangothri Mysuru Karnataka India
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17
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Isbister GK, Maduwage K, Scorgie FE, Shahmy S, Mohamed F, Abeysinghe C, Karunathilake H, O’Leary MA, Gnanathasan CA, Lincz LF. Venom Concentrations and Clotting Factor Levels in a Prospective Cohort of Russell's Viper Bites with Coagulopathy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015; 9:e0003968. [PMID: 26296235 PMCID: PMC4546603 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Russell's viper envenoming is a major problem in South Asia and causes venom induced consumption coagulopathy. This study aimed to investigate the kinetics and dynamics of venom and clotting function in Russell's viper envenoming. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS In a prospective cohort of 146 patients with Russell's viper envenoming, we measured venom concentrations, international normalised ratio [INR], prothrombin time (PT), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), coagulation factors I, II, V, VII, VIII, IX and X, and von Willebrand factor antigen. The median age was 39 y (16-82 y) and 111 were male. The median peak INR was 6.8 (interquartile range [IQR]: 3.7 to >13), associated with low fibrinogen [median,<0.01 g/L; IQR: <0.01-0.9 g/L), low factor V levels [median,<5%; IQR: <5-4%], low factor VIII levels [median,40%; IQR: 12-79%] and low factor X levels [median, 48%; IQR: 29-67%]. There were smaller reductions in factors II, IX and VII over time. All factors recovered over 48 h post-antivenom. The median INR remained >3 at 6 h post-antivenom but had reduced to <2, by 24 h. The aPTT had also returned to close to normal (<50 sec) at 24 h. Factor VII, VIII and IX levels were unusually high pre-antivenom, median peak concentrations of 393%, 307% and 468% respectively. Pre-antivenom venom concentrations and the INR (r = 0.20, p = 0.02) and aPTT (r = 0.19, p = 0.03) were correlated (non-parametric Spearman analysis). CONCLUSIONS Russell's viper coagulopathy results in prolonged aPTT, INR, low fibrinogen, factors V, VIII and X which recover over 48 h. Severity of clotting abnormalities was associated with venom concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey K. Isbister
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Clinical Toxicology and Pharmacology, Calvary Mater Newcastle, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- South Asian Clinical Toxicology Research Collaboration (SACTRC), Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Kalana Maduwage
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
- South Asian Clinical Toxicology Research Collaboration (SACTRC), Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Fiona E. Scorgie
- Hunter Haematology Research Group, Calvary Mater Newcastle, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Seyed Shahmy
- South Asian Clinical Toxicology Research Collaboration (SACTRC), Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | - Fahim Mohamed
- South Asian Clinical Toxicology Research Collaboration (SACTRC), Faculty of Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
| | | | | | - Margaret A. O’Leary
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Clinical Toxicology and Pharmacology, Calvary Mater Newcastle, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
| | | | - Lisa F. Lincz
- School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia
- Hunter Haematology Research Group, Calvary Mater Newcastle, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
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18
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Bernardoni JL, Sousa LF, Wermelinger LS, Lopes AS, Prezoto BC, Serrano SMT, Zingali RB, Moura-da-Silva AM. Functional variability of snake venom metalloproteinases: adaptive advantages in targeting different prey and implications for human envenomation. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109651. [PMID: 25313513 PMCID: PMC4196926 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) are major components in most viperid venoms that induce disturbances in the hemostatic system and tissues of animals envenomated by snakes. These disturbances are involved in human pathology of snake bites and appear to be essential for the capture and digestion of snake's prey and avoidance of predators. SVMPs are a versatile family of venom toxins acting on different hemostatic targets which are present in venoms in distinct structural forms. However, the reason why a large number of different SVMPs are expressed in some venoms is still unclear. In this study, we evaluated the interference of five isolated SVMPs in blood coagulation of humans, birds and small rodents. P-III class SVMPs (fractions Ic, IIb and IIc) possess gelatinolytic and hemorrhagic activities, and, of these, two also show fibrinolytic activity. P-I class SVMPs (fractions IVa and IVb) are only fibrinolytic. P-III class SVMPs reduced clotting time of human plasma. Fraction IIc was characterized as prothrombin activator and fraction Ic as factor X activator. In the absence of Ca2+, a firm clot was observed in chicken blood samples with fractions Ic, IIb and partially with fraction IIc. In contrast, without Ca2+, only fraction IIc was able to induce a firm clot in rat blood. In conclusion, functionally distinct forms of SVMPs were found in B. neuwiedi venom that affect distinct mechanisms in the coagulation system of humans, birds and small rodents. Distinct SVMPs appear to be more specialized to rat or chicken blood, strengthening the current hypothesis that toxin diversity enhances the possibilities of the snakes for hunting different prey or evading different predators. This functional diversity also impacts the complexity of human envenoming since different hemostatic mechanisms will be targeted by SVMPs accounting for the complexity of the response of humans to venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leijiane F. Sousa
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Luciana S. Wermelinger
- Laboratório de Hemostasia e Venenos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio do Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- Laboratório de Fisiopatologia da Trombose, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio do Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Aline S. Lopes
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), FAPESP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Solange M. T. Serrano
- Laboratório Especial de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Center of Toxins, Immune-Response and Cell Signaling (CeTICS), FAPESP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Russolina B. Zingali
- Laboratório de Hemostasia e Venenos, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio do Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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19
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Guthals A, Watrous JD, Dorrestein PC, Bandeira N. The spectral networks paradigm in high throughput mass spectrometry. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2013; 8:2535-44. [PMID: 22610447 DOI: 10.1039/c2mb25085c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
High-throughput proteomics is made possible by a combination of modern mass spectrometry instruments capable of generating many millions of tandem mass (MS(2)) spectra on a daily basis and the increasingly sophisticated associated software for their automated identification. Despite the growing accumulation of collections of identified spectra and the regular generation of MS(2) data from related peptides, the mainstream approach for peptide identification is still the nearly two decades old approach of matching one MS(2) spectrum at a time against a database of protein sequences. Moreover, database search tools overwhelmingly continue to require that users guess in advance a small set of 4-6 post-translational modifications that may be present in their data in order to avoid incurring substantial false positive and negative rates. The spectral networks paradigm for analysis of MS(2) spectra differs from the mainstream database search paradigm in three fundamental ways. First, spectral networks are based on matching spectra against other spectra instead of against protein sequences. Second, spectral networks find spectra from related peptides even before considering their possible identifications. Third, spectral networks determine consensus identifications from sets of spectra from related peptides instead of separately attempting to identify one spectrum at a time. Even though spectral networks algorithms are still in their infancy, they have already delivered the longest and most accurate de novo sequences to date, revealed a new route for the discovery of unexpected post-translational modifications and highly-modified peptides, enabled automated sequencing of cyclic non-ribosomal peptides with unknown amino acids and are now defining a novel approach for mapping the entire molecular output of biological systems that is suitable for analysis with tandem mass spectrometry. Here we review the current state of spectral networks algorithms and discuss possible future directions for automated interpretation of spectra from any class of molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Guthals
- Dept. Computer Science and Engineering, University of California, San Diego, USA
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Galan JA, Guo M, Sanchez EE, Cantu E, Rodriguez-Acosta A, Perez JC, Tao WA. Quantitative analysis of snake venoms using soluble polymer-based isotope labeling. Mol Cell Proteomics 2007; 7:785-99. [PMID: 18089550 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m700321-mcp200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the design and synthesis of a new quantitative strategy termed soluble polymer-based isotope labeling (SoPIL) and its application as a novel and inclusive method for the identification and relative quantification of individual proteins in complex snake venoms. The SoPIL reagent selectively captures and isolates cysteine-containing peptides, and the subsequent tagged peptides are released and analyzed using nanoflow liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The SoPIL strategy was used to quantify venom proteins from two pairs of venomous snakes: Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus type A, C. scutulatus scutulatus type B, Crotalus oreganus helleri, and Bothrops colombiensis. The hemorrhagic, hemolytic, clotting ability, and fibrinogenolytic activities of crude venoms were measured and correlated with difference in protein abundance determined by the SoPIL analysis. The SoPIL approach could provide an efficient and widely applicable tool for quantitative proteomics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Galan
- Department of Biochemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA
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Abstract
Over the last several decades, research on snake venom toxins has provided not only new tools to decipher molecular details of various physiological processes, but also inspiration to design and develop a number of therapeutic agents. Blood circulation, particularly thrombosis and haemostasis, is one of the major targets of several snake venom proteins. Among them, anticoagulant proteins have contributed to our understanding of molecular mechanisms of blood coagulation and have provided potential new leads for the development of drugs to treat or to prevent unwanted clot formation. Some of these anticoagulants exhibit various enzymatic activities whereas others do not. They interfere in normal blood coagulation by different mechanisms. Although significant progress has been made in understanding the structure-function relationships and the mechanisms of some of these anticoagulants, there are still a number of questions to be answered as more new anticoagulants are being discovered. Such studies contribute to our fight against unwanted clot formation, which leads to death and debilitation in cardiac arrest and stroke in patients with cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, arteriosclerosis and hypertension. This review describes the details of the structure, mechanism and structure-function relationships of anticoagulant proteins from snake venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Manjunatha Kini
- Protein Science Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore.
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Schattner M, Fritzen M, Ventura JDS, de Albuquerque Modesto JC, Pozner RG, Moura-da-Silva AM, Chudzinski-Tavassi AM. The snake venom metalloproteases berythractivase and jararhagin activate endothelial cells. Biol Chem 2005; 386:369-74. [PMID: 15899699 DOI: 10.1515/bc.2005.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
PIII snake venom metalloproteases (SVMPs) are metalloproteases structurally related to ADAMs (a disintegrin and metalloprotease human family of proteins). Berythractivase and jararhagin are PIII SVMPs with 69% homology that have different hemostatic properties. In order to clarify these differences and further characterize the biological effects of these proteins, we have analyzed the effect of both proteases on human umbilical-vein endothelial cell functions. We found that both proteins enhanced nitric oxide generation, prostacyclin production and interleukin-8 release. Berythractivase but not jararhagin increased the expression of decay accelerating factor. Jararhagin decreased cell viability in a concentration-dependent manner and induced cellular apoptosis, while berythractivase did not modulate cell survival. Our results show for the first time that, besides the known anti-aggregating or procoagulant effects of PIII SVMPs, these proteins trigger endothelial cell effector responses. Although structurally related, berythractivase and jararhagin induce a dissimilar generation and release of endothelial molecules that may account for their different hemorrhagic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirta Schattner
- Department of Thrombosis and Hemostasis, National Academy of Medicine, National Research Council (CONICET), 1425 Buenos Aires, Argentina
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de Lima DC, Alvarez Abreu P, de Freitas CC, Santos DO, Borges RO, dos Santos TC, Mendes Cabral L, Rodrigues CR, Castro HC. Snake Venom: Any Clue for Antibiotics and CAM? EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2005; 2:39-47. [PMID: 15841277 PMCID: PMC1062156 DOI: 10.1093/ecam/neh063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2004] [Revised: 12/30/2004] [Accepted: 01/10/2005] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Lately several naturally occurring peptides presenting antimicrobial activity have been described in the literature. However, snake venoms, which are an enormous source of peptides, have not been fully explored for searching such molecules. The aim of this work is to review the basis of antimicrobial mechanisms revealing snake venom as a feasible source for searching an antibiotic prototype. Therefore, it includes (i) a description of the constituents of the snake venoms involved in their main biological effects during the envenomation process; (ii) examples of snake venom molecules of commercial use; (iii) mechanisms of action of known antibiotics; and (iv) how the microorganisms can be resistant to antibiotics. This review also shows that snake venoms are not totally unexplored sources for antibiotics and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Deivy Clementino de Lima
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Paula Alvarez Abreu
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Cícero Carlos de Freitas
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Dilvani Oliveira Santos
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Oliveira Borges
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Lúcio Mendes Cabral
- Instituto Nacional de Controle de Qualidade em SaúdeFundação Oswaldo Cruz, RJ, Brazil
| | - Carlos R. Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Modelagem Molecular e QSAR (ModMolQSAR), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade Federal do Rio de JaneiroCEP 21941-590, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Helena Carla Castro
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Modelagem Molecular (LaBioMol), Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal FluminenseCEP 24001-970, Niterói, RJ, Brazil
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Modesto JCDA, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM, Neves-Ferreira AGC, Fritzen M, Oliva MLV, Ho PL, Perales J, Chudzinski-Tavassi AM. Insularinase A, a prothrombin activator from Bothrops insularis venom, is a metalloprotease derived from a gene encoding protease and disintegrin domains. Biol Chem 2005; 386:589-600. [PMID: 16006246 DOI: 10.1515/bc.2005.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The first low-molecular-mass metalloprotease presenting prothrombin activating activity was purified from Bothrops insularis venom and named insularinase A. It is a single-chain protease with a molecular mass of 22 639 Da. cDNA sequence analysis revealed that the disintegrin domain of the precursor protein is post-translationally processed, producing the mature insularinase A. Analysis of its deduced amino acid sequence showed a high similarity with several fibrin(ogen)olytic metalloproteases and only a moderate similarity with prothrombin activators. However, SDS-PAGE of prothrombin after activation by insularinase A showed fragment patterns similar to those generated by group A prothrombin activators, which convert prothrombin into meizothrombin independently of the prothrombinase complex. In addition, insularinase A activates factor X and hydrolyses fibrinogen and fibrin. Chelating agents fully inhibit all insularinase A activities. Insularinase A induced neither detachment nor apoptosis of human endothelial cells and was also not able to trigger an endothelial proinflammatory cell response. Nitric oxide and prostacyclin levels released by endothelial cells were significantly increased after treatment with insularinase A. Our results show that, although its primary structure is related to class P-I fibrin(ogen)olytic metalloproteases, insularinase A is functionally similar to group A prothrombin activators.
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Silva MB, Schattner M, Ramos CRR, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM, Guarnieri MC, Lazzari MA, Sampaio CAM, Pozner RG, Ventura JS, Ho PL, Chudzinski-Tavassi AM. A prothrombin activator from Bothrops erythromelas (jararaca-da-seca) snake venom: characterization and molecular cloning. Biochem J 2003; 369:129-39. [PMID: 12225292 PMCID: PMC1223056 DOI: 10.1042/bj20020449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2002] [Revised: 07/26/2002] [Accepted: 09/11/2002] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A novel prothrombin activator enzyme, which we have named 'berythractivase', was isolated from Bothrops erythromelas (jararaca-da-seca) snake venom. Berythractivase was purified by a single cation-exchange-chromatography step on a Resource S (Amersham Biosciences) column. The overall purification (31-fold) indicates that berythractivase comprises about 5% of the crude venom. It is a single-chain protein with a molecular mass of 78 kDa. SDS/PAGE of prothrombin after activation by berythractivase showed fragment patterns similar to those generated by group A prothrombin activators, which convert prothrombin into meizothrombin, independent of the prothrombinase complex. Chelating agents, such as EDTA and o -phenanthroline, rapidly inhibited the enzymic activity of berythractivase, like a typical metalloproteinase. Human fibrinogen A alpha-chain was slowly digested only after longer incubation with berythractivase, and no effect on the beta- or gamma-chains was observed. Berythractivase was also capable of triggering endothelial proinflammatory and procoagulant cell responses. von Willebrand factor was released, and the surface expression of both intracellular adhesion molecule-1 and E-selectin was up-regulated by berythractivase in cultured human umbilical-vein endothelial cells. The complete berythractivase cDNA was cloned from a B. erythromelas venom-gland cDNA library. The cDNA sequence possesses 2330 bp and encodes a preproprotein with significant sequence similarity to many other mature metalloproteinases reported from snake venoms. Berythractivase contains metalloproteinase, desintegrin-like and cysteine-rich domains. However, berythractivase did not elicit any haemorrhagic response. These results show that, although the primary structure of berythractivase is related to that of snake-venom haemorrhagic metalloproteinases and functionally similar to group A prothrombin activators, it is a prothrombin activator devoid of haemorrhagic activity. This is a feature not observed for most of the snake venom metalloproteinases, including the group A prothrombin activators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márcia B Silva
- Departamento do Biofísica, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
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