DEHP and Its Metabolite MEHP Alter the Insr and Glut4 Gene Expression by Blunting the Interaction of Transcription Factors in L6 Myotubes

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) play an important role in the incidence of type-2 diabetes. Di-2-ethyl hexyl Phthalate (DEHP) is one of the endocrine-disrupting chemicals used as a plasticizer to impart flexibility and softness to plastic-containing materials. Mono-2-ethylhexyl Phthalate (MEHP), a DEHP's primary metabolite, is preferentially absorbed once metabolized. A previous study from our laboratory showed that DEHP and MEHP altered the key proteins such as insulin receptor (INSR) and glucose transporter-4 (GLUT4) in L6 myotubes. In a sequel to the previous study, the present study hypothesized that DEHP and its metabolite MEHP may alter the Insr and Glut4 gene expression in L6 myotubes. Therefore, to find out the molecular mechanism behind the decreased INSR and GLUT4 protein levels in the previous study, the direct effect of DEHP and its metabolite MEHP in regulating Insr and Glut4 gene transcription in L6 myotubes was studied. The L6 myotubes were exposed to 50 and 100 μM DEHP and MEHP for 24 h, followed by insulin stimulation for 20 min. We observed decreased Insr and Glut4 mRNA levels in DEHP and MEHP-treated groups. Western blot data showed decreased protein levels of MEF2A and MyoD in treated groups. ChIP assay detected a decreased association of MEF2A and MyoD to the Glut4 gene promoter and HMGA1 to the Insr gene promoter. The study revealed that DEHP and MEHP diminished the Insr and Glut4 gene expression through weakened interaction of their transcription factors on the respective promoter.

Sub-chronically exposing zebrafish to environmental levels of methomyl induces dysbiosis and dysfunction of the gut microbiota

The widespread use of carbamate pesticides has led to numerous environmental and health concerns, including water contamination and perturbation of endocrine homeostasis among organisms. However, there remains a paucity of research elucidating the specific effects of methomyl on gut microbial composition and physiological functions. This study aimed to investigate the intricate relationship between changes in zebrafish bacterial communities and intestinal function after 56 days of sub-chronic methomyl exposure at environmentally relevant concentrations (0, 0.05, 0.10, and 0.20 mg/L). Our findings reveal significant methomyl-induced morphological changes in zebrafish intestines, characterized by villi shortening and breakage. Notably, methomyl exposure down-regulated nutrient and energy metabolism, and drug metabolism at 0.05-0.10 mg/L, while up-regulating cortisol, inflammation-related genes, and apoptotic markers at 0.20 mg/L. These manifestations indicate physiological stress imposition and disruption of gut microbiota equilibrium, impacting metabolic processes and instigating low-grade inflammatory responses and apoptotic cascades. Importantly, changes in intestinal function significantly correlated with shifts in specific bacterial taxa abundance, including Shewanella, Rubrobacter, Acinetobacter, Bacillus, Luteolibacter, Nocardia, Defluviimonas, and Bacteroides genus. In summary, our study underscores the potential adverse effects of environmental methomyl exposure on aquatic organisms, emphasizing the necessity for further research to mitigate its repercussions on environmental health and ecosystem stability.

Effect of prenatal phthalate exposure on fetal development and maternal/neonatal health consequences: A systematic review

The ubiquitous presence of phthalate compounds in cosmetics, personal care products and plastics commonly used in toys, food packaging or household products, results in human exposure with adverse effects on reproductive health and fetal development. Following the PRISMA methodology, this systematic review analyzes the effect of prenatal phthalate exposure on major pregnancy complications, such as gestational diabetes, pregnancy-induced hypertension, fetal growth restriction and preterm birth, and its role in fetal neurodevelopment. This review includes >100 articles published in the last 10 years, showing an association between maternal exposure to phthalates and the risk of developing pregnancy complications. Phthalates are negatively associated with motor skills and memory, and also increase the risk of delayed language acquisition, autism spectrum disorder traits, and behavioral deficits, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children prenatally exposed to phthalates. Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and its metabolites (mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate) are the main compounds associated with the above-mentioned pregnancy complications and fetal neurodevelopmental disorders. In addition, this review discusses the molecular mechanisms responsible for various pregnancy complications and neurodevelopmental disorders, and the critical window of exposure, in order to clarify these aspects. Globally, the most common molecular mechanisms involved in the effects of phthalates are endocrine disruption, oxidative stress induction, intrauterine inflammation, and DNA methylation disorders. In general, the critical window of exposure varies depending on the pathophysiology of the complication being studied, although the first trimester is considered an important period because some of the most vulnerable processes (embryogenesis and placentation) begin early in pregnancy. Future research should aim to understand the specific mechanism of the disruptive effect of each component and to establish the toxic dose of phthalates, as well as to elucidate the most critical period of pregnancy for exposure and the long-term consequences for human health.

Association of serum phthalates exposure with incident type 2 diabetes risk in Chinese population: A nested case-control study

Prospective epidemiological evidence was lacking on the association of phthalates (PAEs) exposure with incident type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) risk. In present nested case-control study, we identified 1006 T2DM cases and matched 1006 controls based on Dongfeng-Tongji cohort study, and 6 PAEs were detected in baseline serum. The conditional logistic regression model, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) model and Quantile-based g-computation were applied to evaluate the associations of determined PAEs, either as individuals or as a mixture, with incident T2DM risk. Subgroup analysis was conducted to identify the potential sensitive population of PAEs effects on T2DM. After multiple adjustment, no statistically significant association was observed between single or mixture of PAEs and incident T2DM risk in the whole population. However, serum levels of Di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) [OR= 2.06; 95% CI: (1.11-3.96)], Σdibutyl phthalate (ΣDBP) [OR= 1.96; 95% CI: (1.06-3.76)], and Σlow-molecular- weight phthalate (ΣLMW) [OR= 2.27; 95% CI: (1.17-4.57)] were significantly associated with T2DM in current drinker group. Moreover, significant potential interactions were observed among Di-iso-butyl phthalate (DiBP), DnBP, Butyl-benzyl phthalate (BBP), ΣDBP, and ΣLMW with drinking status on T2DM risk (P for interaction = 0.036, 0.005, 0.049. 0.010, and 0.005). We did not find significant associations between serum PAEs levels and T2DM in the whole population. However, current alcohol drinkers expose to higher levels of DnBP, ΣDBP, and ΣLMW had higher risk of T2DM.

Associating diethylhexyl phthalate to gestational diabetes mellitus via adverse outcome pathways using a network-based approach

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a common pregnancy complication that is harmful to both the woman and fetus. Several epidemiological studies have found that exposure to diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), an endocrine disruptor ubiquitous in the environment, may be associated with GDM. This study aims to investigate the mechanism between DEHP and GDM using the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework, which can integrate information from different sources to elucidate the causal pathways between chemicals and adverse outcomes. We applied a network-based workflow to integrate diverse information to generate computational AOPs and accelerate the AOP development. The interactions among DEHP, genes, phenotypes, and GDM were retrieved from several publicly available databases, including the Comparative Toxicogenomics Database (CTD), Computational Toxicology (CompTox) Chemicals Dashboard, DisGeNET, MalaCards, Gene Ontology (GO), and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG). Based on the above interactions, a DEHP-Gene-Phenotype-GDM network consisting of 52 nodes and 227 edges was formed to support AOP construction. The filtered genes and phenotypes were assembled as molecular initiating events (MIEs) and key events (KEs) according to the upstream and downstream relationships, generating a computational AOP (cAOP) network. Based on the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development handbook of AOPs, a cAOP was assessed and applied to determine the effects of DEHP on GDM. DEHP could increase TNF-α, downregulate the glucose uptake process, and lead to GDM. Overall, this study revealed the utility of computational methods in integrating a variety of datasets, supporting AOP development, and facilitating a better understanding of the underlying mechanism of exposure to chemicals on human health.

Obesity III: Obesogen assays: Limitations, strengths, and new directions

There is increasing evidence of a role for environmental contaminants in disrupting metabolic health in both humans and animals. Despite a growing need for well-understood models for evaluating adipogenic and potential obesogenic contaminants, there has been a reliance on decades-old in vitro models that have not been appropriately managed by cell line providers. There has been a quick rise in available in vitro models in the last ten years, including commercial availability of human mesenchymal stem cell and preadipocyte models; these models require more comprehensive validation but demonstrate real promise in improved translation to human metabolic health. There is also progress in developing three-dimensional and co-culture techniques that allow for the interrogation of a more physiologically relevant state. While diverse rodent models exist for evaluating putative obesogenic and/or adipogenic chemicals in a physiologically relevant context, increasing capabilities have been identified for alternative model organisms such as Drosophila, C. elegans, zebrafish, and medaka in metabolic health testing. These models have several appreciable advantages, including most notably their size, rapid development, large brood sizes, and ease of high-resolution lipid accumulation imaging throughout the organisms. They are anticipated to expand the capabilities of metabolic health research, particularly when coupled with emerging obesogen evaluation techniques as described herein.

Effects of Subacute Exposure of Dibutyl Phthalate on the Homeostatic Model Assessment, Thyroid Function, and Redox Status in Rats

Dibutyl phthalate is an endocrine disruptor used in a wide range of industrial and agriculture applications. The present study focuses on elucidating the effect of subacute exposure (4-weeks) of DBP on insulin and its sensitivity indexes, oxidative status, thyroid function, energy metabolites, serum biochemistry, and anthropometry in rats. A total of 64 rats were divided into 4 treatment groups as mg DBP/Kg body weight per day: (a) 0 mg/Kg (control), (b) 10 mg/Kg (DBP-10), (c) 50 mg/Kg (DBP-50), and (d) 100 mg/Kg (DBP-100). The rats in each treatment (n = 16) were further divided into male (n = 8) and female (n = 8) rats for studying treatment and gender interactions. Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT) was performed on the 21^st day. Anthropometry, nutritional determinants, fasting plasma glucose, fasting plasma insulin, homeostatic model assessment (HOMA), thyroid hormones, energy metabolites, and oxidative status were studied during the experimental period. Two-way ANOVA was used to analyze the data (p < 0.05). Tukey's posthoc test was used for pair-wise comparisons. DBP increased body weight gain and feed efficiency in an inverted nonmonotonic U-shaped fashion. Hyperglycemia and increased blood glucose area under the curve were observed in DBP-100 at 120 minutes in IPGTT. The HOMA also showed a linear monotonic contrast. Thyroxin decreased significantly in the DBP-100 rats, whereas malondialdehyde, nonesterified fatty acids, and beta hydroxyl butyrate were increased with the DBP treatments. In conclusion, DBP could be attributed to the development of hyperglycemia and insulin resistance in rats. Further investigations into the lipid peroxidation pathways can improve our understanding of the mechanisms involved in metabolic disruption.

Developmental origins of metabolic diseases

Almost 2 billion adults in the world are overweight, and more than half of them are classified as obese, while nearly one-third of children globally experience poor growth and development. Given the vast amount of knowledge that has been gleaned from decades of research on growth and development, a number of questions remain as to why the world is now in the midst of a global epidemic of obesity accompanied by the "double burden of malnutrition," where overweight coexists with underweight and micronutrient deficiencies. This challenge to the human condition can be attributed to nutritional and environmental exposures during pregnancy that may program a fetus to have a higher risk of chronic diseases in adulthood. To explore this concept, frequently called the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD), this review considers a host of factors and physiological mechanisms that drive a fetus or child toward a higher risk of obesity, fatty liver disease, hypertension, and/or type 2 diabetes (T2D). To that end, this review explores the epidemiology of DOHaD with discussions focused on adaptations to human energetics, placental development, dysmetabolism, and key environmental exposures that act to promote chronic diseases in adulthood. These areas are complementary and additive in understanding how providing the best conditions for optimal growth can create the best possible conditions for lifelong health. Moreover, understanding both physiological as well as epigenetic and molecular mechanisms for DOHaD is vital to most fully address the global issues of obesity and other chronic diseases.

Monobutyl phthalate can induce autophagy and metabolic disorders by activating the ire1a-xbp1 pathway in zebrafish liver

Monobutyl phthalate (MBP) can exist in biological organisms for a long time because of its excellent fat solubility, and it has been found to have certain toxic effects. In this study, the acute effects of MBP on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and metabolism in the zebrafish liver were studied. After continuous exposure to MBP (5 and 10 mg / L) for 96 h, ER damage and the appearance of apoptotic bodies and autophagosomes were found in liver. This is because MBP stimulated the ire-xbp1 pathway of ER stress, thus leading to apoptosis and autophagy. Also, through analysis of metabolic enzymes and genes, it was found that the activated ire-xbp1 pathway could promote lipid synthesis and cause the accumulation of lipid droplets. The gene pparγ related to lipid storage affected the level of insulin, which can also further affect the glucose metabolism process, that is, glycolysis and aerobic respiration were inhibited. And the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) was activated as a compensation mechanism to alleviate glycogen accumulation. The abnormal supply of energy and the death of excessive cells will eventually severely damage the zebrafish liver. This study will enrich the knowledge about the toxic effects of MBP.

Endocrine Disruptors and the Induction of Insulin Resistance

INTRODUCTION

The incidence of insulin resistance syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus has increased at an alarming rate worldwide and constitutes a serious challenge to public health care in the 21st century. Endocrine disrupting chemicals are defined as "substances or mixtures of substances that alter the endocrine system functions and, hence, adversely affect organisms, their progeny, or sub populations" and may be associated with this increase in prevalence.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess the role of endocrine disrupting chemicals in insulin resistance and the importance of approaching the subject during anamnesis.

METHODS

A full review of the literature regarding insulin resistance, type-2 diabetes and endocrine disruptors were conducted.

CONCLUSION

Large-scale production and distribution of endocrine disrupting chemicals coincide with the increase in the prevalence of insulin resistance globally. In recent years, studies have shown that endocrine disrupting chemicals are positively associated with insulin resistance syndrome, evidenced by worse prognoses among individuals with higher levels of exposure. Health professionals should recognize the forms of exposure, most susceptible people, and lifestyle habits that can worsen patients' prognoses.

Could phthalates exposure contribute to the development of metabolic syndrome and liver disease in humans?

In the study, 305 patients of both genders were enrolled and divided into three groups: obese (BMI > 30 kg/m²), patients who were diagnosed type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and control, normal weight healthy volunteers. At least one of ten different phthalate metabolites was determined in the urine samples of 49.84% all enrolled participants. In the obese subgroup, the sum of all urinary phthalate metabolites was positively associated with TG levels (p = 0.031) together with derived TC/HDL and TG/HDL ratios (p = 0.023 and 0.015), respectively. Urinary MEP concentration was positively correlated with the HOMA-IR in T2DM subgroup (p = 0.016) while in the control subgroup, log₁₀MEP levels were negatively correlated with total cholesterol (p = 0.0051), and LDL serum levels (p = 0.0015), respectively. Also, in the control subgroup, positive linear correlations between urinary log₁₀MEP levels and TyG and TYG-BMI values (p = 0.028 and p = 0.027), respectively, were determined. Urinary MEHP levels were associated with glucose serum levels (p = 0.02) in T2DM subgroup, while in the control HDL values were negatively associated with log₁₀MEHP (p = 0.0035). Healthy volunteers exposed to phthalates had elevated AST levels in comparison to non-exposed ones (p = 0.023). In control subgroup, ALT and AST values were increased (p = 0.02 and p = 0.01, respectively) in MEP exposed while GGT levels were enhanced (p = 0.017) in MEHP exposed in comparison with non-exposed. Combined phthalates influence on glucose and lipid metabolism may increase the possibility for NAFLD and insulin resistance development among exposed individuals.

Genotoxicity and glucose tolerance induction by acetyltriethylcitrate, substitute plasticizer compared to di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate

As di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), one of phthalates, is classified as probable human carcinogens in EPA, acetyltriethyl citrate(ATEC), one of aliphatic esters, could be applied to DEHP substitute. ATEC is used as plasticizers in cosmetics and nail products. Here, we studied whether ATEC might have genotoxic potential and induce glucose tolerance as compared to DEHP. Genotoxicity was determined by Ames test with histidine-requiring Salmonella typhimurium (TA98, TA100, TA1535 and TA1537) and tryptophan-requiring Escherichia coli (WP2uvrA(pKM101)) strains, chromosomal aberration assay with Chinese hamster lung(CHL/IU) cells, and micronucleus test with bone marrow cells of CD-1 mice. The number of revertants was not significantly changed in Ames test. The frequency of cells with chromosome aberrations was less than 5% in ATEC- or DEHP-treated cells for 6 or 24 h. In addition, no statistically significant increase was observed for the incidence of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MNPCE) in polychromatic erythrocytes (PCE) and for the ratio of PCE among total erythrocytes at 24 or 48 h after the treatment of mice with ATEC or DEHP. In the meanwhile, blood glucose level (BGL) was increased by the treatment of mice with DEHP or ATEC for 5 consecutive days. Additional 7 days later, BGL by DEHP was recovered to normal level, but not that by ATEC. Then, taken together, our results suggest that ATEC could disrupt glucose metabolism under our experimental conditions. Therefore, although DEHP and ATEC may not be genotoxic, our data should be helpful for persons with the problem in glucose metabolism to choose products containing DEHP or ATEC.

Maternal di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate exposure alters hepatic insulin signal transduction and glucoregulatory events in rat F1 male offspring

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is a commonly used plasticizer with endocrine disrupting properties. Its widespread use resulted in constant human exposure including fetal development and postnatal life. Epidemiological and experimental data have shown that DEHP has a negative influence on glucose homeostasis. However, the evidence regarding the effect of maternal DEHP exposure on hepatic glucose homeostasis is scarce. Hence, we investigated whether DEHP exposure during gestation and lactation disrupts glucose homeostasis in the rat F₁ male offspring at adulthood. Pregnant rats were divided into three groups and administered with DEHP (10 and 100 mg/kg/day) or olive oil from gestational day 9 to postnatal day 21 (lactation period) through oral gavage. DEHP-exposed offspring exhibited hyperglycemia, impaired glucose and insulin tolerances along with hyperinsulinemia at postnatal day 80. DEHP exposure significantly reduced the levels of insulin signaling molecules such as insulin receptors, IRS1, Akt and its phosphorylated forms. GSK3β and FoxO1 proteins increased in DEHP-exposed groups whereas its phosphorylated forms decreased. Treated groups showed decreased glycogen synthase activity and glycogen concentration. Glucose-6-phosphatase and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase mRNA level and enzyme activity increased in DEHP-treated groups. The interaction between FoxO1-glucose-6-phosphatase and FoxO1-phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase was also increased. This study suggests that DEHP exposure impairs insulin signal transduction and alters glucoregulatory events leading to the development of type 2 diabetes in F₁ male offspring.

Postnatal exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate alters cardiac insulin signaling molecules and GLUT4Ser488 phosphorylation in male rat offspring

Di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), a distinctive endocrine-disrupting chemical, is widely used as a plasticizer in a variety of consumer products. It can easily cross the placenta and enter breast milk and then it is rapidly absorbed by offspring. Since it is generally accepted that individuals are more sensitive to chemical exposure during vital developmental periods, we investigated whether DEHP exposure during lactation affects cardiac insulin signaling and glucose homeostasis in the F₁ male rat offspring at postnatal day 22 (PND22). Lactating Wistar rats were administered with DEHP (1, 10, and 100 mg/kg/d) or olive oil from lactation day 1 to 21 by oral gavage. All the male pups were perfused and killed on PND22. On the day before the killing, they were kept for fasting overnight and blood was collected. The cardiac muscle was dissected out, washed in ice-cold physiological saline repeatedly and used for the assay of various parameters. DEHP-exposed offspring had significantly lower body weight than the control. DEHP-exposed offspring showed elevated blood glucose, decreased ¹⁴ C-2-deoxyglucose uptake and ¹⁴ C-glucose oxidation in cardiac muscle at PND22. The concentration of upstream insulin signaling molecules such as insulin receptor subunit β (InsRβ) and insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) were downregulated in DEHP-exposed offspring. However, no significant alterations were observed in protein kinase B (Akt) and Akt substrate of 160 kDa (AS160). Surprisingly, phosphorylation of IRS1 ^Tyr632 and Akt ^Ser473 were diminished. Low levels of glucose transporter type 4 (GLUT4) protein and increased GLUT4 ^Ser488 phosphorylation which decreases its intrinsic activity and translocation towards plasma membrane were also recorded. Lactational DEHP exposure predisposes F ₁ male offspring to cardiac glucometabolic disorders at PND22, which may impair cardiac function.

Serum Phthalate and Triclosan Levels Have Opposing Associations With Risk Factors for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Certain phthalates and bisphenol A (BPA) have been associated with insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes in non-pregnant adults, but studies of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) have reported conflicting results for phthalates and no associations with BPA. Our aim was to investigate the relationship between maternal serum levels of phthalate metabolites and phenols at 10-17 weeks of gestation and glucose homeostasis at 28 weeks of gestation. 232 women aged ≥16 years without type 1 or 2 diabetes with singleton male pregnancies were recruited from a single UK maternity centre between 2001 and 2009 as part of a prospective observational study (Cambridge Baby Growth Study). Serum levels of 16 phthalate metabolites and 9 phenols (including BPA) were measured using liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Oral glucose tolerance tests were performed at 28 weeks. 47/232 (20.3%) women had GDM. First-trimester triclosan (TCS) was inversely associated with incident GDM (adjusted odds ratio per log increase in concentration 0.54, 95% confidence interval 0.34-0.86, p = 0.010). Amongst women without GDM, first-trimester mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and mono(carboxyisooctyl) phthalate levels were positively associated with 120-min plasma glucose (adjusted β 0.268 and 0.183, p = 0.0002 and 0.010, respectively) in mid-pregnancy. No other monotonic associations were detected between phthalate or phenol levels and fasting or stimulated plasma glucose, β-cell function, insulin resistance, or 60-min disposition index. Our results support a glycaemia-raising effect of phthalates during pregnancy, consistent with findings in non-pregnant populations and suggest a possible protective effect of exposure to TCS against GDM.

Polluted Pathways: Mechanisms of Metabolic Disruption by Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Environmental toxicants are increasingly implicated in the global decline in metabolic health. Focusing on diabetes, herein, the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which metabolism disrupting chemicals (MDCs) impair energy homeostasis are discussed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Emerging data implicate MDC perturbations in a variety of pathways as contributors to metabolic disease pathogenesis, with effects in diverse tissues regulating fuel utilization. Potentiation of traditional metabolic risk factors, such as caloric excess, and emerging threats to metabolism, such as disruptions in circadian rhythms, are important areas of current and future MDC research. Increasing evidence also implicates deleterious effects of MDCs on metabolic programming that occur during vulnerable developmental windows, such as in utero and early post-natal life as well as pregnancy. Recent insights into the mechanisms by which MDCs alter energy homeostasis will advance the field's ability to predict interactions with classical metabolic disease risk factors and empower studies utilizing targeted therapeutics to treat MDC-mediated diabetes.

Association between urinary phthalates and metabolic abnormalities in obese Thai children and adolescents

BACKGROUND

Several endocrine disruptors (including phthalates) are considered to be a cause of obesity. However, the current evidence has not conclusively established an association between phthalates and metabolic abnormalities, especially in children. The objective of the study was to evaluate the association between urinary phthalate metabolites and metabolic abnormalities in obese Thai children and adolescents.

METHODS

This cross-sectional case-control study was conducted in participants aged 7-18 years and divided into two groups: normal weight and overweight/obesity. Spot urine concentrations of two phthalate metabolites (monomethyl phthalate [MMP] and mono-n-buthyl phthalate [MBP]) were measured by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Anthropometric data, including weight, height, body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), hip circumference (HC), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and waist-to-height ratio (WHTR), were measured and calculated. Fasting plasma glucose, insulin, HbA1c, lipid profiles and hepatic transaminase were analyzed, and insulin resistance indices were calculated.

RESULTS

One hundred and fifty-five participants were included. The median MMP level in the normal weight and the overweight/obesity groups were 0 (0, 459.83) and 0 (0, 1623.50) μg/g Cr, respectively (p=0.933). The median MBP level in the normal weight and the overweight/obesity groups were 233.6 (118.1, 633.62) and 206.94 (7.4, 427.7) μg/g Cr, respectively (p=0.083). After adjusting for age, gender and puberty, there was no correlation between MBP and all anthropometric data and metabolic profiles. Participants with hypertriglyceridemia had lower MBP levels than those with normal TG level. MMP levels were not significantly different between the participants with normal and abnormal weight of all metabolic parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

Participants with hypertriglyceridemia had lower MBP levels than those with normotriglyceridemia. However, it cannot show the correlation between phthalate and metabolic parameters.

Metabolism disrupting chemicals and metabolic disorders

The recent epidemics of metabolic diseases, obesity, type 2 diabetes(T2D), liver lipid disorders and metabolic syndrome have largely been attributed to genetic background and changes in diet, exercise and aging. However, there is now considerable evidence that other environmental factors may contribute to the rapid increase in the incidence of these metabolic diseases. This review will examine changes to the incidence of obesity, T2D and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), the contribution of genetics to these disorders and describe the role of the endocrine system in these metabolic disorders. It will then specifically focus on the role of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in the etiology of obesity, T2D and NAFLD while finally integrating the information on EDCs on multiple metabolic disorders that could lead to metabolic syndrome. We will specifically examine evidence linking EDC exposures during critical periods of development with metabolic diseases that manifest later in life and across generations.