Elevated CETP Activity Improves Plasma Cholesterol Efflux Capacity From Human Macrophages in Women

Phenotyping coronary plaque by computed tomography in premature coronary artery disease

AIMS

Premature coronary artery disease (CAD) is an aggressive disease with multiple recurrences mostly related to new coronary lesions. This study aimed to compare coronary plaque characteristics of individuals with premature CAD with those of incidental plaques found in matched individuals free of overt cardiovascular disease, using coronary computed tomography angiography (CCTA).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Of 1552 consecutive individuals who underwent CCTA, 106 individuals with history of acute or stable obstructive CAD ≤45 years were matched by age, sex, smoking status, cardiovascular heredity, and dyslipidaemia with 106 controls. CCTA were analysed for Coronary Artery Disease Reporting and Data System score, plaque composition, and high-risk plaque (HRP) features, including spotty calcification, positive remodelling, low attenuation, and napkin-ring sign. The characteristics of 348 premature CAD plaques were compared with those of 167 incidental coronary plaques of matched controls. The prevalence of non-calcified plaques was higher among individuals with premature CAD (65.1 vs. 30.2%, P < 0.001), as well as spotty calcification (42.5 vs. 17.9%, P < 0.001), positive remodelling (41.5 vs. 9.4%, P < 0.001), low attenuation (24.5 vs. 3.8%, P < 0.001), and napkin-ring sign (1.9 vs. 0.0%). They exhibited an average of 2.2 (2.7) HRP, while the control group displayed 0.4 (0.8) HRP (P < 0.001). Within a median follow-up of 24 (16, 34) months, individuals with premature CAD and ischaemic recurrence (n = 24) had more HRP [4.3 (3.9)] than those without ischaemic recurrence [1.5 (1.9)], mostly non-calcified with low attenuation and positive remodelling.

CONCLUSION

Coronary atherosclerosis in individuals with premature CAD is characterized by a high and predominant burden of non-calcified plaque and unusual high prevalence of HRP, contributing to disease progression with multiple recurrences. A comprehensive qualitative CCTA assessment of plaque characteristics may further risk stratify our patients, beyond cardiovascular risk factors.

Novel Role of CETP in Macrophages: Reduction of Mitochondrial Oxidants Production and Modulation of Cell Immune-Metabolic Profile

Plasma cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) activity diminishes HDL-cholesterol levels and thus may increase atherosclerosis risk. Experimental evidence suggests CETP may also exhibit anti-inflammatory properties, but local tissue-specific functions of CETP have not yet been clarified. Since oxidative stress and inflammation are major features of atherogenesis, we investigated whether CETP modulates macrophage oxidant production, inflammatory and metabolic profiles. Comparing macrophages from CETP-expressing transgenic mice and non-expressing littermates, we observed that CETP expression reduced mitochondrial superoxide anion production and H2O2 release, increased maximal mitochondrial respiration rates, and induced elongation of the mitochondrial network and expression of fusion-related genes (mitofusin-2 and OPA1). The expression of pro-inflammatory genes and phagocytic activity were diminished in CETP-expressing macrophages. In addition, CETP-expressing macrophages had less unesterified cholesterol under basal conditions and after exposure to oxidized LDL, as well as increased HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux. CETP knockdown in human THP1 cells increased unesterified cholesterol and abolished the effects on mitofusin-2 and TNFα. In summary, the expression of CETP in macrophages modulates mitochondrial structure and function to promote an intracellular antioxidant state and oxidative metabolism, attenuation of pro-inflammatory gene expression, reduced cholesterol accumulation, and phagocytosis. These localized functions of CETP may be relevant for the prevention of atherosclerosis and other inflammatory diseases.

The pleiotropic effects of high-density lipoproteins and apolipoprotein A-I

The high density lipoprotein (HDL) fraction of human plasma consists of multiple subpopulations of spherical particles that are structurally uniform, but heterogeneous in terms of size, composition and function. Numerous epidemiological studies have established that an elevated high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) level is associated with decreased cardiovascular risk. However, with several recent randomised clinical trials of HDL-C raising agents failing to reduce cardiovascular events, contemporary research is transitioning towards clinical development of the cardioprotective functions of HDLs and the identification of functions that can be exploited for treatment of other diseases. This review describes the origins of HDLs and the causes of their compositional and functional heterogeneity. It then summarises current knowledge of how cardioprotective and other functions of HDLs are regulated. The final section of the review summarises recent advances in the clinical development of HDL-targeted therapies.

Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein Impairs Triglyceride Clearance via Androgen Receptor in Male Mice

Elevated postprandial triacylglycerols (TAG) are an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Men have higher plasma TAG and impaired TAG clearance compared to women, which may contribute to sex differences in risk of cardiovascular disease. Understanding mechanisms of sex differences in TAG metabolism may yield novel therapeutic targets to prevent cardiovascular disease. Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) is a lipid shuttling protein known for its effects on high‐density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels. Although mice lack CETP, we previously demonstrated that transgenic CETP expression in female mice alters TAG metabolism. The impact of CETP on TAG metabolism in males, however, is not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that CETP expression increases plasma TAG in males, especially in very‐low density lipoprotein (VLDL), by impairing postprandial plasma TAG clearance compared to wild‐type (WT) males. Gonadal hormones were required for CETP to impair TAG clearance, suggesting a role for sex hormones for this effect. Testosterone replacement in the setting of gonadectomy was sufficient to restore the effect of CETP on TAG. Lastly, liver androgen receptor (AR) was required for CETP to increase plasma TAG. Thus, expression of CETP in males raises plasma TAG by impairing TAG clearance via testosterone signaling to AR. Further understanding of how CETP and androgen signaling impair TAG clearance may lead to novel approaches to reduce TAG and mitigate risk of cardiovascular disease.

Lipid efflux mechanisms, relation to disease and potential therapeutic aspects

Lipids are hydrophobic and amphiphilic molecules involved in diverse functions such as membrane structure, energy metabolism, immunity, and signaling. However, altered intra-cellular lipid levels or composition can lead to metabolic and inflammatory dysfunction, as well as lipotoxicity. Thus, intra-cellular lipid homeostasis is tightly regulated by multiple mechanisms. Since most peripheral cells do not catabolize cholesterol, efflux (extra-cellular transport) of cholesterol is vital for lipid homeostasis. Defective efflux contributes to atherosclerotic plaque development, impaired β-cell insulin secretion, and neuropathology. Of these, defective lipid efflux in macrophages in the arterial walls leading to foam cell and atherosclerotic plaque formation has been the most well studied, likely because a leading global cause of death is cardiovascular disease. Circulating high density lipoprotein particles play critical roles as acceptors of effluxed cellular lipids, suggesting their importance in disease etiology. We review here mechanisms and pathways that modulate lipid efflux, the role of lipid efflux in disease etiology, and therapeutic options aimed at modulating this critical process.

Modulation of cholesterol efflux capacity in patients with myocardial infarction

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Epidemiologic studies consistently demonstrated that patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) and low HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) are more likely to develop major adverse cardiovascular events as compared with those with normal or high HDL. However, several large randomized trials failed to demonstrate that a substantial, pharmacological-based, increase of HDL-C concentrations results in a clinically significant reduction of ischemic outcomes. This has been largely attributed to the fact that, although these drugs are able to raise the HDL-C concentration, they have no effect on HDL-C atheroprotective function. Subsequently, the 'HDL hypothesis' evolved, and the focus shifted from raising the concentration of HDL-C to raising the reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) function by increasing patients cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC) instead. Indeed, new data suggest that HDL-C metabolism and the ability of the HDL molecule to transport cholesterol from the atherosclerotic plaque to the liver, measured by the CEC, is more important than steady-state HDL-C levels. Modulation of the CEC has become, therefore, a promising therapeutic target in CAD patients. This article reviews the current data on the 'cholesterol efflux hypothesis' and discuss its ability to be modulated has a potential therapeutic target.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent data have demonstrated that impaired serum CEC was associated with increased mortality after a myocardial infarction (MI). Thus, therapeutic intervention aiming to improve CEC and RCT may reduce the risk of recurrent events. Early phase clinical studies targeting CEC showed promising results and a megatrial is ongoing testing the hypothesis that an improved RCT trough a modulation of the CEC can modify patient's prognosis after an acute MI.

SUMMARY

The 'cholesterol efflux hypothesis' is now supported by several clinical studies and is being tested with a therapeutic candidate in a megatrial enrolling high-risk patient with MI.

Calcitriol modulates cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) levels and lipid profile in hypercholesterolemic male rabbits: A pilot study

Vitamin D3 efficacy against cardiovascular disease prevention has been reported in many experimental studies. We aimed to investigate the effect of the calcitriol or active form of Vitamin D3 (1, 25(OH) 2D3) on serum cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) levels in a rabbit model of atherosclerosis. New Zealand white male rabbits were fed with 1% cholesterol diet and randomly assigned into two groups (n = 6). The case group was administrated with 50000 calcitriol (IU/kg/per wk) and the control group which administrated with calcitriol solvent (sesame oil) for 2 months. Then, after two months the lipid profile, CETP and 25OHD3 levels were measured. The serum concentration of CETP was increased after treatment with calcitriol in case group as compared to the control group (41.75 ± 3.19 vs. 34.5 ± 2.3, ng/ml, P < 0.05). We also observed higher levels of the 25OHD3 in the calcitriol group at the 1^st month (16.3 ± 1.64 vs. 12.8 ± 1.33 ng/ml) and the 2^nd month (19.5 ± 2.14 vs. 12.5 ± 1.25 ng/ml) as compared with the control group. the significant increase in the level of HDL-C was observed in the case group than the control group (P < 0.01). In addition, serum levels of LDL- Cholesterol (LDL-C), Triglyceride (TG) were reduced after assessment at 1^st and 2^nd month after administration of calcitriol. Our research indicated the significant anti-atherogenic effects of calcitriol in the rabbit model of atherosclerosis. However, increased in CETP levels by calcitriol may know as an additional way, which interfere with the anti-atherogenic effects of calcitriol.

Elastic aortic wrap reduced aortic stiffness by partially alleviating the impairment of cholesterol efflux capacity in pigs

Purpose

Metabolic syndrome patients exhibit impaired cholesterol efflux capacity. Previous studies have shown a positive association between aortic stiffness and metabolic syndrome. However, it is unknown whether cholesterol efflux capacity participates in the process of aortic stiffness. This study sought to determine the effect of metabolic syndrome on aortic stiffening, and to investigate the effectiveness of aortic wraps on aortic compliance and the underlying mechanisms.

Methods

In a swine model of metabolic syndrome, we compared the cholesterol efflux capacity and aortic compliance responding to diet modifications and aortic wrap applications.

Results

Metabolic syndrome induced by high cholesterol diet significantly decreased cholesterol efflux capacity and aortic compliance. Elastic aortic wrap application increased aortic compliance and partially restored cholesterol efflux capacity via ATP binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) pathway.

Conclusions

Cholesterol efflux plays a role in aortic stiffening. Elastic aortic wrap application could be a potential treatment for aortic stiffness related to metabolic syndrome.

A critical appraisal of the measurement of serum 'cholesterol efflux capacity' and its use as surrogate marker of risk of cardiovascular disease

The 'cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC)' assay is a simple in vitro measure of the capacities of individual sera to promote the first step of the reverse cholesterol transport pathway, the delivery of cellular cholesterol to plasma HDL. This review describes the cell biology of this model and critically assesses its application as a marker of cardiovascular risk. We describe the pathways for cell cholesterol export, current cell models used in the CEC assay with their limitations and consider the contribution that measurement of serum CEC provides to our understanding of HDL function in vivo.

HDL cholesterol efflux capacity and cholesteryl ester transfer are associated with body mass, but are not changed by diet-induced weight loss: A randomized trial in abdominally obese men

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Obesity is associated with a lower HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux from macrophages and a higher CETP (cholesteryl ester transfer protein) activity, but effects of weight loss are not clear. In addition, associations with visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue are not known. We therefore investigated effects of diet-induced weight loss on HDL-mediated cholesterol efflux and cholesterol ester (CE) transfer in abdominally obese men. Differences between normal-weight and abdominally obese men were also examined.

METHODS

Twenty-five apparently healthy, normal-weight men (waist circumference: <94 cm) and 52 abdominally obese men (waist circumference: 102-110 cm) were included. Abdominally obese subjects were randomly allocated to a dietary weight-loss intervention group or a no-weight loss control group. Individuals from the intervention group followed a very-low-calorie diet for 6 weeks to obtain a waist circumference below 102 cm, followed by a 2-week weight-stable period. Cholesterol efflux was measured in BODIPY-labeled murine J774 macrophages. CE transfer was measured by quantifying the transfer of CE from radiolabeled exogenous HDL to apoB-containing lipoproteins.

RESULTS

Cholesterol efflux capacity was 9 percentage point (pp) lower in abdominally obese than in normal-weight men (p≤0.001), while CE transfer was 5 pp higher (p≤0.01). Diet-induced weight-loss of 10.3 kg did not change cholesterol efflux and CE transfer. In addition, stepwise regression analysis did not suggest that the different fat depots are differently related to efflux capacity and CE transfer.

CONCLUSIONS

After a 2-week weight-stable period, dietary weight loss of 10 kg did not improve ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux and CE transfer in abdominally obese men.

Elevated levels of preβ1-high-density lipoprotein are associated with cholesterol ester transfer protein, the presence and severity of coronary artery disease

Background

Preβ1-high-density lipoprotein (preβ1-HDL), plays an important role in reverse cholesterol transport and exhibits potent risk for coronary artery disease (CAD). However, the association of plasma preβ1-HDL and cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) levels in CAD patients and the relationship of preβ1-HDL with extent of CAD are debatable.

Methods

Preβ1-HDL and CETP levels were measured by enzymed-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISAs) in 88 acute coronary syndromes (ACS), 79 stable coronary artery disease (SCAD) patients and 85 control subjects. The correlation analyses, multiple linear regression analyses and logistic regression analyses were performed, respectively.

Results

The preβ1-HDL and CETP levels in ACS patients were significantly higher than those in SCAD patients and both of them were higher than controls’. Preβ1-HDL levels were positively associated with CETP (R = 0.348, P = 0.000), the diameter of stenosis (R = 0.253, P = 0.005), the number of vessel disease (R = 0.274, P = 0.002) and Gensini score (R = 0.227, P = 0.009) in CAD patients. Stepwise multiple linear regression analyses showed that CETP was one of the determinants of preβ1-HDL levels. Logistic regression analysis revealed that elevated preβ1-HDL and CETP were potential risk factors for both ACS and SCAD.

Conclusion

The elevated preβ1-HDL levels may change with CETP concentrations in CAD patients and were related to the presence and severity of CAD.

Association of Cholesterol Efflux Capacity With Clinical Features of Metabolic Syndrome: Relevance to Atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

The contribution of high-density lipoprotein to cardiovascular benefit is closely linked to its role in the cellular cholesterol efflux process; however, various clinical and biochemical variables are known to modulate the overall cholesterol efflux process. The aim of this study was to evaluate the extent to which clinical and biological anomalies associated with the establishment of the metabolic syndrome modulate cholesterol efflux capacity and contribute to development of atherosclerosis.

METHODS AND RESULTS

This study involved patients (n=1202) displaying atherogenic dyslipidemia in primary prevention who were referred to our prevention center. Among these patients, 25% presented at least 3 criteria of the metabolic syndrome, as defined by the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III. We measured the capacity of 40-fold diluted serum to mediate cholesterol efflux from cholesterol-loaded human THP-1 macrophages. Cholesterol efflux capacity was reduced progressively by 4% to 11% (P<0.0001) as a function of the increasing number of coexisting criteria for the metabolic syndrome from 1 to 5. This observation was primarily related to reductions in scavenger receptor class B member 1 and ATP binding cassette subfamily G member 1-dependent efflux. Multivariate analyses indicate that serum efflux capacity was significantly associated with established metabolic syndrome (odds ratio 0.45; 95% CI 0.28-0.72; P=0.009) independent of age, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, status with regard to lipid-lowering therapy, smoking status, and alcohol consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study revealed that individual criteria of metabolic syndrome are closely related synergistically to cholesterol efflux capacity. In addition, established metabolic syndrome and cholesterol efflux capacity were independently associated with clinical features of atherosclerosis.

Re-evaluation of cholesteryl ester transfer protein function in atherosclerosis based upon genetics and pharmacological manipulation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To re-evaluate the functions of plasma cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) in atherosclerosis based upon recent findings from human genetics and pharmacological CETP manipulation.

RECENT FINDINGS

CETP is involved in the transfer of cholesteryl ester from HDL to apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins, a key step of reverse cholesterol transport (RCT). CETP inhibitors have been developed to raise serum HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) levels and reduce cardiovascular events. However, outcome studies of three CETP inhibitors (torcetrapib, dalcetrapib and evacetrapib) were prematurely terminated because of increased mortality or futility despite marked increases in HDL-cholesterol and decreases in LDL-cholesterol except for dalcetrapib. Patients with CETP deficiency show remarkable changes in HDL and LDL and are sometimes accompanied by atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Recent prospective epidemiological studies demonstrated atheroprotective roles of CETP. CETP inhibition induces formation of small dense LDL and possibly dysfunctional HDL and downregulates hepatic scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI). Therefore, CETP inhibitors may interrupt LDL receptor and SR-BI-mediated cholesterol delivery back to the liver.

SUMMARY

For future drug development, the opposite strategy, namely enhancers of RCT via CETP and SR-BI activation as well as the inducers of apolipoprotein A-I or HDL production might be a better approach rather than delaying HDL metabolism by inhibiting a main stream of RCT in vivo.

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein alters liver and plasma triglyceride metabolism through two liver networks in female mice

Elevated plasma TGs increase risk of cardiovascular disease in women. Estrogen treatment raises plasma TGs in women, but molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here we explore the role of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) in the regulation of TG metabolism in female mice, which naturally lack CETP. In transgenic CETP females, acute estrogen treatment raised plasma TGs 50%, increased TG production, and increased expression of genes involved in VLDL synthesis, but not in nontransgenic littermate females. In CETP females, estrogen enhanced expression of small heterodimer partner (SHP), a nuclear receptor regulating VLDL production. Deletion of liver SHP prevented increases in TG production and expression of genes involved in VLDL synthesis in CETP mice with estrogen treatment. We also examined whether CETP expression had effects on TG metabolism independent of estrogen treatment. CETP increased liver β-oxidation and reduced liver TG content by 60%. Liver estrogen receptor α (ERα) was required for CETP expression to enhance β-oxidation and reduce liver TG content. Thus, CETP alters at least two networks governing TG metabolism, one involving SHP to increase VLDL-TG production in response to estrogen, and another involving ERα to enhance β-oxidation and lower liver TG content. These findings demonstrate a novel role for CETP in estrogen-mediated increases in TG production and a broader role for CETP in TG metabolism.

CETP Expression Protects Female Mice from Obesity-Induced Decline in Exercise Capacity

Pharmacological approaches to reduce obesity have not resulted in dramatic reductions in the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). Exercise, in contrast, reduces CHD risk even in the setting of obesity. Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein (CETP) is a lipid transfer protein that shuttles lipids between serum lipoproteins and tissues. There are sexual-dimorphisms in the effects of CETP in humans. Mice naturally lack CETP, but we previously reported that transgenic expression of CETP increases muscle glycolysis in fasting and protects against insulin resistance with high-fat diet (HFD) feeding in female but not male mice. Since glycolysis provides an important energy source for working muscle, we aimed to define if CETP expression protects against the decline in exercise capacity associated with obesity. We measured exercise capacity in female mice that were fed a chow diet and then switched to a HFD. There was no difference in exercise capacity between lean, chow-fed CETP female mice and their non-transgenic littermates. Female CETP transgenic mice were relatively protected against the decline in exercise capacity caused by obesity compared to WT. Despite gaining similar fat mass after 6 weeks of HFD-feeding, female CETP mice showed a nearly two-fold increase in run distance compared to WT. After an additional 6 weeks of HFD-feeding, mice were subjected to a final exercise bout and muscle mitochondria were isolated. We found that improved exercise capacity in CETP mice corresponded with increased muscle mitochondrial oxidative capacity, and increased expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α). These results suggest that CETP can protect against the obesity-induced impairment in exercise capacity and may be a target to improve exercise capacity in the context of obesity.

Regulation of Hepatic Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein Expression and Reverse Cholesterol Transport by Inhibition of DNA Topoisomerase II

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) transfers cholesteryl esters from high density lipoprotein to triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. CETP expression can be transcriptionally activated by liver X receptor (LXR). Etoposide and teniposide are DNA topoisomerase II (Topo II) inhibitors. Etoposide has been reported to inhibit atherosclerosis in rabbits with un-fully elucidated mechanisms. In this study we determined if Topo II activity can influence cholesterol metabolism by regulating hepatic CETP expression. Inhibition of Topo II by etoposide, teniposide, or Topo II siRNA increased CETP expression in human hepatic cell line, HepG2 cells, which was associated with increased CETP secretion and mRNA expression. Meanwhile, inhibition of LXR expression by LXR siRNA attenuated induction of CETP expression by etoposide and teniposide. Etoposide and teniposide induced LXRα expression and LXRα/β nuclear translocation while inhibiting expression of receptor interacting protein 140 (RIP140), an LXR co-repressor. In vivo, administration of teniposide moderately reduced serum lipid profiles, induced CETP expression in the liver, and activated reverse cholesterol transport in CETP transgenic mice. Our study demonstrates a novel function of Topo II inhibitors in cholesterol metabolism by activating hepatic CETP expression and reverse cholesterol transport.

Reassessing lipid metabolism and its potentialities in the prediction of cardiovascular risk

There are numerous particles, enzymes, and mechanisms in the lipid metabolism that are involved in the genesis of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Given its prevalence in populations and its impact on mortality, it is relevant to review the lipid metabolism as it may potentially provide subsidies to better prediction. This article reviews the importance of traditional cardiovascular risk factors and comments on the potential of novel lipid biomarkers involved in the physiopathology of CVD. The Framingham cohorts proved the role of traditional risk factors (physical inactivity, smoking, blood pressure, total cholesterol, LDL-C, HDL-C, plasma glucose) in the prediction of cardiovascular events. However, a significant number of individuals that suffer from a cardiovascular event has few or none of these factors. Such finding indicates the need for new biomarkers able to identify plaques that are more susceptible to rupture. Some of bloodstream biomarkers related to lipid metabolism are modified LDL particles, apolipoprotein AI (apo AI), apolipoprotein B, lipoprotein (a) [Lp (a)], cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP), subtypes of LDL and HDL particles, and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2). These factors participate in the atherosclerotic process, and are abnormal in individuals at high risk, or in those who suffered from a cardiovascular event. Lp (a) determination is already employed in clinical practice and should be included as a reference parameter for CVD monitoring. Furthermore, there are expectations for wider use of apo B, non-HDL cholesterol and total cholesterol / HDL-C determination to improve cardiovascular risk assessment.

Plasma cholesterol efflux capacity from human THP-1 macrophages is reduced in HIV-infected patients: impact of HAART

The capacity of HDL to remove cholesterol from macrophages is inversely associated with the severity of angiographic coronary artery disease. The effect of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection or its treatment on the ability of HDL particles to stimulate cholesterol efflux from human macrophages has never been studied. We evaluated the capacity of whole plasma and isolated HDL particles from HIV-infected subjects (n = 231) and uninfected controls (n = 200), as well as in a subset of 41 HIV subjects receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) to mediate cholesterol efflux from human macrophages. Plasma cholesterol efflux capacity was reduced (-12%; P = 0.001) in HIV patients as compared with controls. HIV infection reduced by 27% (P < 0.05) the capacity of HDL subfractions to promote cholesterol efflux from macrophages. We observed a reduced ABCA1-dependent efflux capacity of plasma (-27%; P < 0.0001) from HIV-infected subjects as a result of a reduction in the efflux capacity of HDL3 particles. HAART administration restored the capacity of plasma from HIV patients to stimulate cholesterol efflux from human macrophages (9.4%; P = 0.04). During HIV infection, the capacity of whole plasma to remove cholesterol from macrophages is reduced, thus potentially contributing to the increased coronary heart disease in the HIV population. HAART administration restored the removal of cholesterol from macrophages by increasing HDL functionality.

CETP inhibitors and cardiovascular disease: Time to think again

Inhibition of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) lowers plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentration and raises high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, suggesting it might prevent cardiovascular disease (CVD). From the outset, however, the concept has been controversial owing to uncertainty about its effects on HDL function and reverse cholesterol transport (RCT). Although there has long been good evidence that CETP inhibition reduces atherosclerosis in rabbits, the first information on CETP as a CVD risk factor in a prospectively followed cohort was not published until after the first Phase 3 trial of a CETP inhibitor had begun. The worrying finding that CVD incidence was related inversely to plasma CETP has since been reproduced in each of five further prospective cohort studies. Similar results were obtained in subjects on or off statin therapy, for first and second CVD events, and for mortality as well as CVD morbidity. Additionally, two recent studies have found alleles of the CETP gene that lower hepatic CETP secretion to be associated with an increased risk of myocardial infarction. Meanwhile, CETP gene transfer in mice was found to increase RCT from peripheral macrophages in vivo, and human plasma with high CETP activity was shown to have a greater capacity to remove cholesterol from cultured cells than plasma with low activity. This mounting evidence for a protective function of CETP has been given remarkably little attention, and indeed was not mentioned in several recent reviews.  It appears to show that CETP inhibition does not test the HDL hypothesis as originally hoped, and raises a pressing ethical issue regarding two Phase 3 trials of inhibitors, involving more than forty thousand subjects, which are currently in progress. As the weight of evidence now clearly supports an adverse effect of CETP inhibition on CVD, an urgent review is needed to determine if these trials should be discontinued.

Glycation of apolipoprotein C1 impairs its CETP inhibitory property: pathophysiological relevance in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes

OBJECTIVE Apolipoprotein (apo)C1 is a potent physiological inhibitor of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP). ApoC1 operates through its ability to modify the electrostatic charge at the lipoprotein surface. We aimed to determine whether the inhibitory ability of apoC1 is still effective in vivo in patients with diabetes and whether in vitro glycation of apoC1 influences its electrostatic charge and its CETP inhibitory effect. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS ApoC1 concentrations and CETP activity were measured in 70 type 1 diabetic (T1D) patients, 113 patients with type 2 diabetes, and 83 control subjects. The consequences of in vitro glycation by methylglyoxal on the electrostatic properties of apoC1 and on its inhibitory effect on CETP activity were studied. An isoelectric analysis of apoC1 was performed in patients with T1D and in normolipidemic-normoglycemic subjects. RESULTS An independent negative correlation was found between CETP activity and apoC1 in control subjects but not in patients with diabetes. HbA1c was independently associated with CETP activity in T1D patients. In vitro glycation of apoC1 modified its electrostatic charge and abrogated its ability to inhibit CETP activity in a concentration-dependent manner. The isoelectric point of apoC1 in T1D patients was significantly lower than that in control subjects. CONCLUSIONS The ability of apoC1 to inhibit CETP activity is impaired in patients with diabetes. Glycation of apoC1 leads to a change in its electrostatic properties that might account, at least in part, for a loss of constitutive CETP inhibition and an increase in plasma CETP activity in patients with diabetes.

Decreased cholesterol efflux capacity in patients with low cholesteryl ester transfer protein plasma levels

BACKGROUND

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) has been considered as a possible target for treatment of cardiovascular disease. However, first clinical studies employing CETP inhibitors have failed to demonstrate clinical benefit. Additionally, we have previously shown that low endogenous plasma levels of CETP are associated with increased mortality in coronary artery disease (CAD) patients. We hypothesized that low CETP plasma levels are associated with decreased high-density lipoprotein (HDL) function.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Serum HDL efflux capacity was measured in 154 patients of the Ludwigshafen Risk and Cardiovascular Health (LURIC) study displaying extremely low (< 0·68 μg/mL, n = 77) or high (> 2·13 μg/mL, n = 77) CETP concentrations in their plasma, respectively. The LURIC study is a prospective observational study of patients referred to coronary angiography at baseline with a median follow-up time of 7·75 years. Primary and secondary endpoints were cardiovascular and all-cause mortality, respectively.

RESULTS

High CETP patients showed a significant increase in the capacity of their plasma to mediate cholesterol efflux from cholesterol laden macrophages when compared to the efflux capacity observed in low CETP patients (+ 5·4%, P = 0·015). As shown by multiregression analysis, the impact of CETP on cholesterol efflux capacity was independent from classical risk and lifestyle factors, as well as from lipid parameters including HDL cholesterol, LDL cholesterol and triglycerides.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that low plasma concentrations of CETP might indeed lead to impaired HDL function within the reverse cholesterol transport pointing towards an atheroprotective role of CETP at least in patients with high risk of CAD.

Effects of whole grain, fish and bilberries on serum metabolic profile and lipid transfer protein activities: a randomized trial (Sysdimet)

OBJECTIVE

We studied the combined effects of wholegrain, fish and bilberries on serum metabolic profile and lipid transfer protein activities in subjects with the metabolic syndrome.

METHODS

Altogether 131 subjects (40-70 y, BMI 26-39 kg/m(2)) with impaired glucose metabolism and features of the metabolic syndrome were randomized into three groups with 12-week periods according to a parallel study design. They consumed either: a) wholegrain and low postprandial insulin response grain products, fatty fish 3 times a week, and bilberries 3 portions per day (HealthyDiet), b) wholegrain and low postprandial insulin response grain products (WGED), or c) refined wheat breads as cereal products (Control). Altogether 106 subjects completed the study. Serum metabolic profile was studied using an NMR-based platform providing information on lipoprotein subclasses and lipids as well as low-molecular-weight metabolites.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences in clinical characteristics between the groups at baseline or at the end of the intervention. Mixed model analyses revealed significant changes in lipid metabolites in the HealthyDiet group during the intervention compared to the Control group. All changes reflected increased polyunsaturation in plasma fatty acids, especially in n-3 PUFAs, while n-6 and n-7 fatty acids decreased. According to tertiles of changes in fish intake, a greater increase of fish intake was associated with increased concentration of large HDL particles, larger average diameter of HDL particles, and increased concentrations of large HDL lipid components, even though total levels of HDL cholesterol remained stable.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that consumption of diet rich in whole grain, bilberries and especially fatty fish causes changes in HDL particles shifting their subclass distribution toward larger particles. These changes may be related to known protective functions of HDL such as reverse cholesterol transport and could partly explain the known protective effects of fish consumption against atherosclerosis.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov NCT00573781.

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein protects against insulin resistance in obese female mice

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) shuttles lipids between lipoproteins, culminating in cholesteryl ester delivery to liver and increased secretion of cholesterol as bile. Since gut bile acids promote insulin sensitivity, we aimed to define if CETP improves insulin sensitivity with high-fat feeding. CETP and nontransgenic mice of both sexes became obese. Female but not male CETP mice had increased ileal bile acid levels versus nontransgenic littermates. CETP expression protected female mice from insulin resistance but had a minimal effect in males. In liver, female CETP mice showed activation of bile acid-sensitive pathways including Erk1/2 phosphorylation and Fxr and Shp gene expression. In muscle, CETP females showed increased glycolysis, increased mRNA for Dio2, and increased Akt phosphorylation, known effects of bile acid signaling. These results suggest that CETP can ameliorate insulin resistance associated with obesity in female mice, an effect that correlates with increased gut bile acids and known bile-signaling pathways.