Interleukin-4-induced apoptosis entails caspase activation and suppression of extracellular signal-regulated kinase phosphorylation

Cell Death: Mechanisms and Potential Targets in Breast Cancer Therapy

Breast cancer (BC) has become the most life-threatening cancer to women worldwide, with multiple subtypes, poor prognosis, and rising mortality. The molecular heterogeneity of BC limits the efficacy and represents challenges for existing therapies, mainly due to the unpredictable clinical response, the reason for which probably lies in the interactions and alterations of diverse cell death pathways. However, most studies and drugs have focused on a single type of cell death, while the therapeutic opportunities related to other cell death pathways are often neglected. Therefore, it is critical to identify the predominant type of cell death, the transition to different cell death patterns during treatment, and the underlying regulatory mechanisms in BC. In this review, we summarize the characteristics of various forms of cell death, including PANoptosis (pyroptosis, apoptosis, necroptosis), autophagy, ferroptosis, and cuproptosis, and discuss their triggers and signaling cascades in BC, which may provide a reference for future pathogenesis research and allow for the development of novel targeted therapeutics in BC.

Research progress on antisepsis effect of apigenin and its mechanism of action

Sepsis is an abnormal immune response to infections and can trigger MODS. Despite the availability of advanced clinical techniques and monitoring methods, the mortality rate of the disease is still high, posing a heavy burden to patients and the whole society. Hence, the research on novel drugs and targets is particularly important. As a natural phyto-flavonoid, apigenin boasts anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-viral, and anti-bacterial effects. Besides, in-vitro experiments and animal models have also revealed the crucial role of apigenin in the treatment of infectious diseases and sepsis. In this context, this paper reviews the pharmacological activity and underlying mechanisms of action of apigenin in sepsis treatment and organ protection, as well as the potential apigenin-based therapeutic strategies against sepsis. Therefore, this review will shed new light on the scientific research and clinical treatment of sepsis.

Scientific reports concerning the impact of interleukin 4, interleukin 10 and transforming growth factor β on cancer cells

Cytokines are signalling proteins generated in most part by immune cells that have critical functions in cellular lifespan. Here we present recent data on three selected anti-inflammatory cytokines: interleukin (IL)-10, IL-4 and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β). IL-10 inhibits the synthesis of major pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and mediates anti-inflammatory reactions. IL-4 is a multifunctional cytokine which plays a crucial role in the regulation of immune responses and is involved in processes associated with development and differentiation of lymphocytes and regulation of T cell survival. Transforming TGF-β, which in normal cells or pre-cancerous cells, promotes proliferation arrest which represses tumour growth. In this review, we focus on the influence of IL-10, IL-4 and TGF-β on various types of cancer as well as potential of these selected cytokines to serve as new biomarkers which can support effective therapies for cancer patients. This article is presented based on a review of the newest research results.

Interleukin 4 induces apoptosis of acute myeloid leukemia cells in a Stat6-dependent manner

Cytokines provide signals that regulate immature normal and acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells in the bone marrow microenvironment. We here identify interleukin 4 (IL4) as a selective inhibitor of AML cell growth and survival in a cytokine screen using fluorescently labeled AML cells. RNA-sequencing of the AML cells revealed an IL4-induced upregulation of Stat6 target genes and enrichment of apoptosis-related gene expression signatures. Consistent with these findings, we found that IL4 stimulation of AML cells induced Stat6 phosphorylation and that disruption of Stat6 using CRISPR/Cas9-genetic engineering rendered cells partially resistant to IL4-induced apoptosis. To evaluate whether IL4 inhibits AML cells in vivo, we expressed IL4 ectopically in AML cells transplanted into mice and also injected IL4 into leukemic mice; both strategies resulted in the suppression of the leukemia cell burden and increased survival. Notably, IL4 exposure caused reduced growth and survival of primary AML CD34⁺CD38^- patient cells from several genetic subtypes of AML, whereas normal stem and progenitor cells were less affected. The IL4-induced apoptosis of AML cells was linked to Caspase-3 activation. Our results demonstrate that IL4 selectively induces apoptosis of AML cells in a Stat6-dependent manner-findings that may translate into new therapeutic opportunities in AML.

Distinct contribution of protein kinase Cδ and protein kinase Cε in the lifespan and immune response of human blood monocyte subpopulations

Monocytes, key components of the immune system, are a heterogeneous population comprised of classical monocytes (CD16(-) ) and non-classical monocytes (CD16(+) ). Monocytes are short lived and undergo spontaneous apoptosis, unless stimulated. Dysregulation of monocyte numbers contribute to the pathophysiology of inflammatory diseases, yet the contribution of each subset remains poorly characterized. Protein kinase C (PKC) family members are central to monocyte biology; however, their role in regulating lifespan and immune function of CD16(-) and CD16(+) monocytes has not been studied. Here, we evaluated the contribution of PKCδ and PKCε in the lifespan and immune response of both monocyte subsets. We showed that CD16(+) monocytes are more susceptible to spontaneous apoptosis because of the increased caspase-3, -8 and -9 activities accompanied by higher kinase activity of PKCδ. Silencing of PKCδ reduced apoptosis in both CD16(+) and CD16(-) monocytes. CD16(+) monocytes express significantly higher levels of PKCε and produce more tumour necrosis factor-α in CD16(+) compared with CD16(-) monocytes. Silencing of PKCε affected the survival and tumour necrosis factor-α production. These findings demonstrate a complex network with similar topography, yet unique regulatory characteristics controlling lifespan and immune response in each monocyte subset, helping define subset-specific coordination programmes controlling monocyte function.

Apigenin protects endothelial cells from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation by decreasing caspase-3 activation and modulating mitochondrial function

Acute and chronic inflammation is characterized by increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, dysregulation of mitochondrial metabolism and abnormal immune function contributing to cardiovascular diseases and sepsis. Clinical and epidemiological studies suggest potential beneficial effects of dietary interventions in inflammatory diseases but understanding of how nutrients work remains insufficient. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of apigenin, an anti-inflammatory flavonoid abundantly found in our diet, in endothelial cells during inflammation. Here, we show that apigenin reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced apoptosis by decreasing ROS production and the activity of caspase-3 in endothelial cells. Apigenin conferred protection against LPS-induced mitochondrial dysfunction and reestablished normal mitochondrial complex I activity, a major site of electron leakage and superoxide production, suggesting its ability to modulate endothelial cell metabolic function during inflammation. Collectively, these findings indicate that the dietary compound apigenin stabilizes mitochondrial function during inflammation preventing endothelial cell damage and thus provide new translational opportunities for the use of dietary components in the prevention and treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Apigenin induces DNA damage through the PKCδ-dependent activation of ATM and H2AX causing down-regulation of genes involved in cell cycle control and DNA repair

Apigenin, an abundant plant flavonoid, exhibits anti-proliferative and anti-carcinogenic activities through mechanisms yet not fully defined. In the present study, we show that the treatment of leukemia cells with apigenin resulted in the induction of DNA damage preceding the activation of the apoptotic program. Apigenin-induced DNA damage was mediated by p38 and protein kinase C-delta (PKCδ), yet was independent of reactive oxygen species or caspase activity. Treatment of monocytic leukemia cells with apigenin induced the phosphorylation of the ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM) kinase and histone H2AX, two key regulators of the DNA damage response, without affecting the ataxia-telangiectasia mutated and Rad-3-related (ATR) kinase. Silencing and pharmacological inhibition of PKCδ abrogated ATM and H2AX phosphorylation, whereas inhibition of p38 reduced H2AX phosphorylation independently of ATM. We established that apigenin delayed cell cycle progression at G1/S and increased the number of apoptotic cells. In addition, genome-wide mRNA analyses showed that apigenin-induced DNA damage led to down-regulation of genes involved in cell-cycle control and DNA repair. Taken together, the present results show that the PKCδ-dependent activation of ATM and H2AX define the signaling networks responsible for the regulation of DNA damage promoting genome-wide mRNA alterations that result in cell cycle arrest, hence contributing to the anti-carcinogenic activities of this flavonoid.

The anti-inflammatory actions of IL-4 in human monocytes are not mediated by IL-10, RP105 or the kinase activity of RIPK2

The anti-inflammatory actions of IL-4 in activated human monocytes may reflect transcriptional regulation of genes involved in TLR signaling pathways. Tailored gene arrays were conducted to profile the expression of 84 genes central to TLR-mediated signal transduction in human monocytes treated with the TLR4 ligand, LPS, with or without IL-4. In the first 3h, IL-4 down-regulated mRNA levels of LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, without altering mRNA levels of TLRs, TLR-related signaling molecules or multiple transcription factors. The down-regulation of inflammatory genes by IL-4 was preceded by an early up-regulation of IL-10 mRNA and protein and mRNA for receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 2 (RIPK2), the TLR homolog, RP105, and c-Maf, a transcription factor required for IL-10 gene expression. However, IL-4 still suppressed LPS-induced TNFα production in bone-marrow derived macrophages from IL10(-/-) mice, and in the presence of a neutralizing antibody to IL-10 in human monocytes. The up-regulation of RIPK2 and RP105 mRNA by IL-4 occurred independently of IL-10. IL-4 maintained the ability to suppress LPS-induced TNFα and enhance IL-10 production in the presence of RIPK2 kinase inhibitors. Further, IL-4 failed to up-regulate expression of RP105 at the cell surface. In conclusion, the anti-inflammatory actions of IL-4 occur independently of IL-10, RP105, and the kinase activity of RIPK2.

The small heat shock protein 27 is a key regulator of CD8+ CD57+ lymphocyte survival

Differences in CD8(+)CD57(-) and CD8(+)CD57(+) lymphocyte lifespan have been documented. Lower numbers and shorter lifespan are characteristic of CD8(+)CD57(+) in normal individuals. However, CD8(+)CD57(+) are expanded in certain disease states including T cell large granular leukemia and other hematologic malignancies. The mechanisms responsible for the differences in CD8(+)CD57(-) and CD8(+)CD57(+) lifespan remain elusive. In this study, we demonstrate that the small heat shock protein (Hsp) 27 is a key regulator of CD8(+)CD57(+) lymphocyte lifespan. We found that Hsp27 expression is significantly lower in CD8(+)CD57(+) than in CD8(+)CD57(-) lymphocytes. In contrast, Hsp60 and Hsp70 are expressed at comparable levels. Unlike other antiapoptotic Bcl-2-like molecules, the expression of Hsp27 tightly correlates with CD8(+)CD57(+) and CD8(+)CD57(-) lifespan. We demonstrate that Hsp27 overexpression in CD8(+)CD57(+) lymphocytes to levels found normally in CD8(+)CD57(-) lymphocytes decreased apoptosis. Accordingly, silencing of Hsp27 in CD8(+)CD57(-) lymphocytes increased apoptosis. Collectively these results demonstrate that Hsp27 is a critical regulator of normal CD8(+)CD57(+) lifespan supporting its use as a marker of lifespan in this lineage, and suggest a mechanism responsible for the decreased apoptosis and clonal expansion characteristic of certain disease states.

The novel plant-derived agent silvestrol has B-cell selective activity in chronic lymphocytic leukemia and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in vitro and in vivo

Therapeutic options for advanced B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) are limited. Available treatments can also deplete T lymphocytes, leaving patients at risk of life-threatening infections. In the National Cancer Institute cell line screen, the structurally unique natural product silvestrol produces an unusual pattern of cytotoxicity that suggests activity in leukemia and selectivity for B cells. We investigated silvestrol efficacy using primary human B-leukemia cells, established B-leukemia cell lines, and animal models. In CLL cells, silvestrol LC(50) (concentration lethal to 50%) is 6.9 nM at 72 hours. At this concentration, there is no difference in sensitivity of cells from patients with or without the del(17p13.1) abnormality. In isolated cells and whole blood, silvestrol is more cytotoxic toward B cells than T cells. Silvestrol causes early reduction in Mcl-1 expression due to translational inhibition with subsequent mitochondrial damage, as evidenced by reactive oxygen species generation and membrane depolarization. In vivo, silvestrol causes significant B-cell reduction in Emu-Tcl-1 transgenic mice and significantly extends survival of 697 xenograft severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice without discernible toxicity. These data indicate silvestrol has efficacy against B cells in vitro and in vivo and identify translational inhibition as a potential therapeutic target in B-cell leukemias.

Apigenin blocks lipopolysaccharide-induced lethality in vivo and proinflammatory cytokines expression by inactivating NF-kappaB through the suppression of p65 phosphorylation

LPS stimulates monocytes/macrophages through the activation of signaling events that modulate the production of inflammatory cytokines. Apigenin, a flavonoid abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory activities through poorly defined mechanisms. In this study, we demonstrate that apigenin inhibits the production of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1beta, IL-8, and TNF in LPS-stimulated human monocytes and mouse macrophages. The inhibitory effect on proinflammatory cytokine production persists even when apigenin is administered after LPS stimulation. Transient transfection experiments using NF-kappaB reporter constructs indicated that apigenin inhibits the transcriptional activity of NF-kappaB in LPS-stimulated mouse macrophages. The classical proteasome-dependent degradation of the NF-kappaB inhibitor IkappaBalpha was observed in apigenin LPS-stimulated human monocytes. Using EMSA, we found that apigenin does not alter NF-kappaB-DNA binding activity in human monocytes. Instead we show that apigenin, as part of a non-canonical pathway, regulates NF-kappaB activity through hypophosphorylation of Ser536 in the p65 subunit and the inactivation of the IKK complex stimulated by LPS. The decreased phosphorylation on Ser536 observed in LPS-stimulated mouse macrophages treated with apigenin was overcome by the over-expression of IKKbeta. In addition, our studies indicate that apigenin inhibits in vivo LPS-induced TNF and the mortality induced by lethal doses of LPS. Collectively, these findings suggest a molecular mechanism by which apigenin suppresses inflammation and modulates the immune response in vivo.

Binding of caspase-3 prodomain to heat shock protein 27 regulates monocyte apoptosis by inhibiting caspase-3 proteolytic activation

Caspase-3 is an essential executioner of apoptosis responsible for regulating many important cellular processes, among them the number of circulating monocytes, central players in the innate immune response. The activation of caspase-3 requires its processing from an inactive precursor. Here we show that the small heat shock protein 27 (Hsp27) associates with caspase-3 and protein-protein interaction experiments in vivo and with purified proteins demonstrate a direct interaction between Hsp27 and the amino-terminal prodomain of caspase-3. Using an in vitro caspase-3 activation assay, our results further establish that the interaction of Hsp27 with the caspase-3 prodomain inhibits the second proteolytic cleavage necessary for caspase-3 activation, revealing a novel mechanism for the regulation of this effector caspase. Hsp27 expression in monocytes is constitutive. Consistent with a central role of Hsp27 in blocking caspase-3 activation, Hsp27 down-regulation by double-stranded RNA interference induces apoptosis of macrophages, whereas Hsp27 overexpression increases the life span of monocytes by inhibiting apoptosis. Highlighting the importance of cell partitioning in the regulation of apoptosis, immunofluorescence, and subcellular fractionation studies revealed that whereas both caspase-3 and Hsp27 are cytoplasmic in fresh monocytes (i.e. not undergoing apoptosis), Hsp27 moves to the nucleus during apoptosis, a relocalization that can be blocked by promoting the differentiation of monocytes to macrophages or by inhibiting cell death. These results reveal a novel mechanism of caspase-3 regulation and underscore a novel and fundamental role of Hsp27 in the regulation of monocyte life span.

Apigenin-induced-apoptosis is mediated by the activation of PKCdelta and caspases in leukemia cells

Apigenin, a flavone abundantly found in fruits and vegetables, exhibits antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antimetastatic activities through poorly defined mechanisms. In the present study, the treatment of different cell lines with apigenin resulted in selective antiproliferative and apoptotic effect in monocytic and lymphocytic leukemias. Apigenin-induced-apoptosis was mediated by the activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3. Apigenin was found intracellularly and localized to the mitochondria. Treatment of monocytic cells with apigenin was accompanied by an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and phosphorylation of the MAPKs, p38 and ERK. However, the inhibition of ROS, p38 or ERK failed to block apoptosis, suggesting that these cellular responses induced by apigenin are not essential for the induction of apoptosis. In addition, apigenin induced the activation of PKCdelta. Pharmacological inhibition of PKCdelta, the expression of dominant-negative PKCdelta and silencing of PKCdelta in leukemia cells showed that apigenin-induced-apoptosis requires PKCdelta activity. Together, these results indicate that this flavonoid provides selective activity to promote caspase-dependent-apoptosis of leukemia cells and uncover an essential role of PKCdelta during the induction of apoptosis by apigenin.

Effects of interleukin 4 on CD25+CD4+ regulatory T cell function

CD25+CD4+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) contribute to the maintenance of peripheral tolerance against self and non-self. The modulatory effects of cytokines, such as interleukin 4 (IL-4) on the function of Tregs have not been explored in detail. We here report that IL-4 prevents spontaneous apoptosis and the decline of foxp3 mRNA which were found to occur during culture of isolated Tregs. Tregs exposed to IL-4 were more potent in suppressing the proliferation of naïve CD4+ T cells and they better inhibited IFN-gamma production by CD4+ T cells as compared to Tregs cultured in medium. IL-4 also enhanced membrane IL-2Ralpha (CD25) expression on Tregs above the levels observed on freshly isolated cells. IL-4-mediated effects on Treg function persisted in Tregs from Stat6-/- mice, pointing to a Stat6-independent intracellular transduction pathway. In conclusion, our data suggest that the anti-inflammatory function of IL-4 could partly be mediated by effects on Tregs function.

Regulation of monocyte apoptosis by the protein kinase Cdelta-dependent phosphorylation of caspase-3

Monocytes are central components of the innate immune response and normally circulate for a short period of time before undergoing spontaneous apoptosis. During inflammation, differentiation, or oncogenic transformation, the life span of monocytes is prolonged by preventing the activation of the apoptotic program. Here we showed that caspase-3, a cysteine protease required for monocyte apoptosis, is a phosphoprotein. We identified protein kinase Cdelta (PKCdelta) as a member of the protein kinase C family that associates with and phosphorylates caspase-3. The PKCdelta-dependent phosphorylation of caspase-3 resulted in an increase in the activity of caspase-3. This effect of PKCdelta is specific to caspase-3, as evidenced by the absence of similar effects on caspase-9. The activity of PKCdelta precedes the activation of caspase-3 during spontaneous monocyte apoptosis and in monocyte-induced apoptosis. We found that the overexpression of PKCdelta resulted in an increase of apoptosis, whereas its inhibition blocked caspase-3 activity and decreased apoptosis. Our results provided evidence that the PKCdelta-dependent phosphorylation of caspase-3 provided a novel pro-apoptotic mechanism involved in the regulation of monocyte life span.

Differential induction of apoptosis by LPS and taxol in monocytic cells

Numerous microbial as well as other stimulants including lipopolysaccharide and taxol can activate TLR4, and elicit diverse downstream signaling events including cytokine gene expression and cell growth regulation. With a mechanism not completely understood, different TLR4 stimulants induce distinct cellular responses. Our present studies showed that taxol, not LPS, induced cell apoptosis in human monocytic THP-1 cells, as indicated by PARP cleavage, as well as bcl-2 phosphorylation. Pretreatment of cells with LPS abolished subsequent taxol effect, suggesting that certain signaling components involved in taxol-mediated apoptosis were disrupted by LPS pretreatment. Since the decrease in IRAK-1 level closely accompanies prolonged LPS treatment in monocytic cells, we investigated the IRAK-1 status upon various taxol and LPS challenges. We observed that only LPS, not taxol, caused dramatic decrease in IRAK-1 protein levels. Using splenic macrophages harvested from IRAK-1 knockout and control mice, we further demonstrated that the presence of IRAK-1 is required for taxol-induced PARP cleavage.

Apoptosis: The Sculptor of Development

Apoptosis is a programmed mechanism of cell death recognized by its characteristic morphological and biochemical changes. Over the last decade, our understanding of the biochemistry of apoptosis has flourished. However, the physiological relevance of apoptosis remains elusive. Here, I propose that the process of programmed cell death plays an essential role in structural development. From pioneering studies almost a century ago to recent findings using modern technology, similar conclusions have emerged that highlight the fundamental role of apoptosis in vascular development. This review will recount these classic and modern studies as I survey evidence that implicates apoptosis in other aspects of development and ask how cell death can possibly contribute to homeostasis and development of the immune system. I briefly consider the mechanisms that may determine the fate of cells within the vasculature and propose new roles for the contribution of apoptosis to development and differentiation. More provocatively, I explore the possibilities that arise from this growing field of study, including prevention of developmental defects and even abnormal development after birth, such as neoplastic development. To realize these end points, the biochemical bases of apoptosis must be thoroughly understood.

Proliferative aspects of airway smooth muscle

Increased airway smooth muscle (ASM) mass is perhaps the most important component of the airway wall remodeling process in asthma. Known mediators of ASM proliferation in cell culture models fall into 2 categories: those that activate receptors with intrinsic receptor tyrosine kinase activity and those that have their effects through receptors linked to heterotrimeric guanosine triphosphate-binding proteins. The major candidate signaling pathways activated by ASM mitogens are those dependent on extracellular signal-regulated kinase and phosphoinositide 3'-kinase. Increases in ASM mass may also involve ASM migration, and in culture, the key signaling mechanisms have been identified as the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and the p21-activated kinase 1 pathways. New evidence from an in vivo rat model indicates that primed CD4(+) T cells are sufficient to trigger ASM and epithelial remodeling after allergen challenge. Hyperplasia has been observed in an equine model of asthma and may account for the increase in ASM mass. Reduction in the rate of apoptosis may also play a role. beta(2)-Adrenergic receptor agonists and glucocorticoids have antiproliferative activity against a broad spectrum of mitogens, although it has become apparent that mitogens are differentially sensitive. Culture of ASM on collagen type I has been shown to enhance proliferative activity and prevent the inhibitory effect of glucocorticoids, whereas beta(2)-agonists are minimally affected. There is no evidence that long-acting beta(2)-agonists are more effective than short-acting agonists, but persistent stimulation of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptor probably helps suppress growth responses. The maximum response of fluticasone propionate against thrombin-induced proliferation is increased when it is combined with salmeterol.