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Schneider WJ, Flanagan DP, Niileksela CR, Engler JR. The effect of measurement error on the positive predictive value of PSW methods for SLD identification: How buffer zones dispel the illusion of inaccuracy. J Sch Psychol 2024; 103:101280. [PMID: 38432731 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsp.2023.101280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Patterns of Strengths and Weaknesses (PSW) methods are widely used for identifying specific learning disabilities (SLDs). Several researchers, however, have reported that the diagnostic accuracy of PSW methods is unacceptably low when strict thresholds were used to identify students with SLDs. We believe these findings give a misleading impression of the magnitude of the diagnostic errors that are likely to arise in PSW assessments. In a simulation study of 10 million cases using a simplified PSW method for demonstration, most of what have been called diagnostic errors were cases in which observed scores and true scores fell on opposite sides of a strict threshold but were still within a buffer zone the size of a typical measurement error. Because small score differences do not result in meaningfully different case conceptualizations, the use of buffer zones reveals that previous estimates of the diagnostic accuracy of PSW methods are misleadingly low. We also demonstrate that diagnostic decisions become increasingly reliable when observed scores are comfortably distant from diagnostic thresholds. For practitioners, we present a flowchart and practical guidelines to improve the accuracy and stability of SLD identification decisions.
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2
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Vaughn S, Miciak J, Clemens N, Fletcher JM. The critical role of instructional response in defining and identifying students with dyslexia: a case for updating existing definitions. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 2024:10.1007/s11881-024-00303-0. [PMID: 38526758 DOI: 10.1007/s11881-024-00303-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
We address defining and identifying students with dyslexia within the context of multi-tier systems of support (MTSS). We review proposed definitions of dyslexia, evidence for proposed definitional attributes, and emphasize the role of instructional response in identifying students with dyslexia. We identify dyslexia as individuals with specific deficits in reading and spelling single words combined with inadequate response to evidence-based instruction. We propose a hybrid identification process in which assessment is utilized within school-wide MTSS allowing for integration of routinely collected progress monitoring data as well integrating with more formal diagnostic measures. This proposed "hybrid" method demonstrates strong evidence for valid decision-making and directly informs instruction. We close proposing a revised definition of dyslexia that incorporates these elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Vaughn
- Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Jeremy Miciak
- Department of Psychology, Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics (TIMES), The University of Houston, 4849 Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd., Ste. 373, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Nathan Clemens
- Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Jack M Fletcher
- Department of Psychology, Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics (TIMES), The University of Houston, 4849 Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd., Ste. 373, Houston, TX, USA
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3
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Bildiren A, Firat T, Kavruk SZ, Servi C, Sungur B. Are students with learning disabilities correctly diagnosed in Turkey? APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY. CHILD 2024:1-14. [PMID: 38350425 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2024.2315558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
There has been an ongoing debate on how to diagnose learning disability (LD), with experts proposing different approaches. Very limited research is available on the diagnosis of LD in Turkey. This study aims to analyze the problems related to the diagnosis of LD in Turkey. For this purpose, the intelligence test results of the diagnosed students, the opinions of the teachers who referred them for the diagnosis, and the views of the child psychiatrists and psychological counselors involved in the diagnosis were examined. The results showed that the IQ-Achievement Discrepancy approach is implemented in Turkey. It was also revealed that the students' Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R) average score was 80.31, and teachers mostly reported the weaknesses of the students during the diagnosis process. Psychological counselors and psychiatrists pointed out the outdatedness of the tools used in the diagnosis, the limited number of measurement instruments to be used in the diagnosis, referral of too many students, and the lack of specialists to work in the diagnosis. The results are discussed on the basis of diagnostic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Bildiren
- Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Aydin, Turkey
| | - Tahsin Firat
- Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Adiyaman University, Adiyaman, Turkey
| | - Sevinc Zeynep Kavruk
- Faculty of Health Science, Department of Child Development, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Aydin, Turkey
| | - Ceyhun Servi
- Faculty of Education, Department of Special Education, Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Aydin, Turkey
| | - Burak Sungur
- Institute of Education Sciences, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
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4
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Fletcher JM, Miciak J. Assessment of Specific Learning Disabilities and Intellectual Disabilities. Assessment 2024; 31:53-74. [PMID: 37671726 PMCID: PMC10795803 DOI: 10.1177/10731911231194992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/07/2023]
Abstract
We review literature related to the assessment and identification of Specific Learning Disabilities (SLD) and Intellectual Disabilities (ID). SLD and ID are the only two disorders requiring psychometric test performance for identification within the group of neurodevelopmental disorders in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual - 5. SLD and ID are considered exclusionary of one another, but the processes for assessment and identification of each disorder vary. There is controversy about the identification and assessment methods for SLD, with little consensus. Unlike ID, SLD is weakly related to full-scale IQ, and there is insufficient evidence that the routine assessment of IQ or cognitive skills adds value to SLD identification and treatment. We have proposed a hybrid method based on the assessment of low achievement with norm-referenced tests, instructional response, and other disorders and contextual factors that may be comorbid or contraindicative of SLD. In contrast to SLD, there is strong consensus for a three-prong definition for the identification and assessment of ID: (a) significantly subaverage IQ, (b) adaptive behavior deficits that interfere with independent living in the community, and (c) age of onset in the developmental period. For both SLD and ID, we identify areas of controversy and best practices for identification and assessment.
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5
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Mulligan CA, Ayoub JL. Remote Assessment: Origins, Benefits, and Concerns. J Intell 2023; 11:114. [PMID: 37367516 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence11060114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Although guidelines surrounding COVID-19 have relaxed and school-aged students are no longer required to wear masks and social distance in schools, we have become, as a nation and as a society, more comfortable working from home, learning online, and using technology as a platform to communicate ubiquitously across ecological environments. In the school psychology community, we have also become more familiar with assessing students virtually, but at what cost? While there is research suggesting score equivalency between virtual and in-person assessment, score equivalency alone is not sufficient to validate a measure or an adaptation thereof. Furthermore, the majority of psychological measures on the market are normed for in-person administration. In this paper, we will not only review the pitfalls of reliability and validity but will also unpack the ethics of remote assessment as an equitable practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christy A Mulligan
- Derner School of Psychology, Adelphi University, 1 South Avenue, Garden City, NY 11530, USA
| | - Justin L Ayoub
- Nassau BOCES, 71 Clinton Road P.O. Box 9195, Garden City, NY 11530, USA
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6
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Erbeli F, Wagner RK. Advancements in Identification and Risk Prediction of Reading Disabilities. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF READING 2022; 27:1-4. [PMID: 36590181 PMCID: PMC9802635 DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2022.2146508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Florina Erbeli
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University
| | - Richard K Wagner
- Department of Psychology and Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University
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7
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Wagner RK, Moxley J, Schatschneider C, Zirps FA. A Bayesian Probabilistic Framework for Identification of Individuals with Dyslexia. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF READING 2022; 27:67-81. [PMID: 36685047 PMCID: PMC9851422 DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2022.2118057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Bayesian-based models for diagnosis are common in medicine but have not been incorporated into identification models for dyslexia. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate Bayesian identification models that included a broader set of predictors and that capitalized on recent developments in modeling the prevalence of dyslexia. Method Model-based meta-analysis was used to create a composite correlation matrix that included common predictors of dyslexia such as decoding, phonological awareness, oral language, but also included response to intervention (RTI) and family risk for dyslexia. Bayesian logistic regression models were used to predict poor reading comprehension, unexpectedly poor reading comprehension, poor decoding, and unexpectedly poor decoding, all at two levels of severity. Results Most predictors made independent and substantial contributions to prediction, supporting models of dyslexia that rely on multiple rather than single indicators. RTI was the strongest predictor of poor reading comprehension and unexpectedly poor reading comprehension. Phonological awareness was the strongest predictor of poor decoding and unexpectedly poor decoding, followed closely by family risk. Conclusion Bayesian-based models are a promising tool for implementing multiple-indicator models of identification. Ideas for improving prediction and implications for theory and practice are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard K. Wagner
- Department of Psychology and Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University
| | | | - Chris Schatschneider
- Department of Psychology and Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University
| | - Fotena A. Zirps
- Department of Psychology and Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University
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8
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Interpreting comprehension outcomes after multiple-component reading intervention for children and adolescents with reading disabilities. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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9
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Tong X, Deng Q, Tong SX. Syntactic awareness matters: uncovering reading comprehension difficulties in Hong Kong Chinese-English bilingual children. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 2022; 72:532-551. [PMID: 35920971 DOI: 10.1007/s11881-022-00268-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study examined whether syntactic awareness was related to reading comprehension difficulties in either first language (L1) Chinese or second language (L2) English, or both, among Hong Kong Chinese-English bilingual children. Parallel L1 and L2 metalinguistic and reading measures, including syntactic word-order, morphological awareness, phonological awareness, vocabulary, word reading, reading comprehension, and cognitive measures of nonverbal intelligence and working memory, were administered to 224 fourth-graders. Five groups of comprehenders were identified using a regression approach: (1) 12 poor in Chinese-only (PC), (2) 18 poor in English-only (PE), (3) six poor in both Chinese and English (PB), (4) 14 average in both Chinese and English (AB), and (5) seven good in both (GB). The results of multivariate analyses of covariance showed that (1) the PB group performed worse than the AB and GB groups in both L1 Chinese and L2 English syntactic awareness; (2) the PC and PE groups performed worse than the AB and GB groups in Chinese syntactic awareness; (3) the PE group had lower performance than the PC, AB, and GB groups in English syntactic awareness; and (4) no significant group difference was found in L2 morphological awareness or vocabulary across both languages. By suggesting that weakness in syntactic awareness can serve as a universal indicator for identifying poor comprehenders in either or both L1 Chinese and L2 English among Hong Kong Chinese-English bilingual children, these findings demonstrate the fundamental role of syntactic awareness in bilingual reading comprehension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuhong Tong
- Department of Psychology, The Education University of Hong Kong, Ting Kok, China
| | - Qinli Deng
- Human Communication, Development, and Information Sciences, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Room 804C, Meng Wah Complex, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
| | - Shelley Xiuli Tong
- Human Communication, Development, and Information Sciences, Faculty of Education, The University of Hong Kong, Room 804C, Meng Wah Complex, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China.
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10
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Beyer M, Liebig J, Sylvester T, Braun M, Heekeren HR, Froehlich E, Jacobs AM, Ziegler JC. Structural gray matter features and behavioral preliterate skills predict future literacy – A machine learning approach. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:920150. [PMID: 36248649 PMCID: PMC9558903 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.920150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
When children learn to read, their neural system undergoes major changes to become responsive to print. There seem to be nuanced interindividual differences in the neurostructural anatomy of regions that later become integral parts of the reading network. These differences might affect literacy acquisition and, in some cases, might result in developmental disorders like dyslexia. Consequently, the main objective of this longitudinal study was to investigate those interindividual differences in gray matter morphology that might facilitate or hamper future reading acquisition. We used a machine learning approach to examine to what extent gray matter macrostructural features and cognitive-linguistic skills measured before formal literacy teaching could predict literacy 2 years later. Forty-two native German-speaking children underwent T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging and psychometric testing at the end of kindergarten. They were tested again 2 years later to assess their literacy skills. A leave-one-out cross-validated machine-learning regression approach was applied to identify the best predictors of future literacy based on cognitive-linguistic preliterate behavioral skills and cortical measures in a priori selected areas of the future reading network. With surprisingly high accuracy, future literacy was predicted, predominantly based on gray matter volume in the left occipito-temporal cortex and local gyrification in the left insular, inferior frontal, and supramarginal gyri. Furthermore, phonological awareness significantly predicted future literacy. In sum, the results indicate that the brain morphology of the large-scale reading network at a preliterate age can predict how well children learn to read.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moana Beyer
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Johanna Liebig
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- *Correspondence: Johanna Liebig,
| | - Teresa Sylvester
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mario Braun
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Universität Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Hauke R. Heekeren
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Biological Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eva Froehlich
- Department of Decision Neuroscience and Nutrition, German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbrücke, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Arthur M. Jacobs
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Johannes C. Ziegler
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, Aix-Marseille Université and Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Marseille, France
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11
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Solari EJ, Grimm RP, Henry AR. An Exploration of the Heterogeneous Nature of Reading Comprehension Development in First Grade: The Impact of Word and Meaning Skills. JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 2022; 55:292-305. [PMID: 34407663 DOI: 10.1177/00222194211036203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This exploratory study builds upon extant reading development studies by identifying discrete groups based on reading comprehension trajectories across first grade. The main goal of this study was to enhance the field's understanding of early reading comprehension development and its underlying subcomponent skills, with the intent of better understanding the development of comprehension in students who display risk for reading difficulties and disabilities. A sample of first-grade readers (N = 314) were assessed at three timepoints across the first-grade year. These data were utilized to derive empirical latent classes based on reading comprehension performance across the first-grade year. Reading subcomponent skill assessments (phonological awareness, word reading, decoding, linguistic comprehension, and reading fluency), measured in the fall of first grade, were compared across latent classes to examine how they related to growth across the first-grade year. Results suggest that there were four distinct latent classes with differential reading comprehension development, each of which could also be distinguished by the subskill assessments. These findings are presented within the context of the broader reading research base, and implications for practice are discussed.
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12
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Maki KE, Kranzler JH, Moody ME. Dual discrepancy/consistency pattern of strengths and weaknesses method of specific learning disability identification: Classification accuracy when combining clinical judgment with assessment data. J Sch Psychol 2022; 92:33-48. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsp.2022.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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13
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Williams T, Wiener J, Lennox C, Kokai M. Lessons Learned: Achieving Consensus About Learning Disability Assessment and Diagnosis. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/08295735221089457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The current paper describes the process used for developing the Guidelines for Diagnosis and Assessment of Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Learning Disabilities-Consensus Statement and Supporting Documents, and the rationale for some of the decisions. The guidelines were developed by a cross-sectoral working group of psychologists who achieved a consensus on the criteria for diagnosis and the assessment process. We outline key features of the guidelines, describe topics where the group achieved consensus quickly and topics for which there was considerable debate (e.g., intelligence testing, ability/achievement discrepancy, and processing deficits). The group members shared information with each other about topics such as the advantages of early assessment, the importance of formally assessing effort and motivation, and assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse individuals. We conclude with the lessons learned and professional challenges regarding contextual influences on LD assessment and diagnosis and dissemination of research to practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tricia Williams
- Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
- University of Toronto, ON, Canada
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14
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Catts HW, Petscher Y. A Cumulative Risk and Resilience Model of Dyslexia. JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 2022; 55:171-184. [PMID: 34365842 DOI: 10.1177/00222194211037062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Considerable attention and legislation are currently focused on developmental dyslexia. A major challenge to these efforts is how to define and operationalize dyslexia. In this article, we argue that rather than defining dyslexia on the basis of an underlying condition, dyslexia is best viewed as a label for an unexpected reading disability. This view fits well with a preventive approach in which risk for reading disability is identified and addressed prior to children experiencing reading failure. A risk-resilience model is introduced that proposes that dyslexia is due to the cumulative effects of risk and resilience factors. Evidence for the multifactorial causal basis of dyslexia is reviewed and potential factors that may offset this risk are considered. The implications of a cumulative risk and resilience model for early identification and intervention is discussed.
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15
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Colvin MK, Forchelli GA, Reese KL, Capawana MR, Beery CS, Murphy J, Doyle AE, O'Keefe SM, Braaten EB. Neuropsychology consultation to identify learning disorders in children and adolescents: a proposal based on lessons learned during the COVID-19 pandemic. Child Neuropsychol 2022; 28:671-688. [PMID: 35073818 DOI: 10.1080/09297049.2021.2005010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Learning disorders are common neurodevelopmental conditions, occurring both idiopathically and in the context of other medical conditions. They are frequently comorbid with other neurodevelopmental and psychiatric conditions. Delayed identification and treatment have been associated with significant negative psychosocial consequences. The need for pediatric neuropsychologists to efficiently screen for learning disorders is likely to increase in the months and years following the COVID-19 pandemic, which has severely disrupted access to educational services, especially for children who also face racial and economic disparities. In this paper, we describe a consultation model that can be used to screen for learning disorders and can be completed using both in-person and telemedicine visits. Implementation may result in earlier intervention for struggling children, increase access to neuropsychological services without increasing wait times for comprehensive evaluations, and provide opportunities for collaborations with other health professionals (e.g., pediatricians, therapists, psychiatrists, and neurologists).
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Affiliation(s)
- M K Colvin
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - G A Forchelli
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - K L Reese
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - M R Capawana
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - C S Beery
- Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - J Murphy
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - A E Doyle
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.,Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - S M O'Keefe
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - E B Braaten
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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16
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Lockwood AB, Benson N, Farmer RL, Klatka K. Test use and assessment practices of school psychology training programs: Findings from a 2020 survey of US faculty. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLS 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pits.22639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adam B. Lockwood
- School of Lifespan Development and Educational Sciences Kent State University Kent Ohio USA
| | | | - Ryan L. Farmer
- School of Teaching, Learning, and Educational Sciences Stillwater Oklahoma USA
| | - Kelsey Klatka
- School of Lifespan Development and Educational Sciences Kent State University Kent Ohio USA
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17
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Colvin MKM, Reesman J, Glen T. The impact of COVID-19 related educational disruption on children and adolescents: An interim data summary and commentary on ten considerations for neuropsychological practice. Clin Neuropsychol 2021; 36:45-71. [PMID: 34495815 DOI: 10.1080/13854046.2021.1970230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The coronavirus 19 (COVID-19) pandemic resulted in educational disruption of historic breadth and duration. The authors describe early studies and interim standardized assessment reports to highlight effects of educational disruption and present critical questions for neuropsychologists. METHOD A summary of pre-pandemic and interim literature was compiled, including analyses of national and local assessment data and preliminary studies on academic gains related to remote learning, educational and school services disruption, chronic absenteeism, and child and adolescent mental and physical health during 2020-2021. Ten major themes were identified in the early reports on impacts of educational disruption. RESULTS Preliminary information indicates prolonged educational disruption has resulted in attenuated learning gains, most remarkably for those already at risk for educational disparities: students of color, students with disabilities, English learners, and students from low-income households. There have also been increased mental and physical health challenges for some youth during the pandemic. Other literature highlights challenges such as diagnosis of learning disabilities, reliance on normative data and development of academic recovery programs. CONCLUSION The effects of prolonged educational disruption and psychological stressors on learning and mental health should be considered in the neuropsychological evaluation of children and adolescents, especially marginalized students. Normative data collected prior to the pandemic may be insufficient for interpretation of scores, and evaluation and treatment may be delayed due to backlog and increased demand. Clinical practice considerations are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jennifer Reesman
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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18
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Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Lernschwierigkeiten beim Erwerb der Schriftsprache oder des Rechnens gehört für ca. ein Drittel aller Grundschulkinder zum schulischen Alltag. Wenn diese Schwierigkeiten länger andauern, wird von Lernschwächen, Lernstörungen oder Lernbehinderungen gesprochen. Die begriffliche Abgrenzung wird aktuell durch verschiedene Klassifikationskriterien in verschiedenen Klassifikationssystemen (ICD-10/11, DSM-5 oder AWMF Leitlinien) sehr erschwert, was Unsicherheiten in der Diagnostik und auch divergierende pädagogische Konsequenzen zur Folge hat. Eine besondere Rolle spielt dabei das sogenannte doppelte Diskrepanzkriterium für die Diagnose einer Lernstörung: Die Leistung eines Kindes muss unter dem nach dem Alter bzw. der Beschulung und der Intelligenz zu erwartenden Niveau liegen. Die Schulleistung muss also erwartungswidrig ausfallen – das betroffene Kind bleibt hinter den für die Klassenstufe typischen Leistungen und auch hinter den eigenen allgemeinen kognitiven Fähigkeiten zurück. Das Kriterium der Diskrepanz der Schulleistung zur Intelligenz wird seit langem kontrovers diskutiert und ist in den Klassifikationssystemen unterschiedlich verankert. Seine Anwendung hat sowohl für die diagnostische als auch für die pädagogische Praxis weitreichende Konsequenzen. Es führt dazu, dass Kinder mit Diskrepanz zwischen Schulleistung und Intelligenz die Diagnose „Lernstörung“ erhalten, Kinder ohne diese Diskrepanz haben eine „Lernschwäche“, beide Gruppen erfahren unterschiedliche schulische und außerschulische Lernförderung. Der vorliegende Beitrag stellt die Berechtigung dieses Kriteriums der Diskrepanz zwischen Schulleistung und Intelligenz anhand empirischer Evidenz in Frage und beleuchtet Konsequenzen sowohl für die bislang gängige Anwendung des doppelten Diskrepanzkriteriums als auch für den Verzicht darauf. Das Fazit dieser Erörterung rät zum Umdenken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Mähler
- Institut für Psychologie, Universität Hildesheim, Hildesheim, Deutschland
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Farris EA, Cristan T, Bernstein SE, Odegard TN. Morphological awareness and vocabulary predict reading resilience in adults. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 2021; 71:347-371. [PMID: 34148176 DOI: 10.1007/s11881-021-00236-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Resilient readers comprehend written language despite word reading deficits. The reading resiliency framework specifies candidate protective factors hypothesized to mitigate adverse effects on reading comprehension arising from phonological decoding deficiencies and, consequently, illuminates how some individuals exhibit relative reading resiliency. A focus on relative reading resiliency involves an examination of individual strengths and weaknesses because areas of relative strength can bolster one's abilities. The ability for morphological awareness and vocabulary to be strengths or protective factors contributing to reading resiliency was explored in a sample of university students. Morphological awareness is predicted to be a particularly important skill for university students due to the complexity of texts encountered in their coursework. A measure of word-level morphological awareness was positively associated with relative reading resiliency. Furthermore, across norm-referenced and standardized high-stakes testing measures of reading comprehension, vocabulary mediated the impact of morphological awareness on comprehension after controlling for phonological decoding ability. These findings suggest that morphological awareness and vocabulary skills are important contributing factors to reading comprehension and reading resilience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A Farris
- Tennessee Center for the Study and Treatment of Dyslexia, Middle Tennessee State University, 200 North Baird Lane, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA.
| | - Theodore Cristan
- Tennessee Center for the Study and Treatment of Dyslexia, Middle Tennessee State University, 200 North Baird Lane, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA
| | - Stuart E Bernstein
- Tennessee Center for the Study and Treatment of Dyslexia, Middle Tennessee State University, 200 North Baird Lane, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA
| | - Timothy N Odegard
- Tennessee Center for the Study and Treatment of Dyslexia, Middle Tennessee State University, 200 North Baird Lane, Murfreesboro, TN, 37132, USA
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Collins AA, Lindström ER, Sandbank M. The influence of language knowledge and test components on reading comprehension scores. ANNALS OF DYSLEXIA 2021; 71:238-259. [PMID: 33439433 DOI: 10.1007/s11881-020-00212-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the dependability of reading comprehension scores across different text genres and response formats for readers with varied language knowledge. Participants included 78 fourth-graders in an urban elementary school. A randomized and counterbalanced 3 × 2 study design investigated three response formats (open-ended, multiple-choice, retell) and two text genres (narrative, expository) from the Qualitative Reading Inventory (QRI-5) reading comprehension test. Standardized language knowledge measures from the Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Achievement (Academic Knowledge, Oral Comprehension, Picture Vocabulary) defined three reader profiles: (a) < 90 as emerging, (b) 90-100 as basic, and (c) > 100 as proficient. Generalizability studies partitioned variance in scores for reader, text genre, and response format for all three groups. Response format accounted for 42.8 to 62.4% of variance in reading comprehension scores across groups, whereas text genre accounted for very little variance (1.2-4.1%). Single scores were well below a 0.80 dependability threshold (absolute phi coefficients = 0.06-0.14). Decision studies projecting dependability achieved with additional scores varied by response format for each language knowledge group, with very low projected dependability on open-ended and multiple-choice scores for readers with basic language knowledge. Multiple-choice scores had similarly low projected dependability levels for readers with emerging language knowledge. Findings evidence interactions between reader language knowledge and response format in reading comprehension assessment practices. Implications underscore the limitations of using a single score to classify readers with and without proficiency in foundational skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyson A Collins
- Department of Curriculum & Instruction, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA.
| | - Esther R Lindström
- Department of Education and Human Services, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, USA
| | - Micheal Sandbank
- Department of Special Education, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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Steacy LM, Edwards AA, Rueckl JG, Petscher Y, Compton DL. Modeling and Visualizing the Codevelopment of Word and Nonword Reading in Children From First Through Fourth Grade: Informing Developmental Trajectories of Children With Dyslexia. Child Dev 2020; 92:e252-e269. [PMID: 33222202 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Developmental studies examining relations between word reading (WR) and decoding in typical and dyslexic populations routinely cut the reading distribution to form distinct groups. However, dichotomizing continuous variables to study development is problematic for multiple reasons. Instead, we modeled and visualized the parallel growth of WR and nonword reading (NWR) factor scores longitudinally in a Grade 1-4 developmental sample (N = 588). The results indicate that while WR and NWR growth factors are highly related (r = .71), the relation between WR and NWR trajectories change as a function of initial WR. Results are interpreted within computational models of dyslexia in which children with dyslexia overfit orthography → phonology relations at the level of the word, limiting the development of sublexical representations needed to read nonwords.
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Adlof SM. Promoting Reading Achievement in Children With Developmental Language Disorders: What Can We Learn From Research on Specific Language Impairment and Dyslexia? JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2020; 63:3277-3292. [PMID: 33064604 PMCID: PMC8062153 DOI: 10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Purpose Specific language impairment (SLI; see also developmental language disorder) and dyslexia are separate, yet frequently co-occurring disorders that confer risks to reading comprehension and academic achievement. Until recently, most studies of one disorder had little consideration of the other, and each disorder was addressed by different practitioners. However, understanding how the two disorders relate to each other is important for advancing theories about each disorder and improving reading comprehension and academic achievement. The purpose of this clinical focus article is to integrate research on SLI and dyslexia as well as advocate for the consideration of comorbidities in future research and clinical practice. Method The first section reviews definitions as well as inclusionary and exclusionary criteria for SLI and dyslexia. The second section reviews research demonstrating that SLI and dyslexia are different disorders that often co-occur. Studies examining language, working memory, and academic achievement in children with separate versus co-occurring SLI and dyslexia are reviewed. The final section compares and contrasts school identification frameworks for children with SLI and dyslexia and considers the potential benefits of incorporating broad language skills into response to intervention (RTI) assessment frameworks. Conclusions Children with weak language skills are at a high risk of experiencing reading problems, but language difficulties are often hidden from view. Directly addressing language skills within school RTI frameworks can help improve the identification and treatment of children with SLI and dyslexia as well as support improved reading comprehension and academic achievement for all students. Presentation Video https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.13063793.
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Perdue MV, Mednick J, Pugh KR, Landi N. Gray Matter Structure Is Associated with Reading Skill in Typically Developing Young Readers. Cereb Cortex 2020; 30:5449-5459. [PMID: 32488230 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhaa126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Research using functional and structural magnetic resonance imaging has identified areas of reduced brain activation and gray matter volume in children and adults with reading disability, but associations between cortical structure and individual differences in reading in typically developing children remain underexplored. Furthermore, the majority of research linking gray matter structure to reading ability quantifies gray matter in terms of volume, and cannot specify unique contributions of cortical surface area and thickness to these relationships. Here, we applied a continuous analytic approach to investigate associations between distinct surface-based properties of cortical structure and individual differences in reading-related skills in a sample of typically developing young children. Correlations between cortical structure and reading-related skills were conducted using a surface-based vertex-wise approach. Cortical thickness in the left superior temporal cortex was positively correlated with word and pseudoword reading performance. The observed positive correlation between cortical thickness in the left superior temporal cortex and reading may have implications for the patterns of brain activation that support reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meaghan V Perdue
- University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road, Unit 1020, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA.,Haskins Laboratories, 300 George St #900, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - Joshua Mednick
- University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road, Unit 1020, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA
| | - Kenneth R Pugh
- University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road, Unit 1020, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA.,Haskins Laboratories, 300 George St #900, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | - Nicole Landi
- University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Road, Unit 1020, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA.,Haskins Laboratories, 300 George St #900, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
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Wagner RK, Zirps FA, Edwards AA, Wood SG, Joyner RE, Becker BJ, Liu G, Beal B. The Prevalence of Dyslexia: A New Approach to Its Estimation. JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 2020; 53:354-365. [PMID: 32452713 PMCID: PMC8183124 DOI: 10.1177/0022219420920377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
How prevalent is dyslexia? A definitive answer to this question has been elusive because of the continuous distribution of reading performance and predictors of dyslexia and because of the heterogeneous nature of samples of poor readers. Samples of poor readers are a mixture of individuals whose reading is consistent with or expected based on their performance in other academic areas and in language, and individuals with dyslexia whose reading is not consistent with or expected based on their other performances. In the present article, we replicate and extend a new approach for determining the prevalence of dyslexia. Using model-based meta-analysis and simulation, three main results were found. First, the prevalence of dyslexia is better represented as a distribution that varies as a function of severity as opposed to any single-point estimate. Second, samples of poor readers will contain more expected poor readers than unexpected or dyslexic readers. Third, individuals with dyslexia can be found across the reading spectrum as opposed to only at the lower tail of reading performance. These results have implications for screening and identification, and for recruiting participants for scientific studies of dyslexia.
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Miciak J, Fletcher JM. The Critical Role of Instructional Response for Identifying Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities. JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 2020; 53:343-353. [PMID: 32075514 PMCID: PMC7560958 DOI: 10.1177/0022219420906801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
This article addresses the nature of dyslexia and best practices for identification and treatment within the context of multitier systems of support (MTSS). We initially review proposed definitions of dyslexia to identify key commonalities and differences in proposed attributes. We then review empirical evidence for proposed definitional attributes, focusing on key sources of controversy, including the role of IQ, instructional response, as well as issues of etiology and immutability. We argue that current empirical evidence supports a dyslexia classification marked by specific deficits in reading and spelling words combined with inadequate response to evidence-based instruction. We then propose a "hybrid" dyslexia identification process built to gather data relevant to these markers of dyslexia. We argue that this assessment process is best implemented within school-wide MTSS because it leverages data routinely collected in well-implemented MTSS, including documentation of student progress and fidelity of implementation. In contrast with other proposed methods for learning disability (LD) identification, the proposed "hybrid" method demonstrates strong evidence for valid decision-making and directly informs intervention.
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Psyridou M, Tolvanen A, Lerkkanen MK, Poikkeus AM, Torppa M. Longitudinal Stability of Reading Difficulties: Examining the Effects of Measurement Error, Cut-Offs, and Buffer Zones in Identification. Front Psychol 2020; 10:2841. [PMID: 31998173 PMCID: PMC6965358 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the stability of reading difficulties (RD) from grades 2 to 6 and focused on the effects of measurement error and cut-off selection in the identification of RD and its stability with the use of simulations. It addressed methodological limitations of prior studies by (a) applying a model-based simulation analysis to examine the effects of measurement error and cut-offs in the identification of RD, (b) analyzing a non-English and larger sample, and (c) examining RD in both reading fluency and reading comprehension. Reading fluency and reading comprehension of 1,432 Finnish-speaking children were assessed in grades 2 and 6. In addition to the use of single cut-off points on observed data, we used a simulation approach based on an estimated structural equation model (SEM) in order to examine the effect of measurement error on RD identification stability. We also examined the effect of single cut-offs by using a simulation-based buffer zone. Our results showed that measurement error affects the identification of RD over time. The use of a simulation-based buffer zone could control both the effects of measurement error and the arbitrariness of single cut-offs and lead to more accurate classification into RD groups, especially for those with scores close to the cut-offs. However, even after controlling for measurement error and using buffer zones, RD was not stable over time for all children, but both resolving and late-emerging groups existed. The findings suggest that reading development needs to be followed closely beyond the early grades and that reading instruction should be planned according to individual needs at specific time points. There is a clear need for further consideration of the mechanisms underlying the stability and instability of RD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Psyridou
- Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Asko Tolvanen
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Marja-Kristiina Lerkkanen
- Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Anna-Maija Poikkeus
- Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Minna Torppa
- Department of Teacher Education, Faculty of Education and Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
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Stuebing KK, Fletcher JM, Branum-Martin L, Francis DJ, VanDerHeyden A. Evaluation of the Technical Adequacy of Three Methods for Identifying Specific Learning Disabilities Based on Cognitive Discrepancies. SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/02796015.2012.12087373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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28
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Kranzler JH, Gilbert K, Robert CR, Floyd RG, Benson NF. Further Examination of a Critical Assumption Underlying the Dual-Discrepancy/Consistency Approach to Specific Learning Disability Identification. SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.17105/spr-2018-0008.v48-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Cirino PT, Miciak J, Ahmed Y, Barnes MA, Taylor WP, Gerst EH. Executive Function: Association with Multiple Reading Skills. READING AND WRITING 2019; 32:1819-1846. [PMID: 31680727 PMCID: PMC6824553 DOI: 10.1007/s11145-018-9923-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Executive function (EF) is related to reading. However, there is a lack of clarity around (a) the relative contribution of different components of EF to different reading components (word reading, fluency, comprehension), and (b) how EF operates in the context of known strong language predictors (e.g., components of the Simple View of Reading or SVR), and other skills theoretically related to reading (e.g., vocabulary, processing speed) and/or to EF (e.g., short-term memory, motor function). In a large sample of 3rd to 5th graders oversampled for struggling readers, this paper evaluates the impact of EF derived from a bifactor model (Cirino, Ahmed, Miciak, Taylor, Gerst, & Barnes, 2018) in the context of well-known covariates and demographics. Beyond common EF, five specific factors (two related to working memory, and factors of fluency, self-regulated learning, and behavioral inattention/metacognition) were addressed. EF consistently showed a unique contribution to already-strong predictive models for all reading outcomes; for reading comprehension, EF interacted with SVR indices (word reading and listening comprehension). The findings extend and refine our understanding of the contribution of EF to reading skill.
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Santi KL, Khalaf S, Bunta F, Rojas R, Francis DJ. IQ-Achievement Discrepancy for Identification of Disabilities in Spanish-speaking English Learners. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev 2019; 2019:111-143. [PMID: 31250956 DOI: 10.1002/cad.20304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
This article examines the validity of IQ-achievement discrepancy and low achievement as criteria for the identification of disabilities in Spanish-speaking English-language learners (ELs) and the factors that moderate the validity of these approaches as bases for identification. While there has been a long history of examining the validity of different approaches to disability identification in monolinguals, there are no systematic approaches taken for ELs. Data from Grades 1 and 2 of a large longitudinal data set consisting of young Spanish-speaking students attending schools in the United States were used to empirically examine criteria for disability identification among language minority children-one of the first large-scale attempts. Findings indicated significant overidentification when the language of assessment was not matched to the language of the instruction, although the effects varied predictably over time and by language of instruction. Validation of classifications using measures external to the classification found that low achieving and discrepant children differ from typically developing children, and from one another in predictable ways based on differences in IQ. The study highlights the importance of taking into account the language of instruction and the severity of the cut-off to reduce misidentification of typically developing children.
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Quinn JM, Wagner RK, Petscher Y, Roberts G, Menzel AJ, Schatschneider C. Differential Co-Development of Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension for Students with and without Learning Disabilities. JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 112:608-627. [PMID: 32189724 DOI: 10.1037/edu0000382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In this large-scale study of students from Title 1 schools (N = 14,773), we used multiple-group latent change score (LCS) modeling to investigate the developmental relations between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in students with a school-identified learning disability (LD, n = 627) and typically developing students (n = 14,146). Students were tested for their vocabulary breadth and passage comprehension skills in Kindergarten through fourth grade. For typically developing students, there were bidirectional influences between their vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension skills. There were no cross-lagged influences across constructs for students with an LD. We find evidence for a developmental delay, such that students with an LD had similar levels and gains in their vocabulary knowledge relative to typically developing students, but these students started much lower in their reading comprehension skills and did not catch up to their typically developing peers. We discuss the implications for children with learning disabilities and the development of their reading comprehension skills.
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Wagner RK, Edwards AA, Malkowski A, Schatschneider C, Joyner RE, Wood S, Zirps FA. Combining Old and New for Better Understanding and Predicting Dyslexia. New Dir Child Adolesc Dev 2019; 2019:11-23. [PMID: 31038832 PMCID: PMC6522266 DOI: 10.1002/cad.20289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Despite decades of research, it has been difficult to achieve consensus on a definition of common learning disabilities such as dyslexia. This lack of consensus represents a fundamental problem for the field. Our approach to addressing this issue is to use model-based meta-analyses and Bayesian models with informative priors to combine the results of a large number of studies for the purpose of yielding a more stable and well-supported conceptualization of reading disability. A prerequisite to implementing these models is establishing informative priors for dyslexia. We illustrate a new approach for doing so based on the known distribution of the difference between correlated variables, and use this distribution to determine the proportion of poor readers whose poor reading is unexpected (i.e., likely to be due to dyslexia) as opposed to expected.
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Adlof SM, Hogan TP. Understanding Dyslexia in the Context of Developmental Language Disorders. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 2019; 49:762-773. [PMID: 30458538 PMCID: PMC6430503 DOI: 10.1044/2018_lshss-dyslc-18-0049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this tutorial is to discuss the language basis of dyslexia in the context of developmental language disorders (DLDs). Whereas most studies have focused on the phonological skills of children with dyslexia, we bring attention to broader language skills. Method We conducted a focused literature review on the language basis of dyslexia from historical and theoretical perspectives with a special emphasis on the relation between dyslexia and DLD and on the development of broader language skills (e.g., vocabulary, syntax, and discourse) before and after the identification of dyslexia. Results We present clinically relevant information on the history of dyslexia as a language-based disorder, the operational definitions used to diagnose dyslexia in research and practice, the relation between dyslexia and DLD, and the language abilities of children with dyslexia. Conclusions We discuss 3 clinical implications for working with children with dyslexia in school settings: (a) Children with dyslexia—with and without comorbid DLDs—often have language deficits outside the phonological domain; (b) intervention should target a child's strengths and weaknesses relative to reading outcomes, regardless of diagnostic labels; and (c) those who have dyslexia, regardless of language abilities at the time of diagnosis, may be at risk for slower language acquisition across their lifetime. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess multiple language skills early, at the time of the diagnosis of dyslexia, and years later to better understand the complex development of language and reading in children with dyslexia.
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Joyner RE, Wagner RK. Co-occurrence of Reading Disabilities and Math Disabilities: A Meta-Analysis. SCIENTIFIC STUDIES OF READING : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF READING 2019; 24:14-22. [PMID: 32051676 PMCID: PMC7015531 DOI: 10.1080/10888438.2019.1593420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Despite the importance of identifying individuals with reading disabilities, existing operational definitions of reading disability do not result in reliable identification. A large part of the problem arises from measurement error when a cut-point is imposed on a continuous distribution, especially for low base-rate conditions. One way to reduce measurement error is to include additional predictors in reading disability models. The present study examined co-occurring math disability as a possible additional criterion for predicting reading disability. Meta-analysis was used to examine the probability of individuals with reading disability also having a comorbid math disability. Possible moderators including age, severity of disability, and language were examined. The main result was an average weighted odds ratio of 2.12, 95% confidence interval [1.76, 2.55], indicating that students with a math disability are just over two times more likely to also have a reading disability than those without a math disability. Implications of the results are discussed.
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Early reading skill profiles in typically developing and at-risk first grade readers to inform targeted early reading instruction. J Sch Psychol 2018; 69:111-126. [PMID: 30558747 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsp.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This study identified distinct, homogeneous latent profiles of at-risk (n = 141) and not at-risk (n = 149) first grade readers. Separate latent profile analyses were conducted with each subgroup using measures of phonological awareness, decoding, linguistic comprehension, and oral reading fluency. This study also examined which measures best differentiated the latent profiles. Finally, we examined differences on two measures of reading comprehension as a function of profile membership. Results showed two latent profiles of at-risk students and three latent profiles of not at-risk students. Latent profiles were generally rank ordered with regard to achievement across measures. However, the higher performing at-risk profile and the lowest performing not at-risk profile were nearly identical across measures. Phonological awareness and decoding measures were best at differentiating latent profiles, but linguistic comprehension was also important for the lowest performing students. Oral reading fluency was limited to distinguishing the highest achieving students from the other profiles, and did not perform well with the lower achieving profiles. Most of the pairwise comparisons of reading comprehension scores were consistent across measures, but the nearly identical profiles showed a significant difference on only one reading comprehension measure. Implications for identifying at-risk first grade readers and designing targeted early reading interventions for at-risk students are discussed.
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Skowronek M, Schuchardt K, Mähler C. Die Entwicklung von Kindern mit umfassenden Lernschwierigkeiten im Verlauf der Grundschuljahre – Schulleistungen, Arbeitsgedächtnis, phonologische Informationsverarbeitung und Selbstkonzept. ZEITSCHRIFT FUR PADAGOGISCHE PSYCHOLOGIE 2018. [DOI: 10.1024/1010-0652/a000228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Zusammenfassung. Kinder mit Lernschwierigkeiten in der Schriftsprache oder im Rechnen weisen kognitive Defizite auf, welche sich primär auf die schulischen Erfolge auswirken und ferner mit einem schwachen schulischen Selbstkonzept einhergehen. Die vorliegende Arbeit geht der Frage nach, wie sich die Entwicklung der Schulleistungen, des schulischen Selbstkonzepts sowie die Entwicklung zugrundeliegender kognitiver Funktionen (Arbeitsgedächtnisfunktionen nach Baddeley und Hitch (1974) sowie weitere Merkmale der phonologischen Informationsverarbeitung nach Wagner und Torgesen (1987) ) von Kindern mit Lernschwierigkeiten von denen ohne Auffälligkeiten unterscheiden. Dazu wurden in einer Längsschnittstudie über einen Zeitraum von 2 Jahren Grundschulkinder (zu Beginn 8;9 Jahre alt) mit (a) einer Kombinierten Störung schulischer Fertigkeiten bei mindestens durchschnittlicher Intelligenz ( n = 30, IQ ≥ 85) mit (b) Lernschwierigkeiten und unterdurchschnittlicher Intelligenz im Rahmen einer Lernbehinderung ( n = 15, IQ < 85) und mit (c) lernunauffälligen und mindestens durchschnittlich intelligenten Grundschulkindern ( n = 55, IQ ≥ 85) verglichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die schulischen Defizite bei beiden Gruppen mit Lernschwierigkeiten zeitlich stabil bestehen blieben. Bezüglich aller Komponenten der kognitiven Funktionen und der Entwicklung des schulischen Selbstkonzepts konnten keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Lernstörungsgruppen gefunden werden, jedoch unterscheiden sich beide Gruppen signifikant von der Kontrollgruppe. Vor dem Hintergrund dieser Ergebnisse wird diskutiert, inwiefern es sich hier um eine homogene Lernstörungsgruppe handelt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merle Skowronek
- Universität Hildesheim, Institut für Psychologie, Deutschland
| | | | - Claudia Mähler
- Universität Hildesheim, Institut für Psychologie, Deutschland
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Maki KE, Adams SR. A current landscape of specific learning disability identification: Training, practices, and implications. PSYCHOLOGY IN THE SCHOOLS 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/pits.22179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin E. Maki
- Department of Educational Psychology; Teachers College, Ball State University; Muncie Indiana
| | - Sarah R. Adams
- Department of Educational Psychology; Teachers College, Ball State University; Muncie Indiana
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38
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Dougherty SM, Grindal T, Hehir T. The Impact of Career and Technical Education on Students With Disabilities. JOURNAL OF DISABILITY POLICY STUDIES 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/1044207318771673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Evidence suggests that participating in career and technical education (CTE) in high school, on average, positively affects general education students when transitioning from education to the workforce. Yet, almost no large-scale causal research has explored whether academic benefits also accrue to students with disabilities in CTE. This omission is glaring given that students with disabilities participate in high school CTE programs at high rates. We use multiple years of administrative data from Massachusetts to estimate the effect of participating in CTE on the academic outcomes of students with disabilities. Compared with peers with similar disabilities who do not participate in CTE, students with disabilities in CTE programs perform comparably on standardized measures of student achievement but have higher probabilities of graduating from high school on time or earning industry-recognized certificates. Implications for policy and practice, particularly with regard to scaling access to similar programs, are discussed.
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Tong X, McBride C, Shu H, Ho CSH. Reading Comprehension Difficulties in Chinese-English Bilingual Children. DYSLEXIA (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2018; 24:59-83. [PMID: 28901672 DOI: 10.1002/dys.1566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The co-occurrence of reading comprehension difficulties for first language (L1) Chinese and second language (L2) English and associated longitudinal cognitive-linguistic correlates in each language were investigated. Sixteen poor comprehenders in English and 16 poor comprehenders in Chinese, 18 poor readers in both, and 18 children with normal performance in both were identified at age 10. The prevalence rate for being poor in both was 52.94%, suggesting that approximately half of children who are at risk for Chinese reading comprehension difficulty are also at risk for English reading comprehension difficulty. Chinese word reading, phonological, and morphological awareness were longitudinal correlates of poor comprehension in Chinese. English word reading and vocabulary were longitudinal correlates of poor comprehension in English. Chinese phonological awareness was an additional correlate of poor comprehension in English. Moreover, poor comprehenders in both Chinese and English showed slower rapid automatized naming scores than the other groups. Findings highlight some factors that might be critical for reading comprehension in L1 Chinese and L2 English; fluency is likely to be a critical part of reading comprehension across languages. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuhong Tong
- Institute of Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Research in Assessment of Cognitive Impairments, and Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Catherine McBride
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
| | - Hua Shu
- National Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
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Lambert K, Spinath B. Are WISC IQ scores in children with mathematical learning disabilities underestimated? The influence of a specialized intervention on test performance. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2018; 72:56-66. [PMID: 29107851 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intelligence measures play a pivotal role in the diagnosis of mathematical learning disabilities (MLD). Probably as a result of math-related material in IQ tests, children with MLD often display reduced IQ scores. However, it remains unclear whether the effects of math remediation extend to IQ scores. AIMS The present study investigated the impact of a special remediation program compared to a control group receiving private tutoring (PT) on the WISC IQ scores of children with MLD. METHODS We included N=45 MLD children (7-12 years) in a study with a pre- and post-test control group design. Children received remediation for two years on average. RESULTS The analyses revealed significantly greater improvements in the experimental group on the Full-Scale IQ, and the Verbal Comprehension, Perceptual Reasoning, and Working Memory indices, but not Processing Speed, compared to the PT group. Children in the experimental group showed an average WISC IQ gain of more than ten points. CONCLUSION Results indicate that the WISC IQ scores of MLD children might be underestimated and that an effective math intervention can improve WISC IQ test performance. Taking limitations into account, we discuss the use of IQ measures more generally for defining MLD in research and practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Lambert
- Hector Research Institute of Education Sciences and Psychology, University of Tuebingen, Europastrasse 6, 72072 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Birgit Spinath
- Educational Psychology, Heidelberg University, Hauptstraße 47-51, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.
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41
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Mathematics anxiety and working memory: Longitudinal associations with mathematical performance in Chinese children. CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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42
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Ozernov-Palchik O, Norton ES, Sideridis G, Beach SD, Wolf M, Gabrieli JDE, Gaab N. Longitudinal stability of pre-reading skill profiles of kindergarten children: implications for early screening and theories of reading. Dev Sci 2017; 20:10.1111/desc.12471. [PMID: 27747988 PMCID: PMC5393968 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12471] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Research suggests that early identification of developmental dyslexia is important for mitigating the negative effects of dyslexia, including reduced educational attainment and increased socioemotional difficulties. The strongest pre-literacy predictors of dyslexia are rapid automatized naming (RAN), phonological awareness (PA), letter knowledge, and verbal short-term memory. The relationship among these constructs has been debated, and several theories have emerged to explain the unique role of each in reading ability/disability. Furthermore, the stability of identification of risk based on these measures varies widely across studies, due in part to the different cut-offs employed to designate risk. We applied a latent profile analysis technique with a diverse sample of 1215 kindergarten and pre-kindergarten students from 20 schools, to investigate whether PA, RAN, letter knowledge, and verbal short-term memory measures differentiated between homogenous profiles of performance on these measures. Six profiles of performance emerged from the data: average performers, below average performers, high performers, PA risk, RAN risk, and double-deficit risk (both PA and RAN). A latent class regression model was employed to investigate the longitudinal stability of these groups in a representative subset of children (n = 95) nearly two years later, at the end of 1st grade. Profile membership in the spring semester of pre-kindergarten or fall semester of kindergarten was significantly predictive of later reading performance, with the specific patterns of performance on the different constructs remaining stable across the years. There was a higher frequency of PA and RAN deficits in children from lower socioeconomic status (SES) backgrounds. There was no evidence for the IQ-achievement discrepancy criterion traditionally used to diagnose dyslexia. Our results support the feasibility of early identification of dyslexia risk and point to the heterogeneity of risk profiles. These findings carry important implications for improving outcomes for children with dyslexia, based on more targeted interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ola Ozernov-Palchik
- Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts University, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
- Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, Division of Developmental Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Norton
- Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Georgios Sideridis
- Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, Division of Developmental Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, USA
- Harvard Medical School, USA
| | - Sara D Beach
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
- Harvard Medical School, USA
| | - Maryanne Wolf
- Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts University, USA
| | - John D E Gabrieli
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Nadine Gaab
- Laboratories of Cognitive Neuroscience, Division of Developmental Medicine, Department of Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, USA
- Harvard Medical School, USA
- Harvard Graduate School of Education, USA
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Milburn TF, Lonigan CJ, Allan DM, Phillips BM. Agreement Among Traditional and RTI-based Definitions of Reading-Related Learning Disability with Preschool Children. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2017; 55:120-129. [PMID: 28670102 DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2017.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
To investigate approaches for identifying young children who may be at risk for later reading-related learning disabilities, this study compared the use of four contemporary methods of indexing learning disability (LD) with older children (i.e., IQ-achievement discrepancy, low achievement, low growth, and dual-discrepancy) to determine risk status with a large sample of 1,011 preschoolers. These children were classified as at risk or not using each method across three early-literacy skills (i.e., language, phonological awareness, print knowledge) and at three levels of severity (i.e., 5th, 10th, 25th percentiles). Chance-corrected affected-status agreement (CCASA) indicated poor agreement among methods with rates of agreement generally decreasing with greater levels of severity for both single- and two-measure classification, and agreement rates were lower for two-measure classification than for single-measure classification. These low rates of agreement between conventional methods of identifying children at risk for LD represent a significant impediment for identification and intervention for young children considered at-risk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christopher J Lonigan
- Department of Psychology and Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University
| | - Darcey M Allan
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University (now at Department of Psychology, Ohio University)
| | - Beth M Phillips
- Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems and Florida Center for Reading Research, Florida State University
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Giofrè D, Toffalini E, Altoè G, Cornoldi C. Intelligence measures as diagnostic tools for children with specific learning disabilities. INTELLIGENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2017.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Schneider WJ, Kaufman AS. Let's Not Do Away with Comprehensive Cognitive Assessments Just Yet. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2016; 32:8-20. [PMID: 27993770 DOI: 10.1093/arclin/acw104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2016] [Revised: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We review rational and empirical reasons that comprehensive cognitive assessments are useful sources of information in the evaluation and treatment of learning disabilities. However, the existing evidence base that demonstrates the value of comprehensive cognitive assessments for this purpose is not nearly as strong as it needs to be. Proponents of comprehensive cognitive assessments for learning disability identification must do more to rigorously evaluate their beliefs or else concede the argument to those with better evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Joel Schneider
- Department of Psychology, Illinois State University, Normal, IL, USA
| | - Alan S Kaufman
- Yale University School of Medicine, Yale Child Study Center, New Haven, CT, USA
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Fletcher JM, Miciak J. Comprehensive Cognitive Assessments are not Necessary for the Identification and Treatment of Learning Disabilities. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2016; 32:2-7. [PMID: 27932345 DOI: 10.1093/arclin/acw103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is considerable controversy about the necessity of cognitive assessment as part of an evaluation for learning and attention problems. The controversy should be adjudicated through an evaluation of empirical research. We review five sources of evidence commonly provided as support for cognitive assessment as part of the learning disability (LD) identification process, highlighting significant gaps in empirical research and where existing evidence is insufficient to establish the reliability and validity of cognitive assessments used in this way. We conclude that current evidence does not justify routine cognitive assessment for LD identification. As an alternative, we offer an instructional conceptualization of LD: a hybrid model that directly informs intervention and is based on documenting low academic achievement, inadequate response to intensive interventions, and a consideration of exclusionary factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack M Fletcher
- Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jeremy Miciak
- Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA
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Foorman BR, Petscher Y, Stanley C, Truckenmiller A. Latent Profiles of Reading and Language and Their Association With Standardized Reading Outcomes in Kindergarten Through Tenth Grade. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS 2016; 10:619-645. [PMID: 30918534 PMCID: PMC6433153 DOI: 10.1080/19345747.2016.1237597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/13/2016] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the latent profiles of reading and language skills that characterized 7,752 students in kindergarten through tenth grade and to relate the profiles to norm-referenced reading outcomes. Reading and language skills were assessed with a computer-adaptive assessment administered in the middle of the year and reading outcome measures were administered at the end of the year. Three measures of reading comprehension were administered in third through tenth grades to create a latent variable. Latent profile analysis (LPA) was conducted on the reading and language measures and related to reading outcomes in multiple regression analyses. Within-grade multiple regressions were subjected to a linear step-up correction to guard against false-discovery rate. LPA results revealed five to six profiles in the elementary grades and three in the secondary grades that were strongly related to standardized reading outcomes, with average absolute between-profile effect sizes ranging from 1.10 to 2.53. The profiles in the secondary grades followed a high, medium, and low pattern. Profiles in the elementary grades revealed more heterogeneity, suggestive of strategies for differentiating instruction.
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Taylor WP, Miciak J, Fletcher JM, Francis DJ. Cognitive discrepancy models for specific learning disabilities identification: Simulations of psychometric limitations. Psychol Assess 2016; 29:446-457. [PMID: 27504902 DOI: 10.1037/pas0000356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Few studies have investigated specific learning disabilities (SLD) identification methods based on the identification of patterns of processing strengths and weaknesses (PSW). We investigated the reliability of SLD identification decisions emanating from different achievement test batteries for 1 method to operationalize the PSW approach: the concordance/discordance model (C/DM; Hale & Fiorello, 2004). Two studies examined the level of agreement for SLD identification decisions between 2 different simulated, highly correlated achievement test batteries. Study 1 simulated achievement and cognitive data across a wide range of potential latent correlations between an achievement deficit, a cognitive strength and a cognitive weakness. Latent correlations permitted simulation of case-level data at specified reliabilities for cognitive abilities and 2 achievement observations. C/DM criteria were applied and resulting SLD classifications from the 2 achievement test batteries were compared for agreement. Overall agreement and negative agreement were high, but positive agreement was low (0.33-0.59) across all conditions. Study 2 isolated the effects of reduced test reliability on agreement for SLD identification decisions resulting from different test batteries. Reductions in reliability of the 2 achievement tests resulted in average decreases in positive agreement of 0.13. Conversely, reductions in reliability of cognitive measures resulted in small average increases in positive agreement (0.0-0.06). Findings from both studies are consistent with prior research demonstrating the inherent instability of classifications based on C/DM criteria. Within complex ipsative SLD identification models like the C/DM, small variations in test selection can have deleterious effects on classification reliability. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- W Pat Taylor
- Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics
| | - Jeremy Miciak
- Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics
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50
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Hale JB, Chen SA, Tan SC, Poon K, Fitzer KR, Boyd LA. Reconciling individual differences with collective needs: The juxtaposition of sociopolitical and neuroscience perspectives on remediation and compensation of student skill deficits. Trends Neurosci Educ 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tine.2016.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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