Pneumonia from Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in a red panda (Ailurus fulgens fulgens)

Squamata reptiles as a potential source of helminth infections when preyed on by companion animals

BACKGROUND

Squamate reptiles cohabiting with companion animals may represent a source of helminth infections, especially through predation by dogs and cats with an outdoor lifestyle.

METHODS

In order to assess the role of reptiles as intermediate/paratenic hosts of trophically transmitted helminths, synanthropic reptiles (n = 245) captured from different ecological settings (i.e., households, dog shelters, urban, peri-urban and rural areas or natural parks) of southern Italy were examined for endoparasites. Parasitic cysts (i.e., larval forms of acanthocephalans, cestodes and nematodes) and free helminths (i.e., adult nematodes and digeneans) were morphologically and molecularly identified, and statistical analysis was carried out to evaluate the correlations between reptiles, infections, and ecological settings.

RESULTS

Overall, 31% of reptiles were positive for at least one helminth, with Podarcis siculus (18.7%) and Tarentola mauritanica (8.1%) being the most frequently infected species. Among the parasites of medical interest, Joyeuxiella echinorhyncoides showed the highest prevalence (19.7%), followed by Diplopylidium acanthotetra (10.5%), Joyeuxiella pasqualei, Mesocestoides lineatus (5.6%) and Physaloptera sp. (3.9%). Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus was detected once. Podarcis siculus and T. mauritanica were associated with cestode infections.

CONCLUSIONS

The wide range of helminths detected here in reptiles living in sympatry with pets and the fact that many of these helminth species are parasitic and may infect companion animals (e.g., J. pasqualei, J. echinorhyncoides, D. acanthotetra, Physaloptera sp.) and humans (i.e., Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, Mesocestoides lineatus) indicate the potential health risk associated with pets preying on these small vertebrates. Our results indicate the need for complementary investigations of trophically transmitted parasites in dogs and cats living in sympatry with reptiles.

Comparative biology of parasitic nematodes in the genus Angiostrongylus and related genera

The rise to prominence of some Angiostrongylus species through associated emerging disease in humans and dogs has stimulated calls for a renewed focus on the biology of this genus and three related genera. Although significant research efforts have been made in recent years these have tended to focus on individual species and specific aspects such as diagnosis and treatment of disease or new records of occurrence and hosts. This comprehensive review takes a comparative approach, seeking commonalities and differences among species and asking such questions as: Which species belong to this and to closely related genera and how are they related? Why do only some species appear to be spreading geographically and what factors might underlie range expansion? Which animal species are involved in the life cycles as definitive, intermediate, paratenic and accidental hosts? How do parasite larvae find, infect and develop within these hosts? What are the consequences of infection for host health? How will climate change affect future spread and global health? Appreciating how species resemble and differ from each other shines a spotlight on knowledge gaps and provides provisional guidance on key species characteristics warranting detailed study. Similarities exist among species, including the basic life cycle and transmission processes, but important details such as host range, climatic requirements, migration patterns within hosts and disease mechanisms differ, with much more information available for A. cantonensis and A. vasorum than for other species. Nonetheless, comparison across Angiostrongylus reveals some common patterns. Historically narrow definitive host ranges are expanding with new knowledge, combining with very broad ranges of intermediate gastropod hosts and vertebrate and invertebrate paratenic and accidental hosts to provide the backdrop to complex interactions among climate, ecology and transmission that remain only partly understood, even for the species of dominant concern. Key outstanding questions concern larval dynamics and the potential for transmission outside trophic relations, relations between infection and disease severity in different hosts, and how global change is altering transmission beyond immediate impacts on development rate in gastropods. The concept of encounter and compatibility filters could help to explain differences in the relative importance of different gastropod species as intermediate hosts and determine the importance of host community composition and related environmental factors to transmission and range. Across the group, it remains unclear what, physiologically, immunologically or taxonomically, delimits definitive, accidental and paratenic hosts. Impacts of infection on definitive host fitness and consequences for population dynamics and transmission remain mostly unexplored across the genus. Continual updating and cross-referencing across species of Angiostrongylus and related genera is important to synthesise rapid advances in understanding of key traits and behaviours, especially in important Angiostrongylus species that are emerging causative agents of disease in humans and other animals.

ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENTS IN ANESTHETIZED CAPTIVE RED PANDAS (AILURUS FULGENS)

A recent review of mortality in captive red pandas (Ailurus fulgens) listed cardiac pathology as the most common cause of death in the adult age group. The aim of this study was to describe the standard echocardiographic variables in 13 captive, healthy, adult red pandas that underwent an elective health examination. In addition, differences between the two subspecies of red panda, A. f. styani than in A. f. fulgens, and association of these echocardiographic variables with age, sex, and body condition score, were examined. Anesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane inhalant anesthetic. All animals underwent a full physical examination and comprehensive echocardiogram including 2D, M-mode, and Doppler modes of ultrasound examination. Mean and SD of the echocardiographic variables are reported. Systolic performance was considered subnormal due to the effect of the anesthetic agent. The echocardiographic variables were similar for the two subspecies and sexes, with the exception of the left atrial dimension (2D), which measured larger (P= 0.03) in A. f. styani than in A. f. fulgens, and left ventricular internal diameter in diastole, which measured larger (P = 0.04) in males than females. Several echocardiographic measurements were correlated with age (P < 0.05), whereas the only measurement that significantly correlated with body condition score was end diastolic volume (P = 0.01). These results provide ranges that can offer guidance for predicting cardiac disease in red panda.

Systemic Infection by Angiostrongylus vasorum in a Fennec (Vulpeszerda) in an Italian Zoological Garden

This paper reported a case of a metastrongyloid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in a fennec (Vulpes zerda) kept in a zoo in central Italy. The fennec had shown paralysis of the hind limbs, anorexia, weakness and respiratory signs before death. Cardiomegaly and granulomatous pneumonia were the major anatomopathological findings. Inflammatory lesions associated with parasitic larvae were observed in the lungs, brain, liver, heart, spinal cord and kidney of the fennec at histology. A. vasorum diagnosis was confirmed by both morphological and molecular identification of adult worms recovered at necropsy. Fennecs are active predators and maintain their hunting behaviour in captivity. Hence, it is likely that the animal was exposed to infection by preying on parasitised gastropods, intermediate hosts of A. vasorum, entering zoo enclosures from the surrounding environment. This is the first report of A. vasorum systemic infection in a captive fennec (V. zerda) in a zoo in Italy.

Occupational risk of cutaneous larva migrans: A case report and a systematic literature review

Cutaneous larva migrans (CLM) is a parasitic zoonosis of warm tropical and subtropical areas, although autochthonous cases have been increasingly reported in Western European countries. Data on the prevalence of CLM as an occupational disease in workers exposed to potentially contaminated soil or in close contact with dogs and cats are scant. Herein, we report an autochthonous case of CLM in a dog breeder from southern Italy (Apulia region), along with a systematic literature review describing the risk of CLM infection, mainly according to job categories. The patient was referred to the dermatology unit presenting a serpiginous lesion on his hand, raising the suspected CLM diagnosis. In non-endemic areas, CLM might represent a challenge for physicians in terms of diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, particularly in workplaces. The multidisciplinary approach in the diagnosis of CLM with the involvement of different scientific competences (i.e., dermatologists, veterinarians, and occupational physicians) may contribute to further assess the distribution of human CLM and associated risk factors, toward reducing the risk for the infection.

The Prophylactic Effect of Ivermectin Treatments on Nematode Infections of Mammals in a Faunistic Park (Northern Italy)

Nematode infections of mammals can spread in zoos and faunistic parks and lead to disease in humans and animals. Group treatment strategies with anthelminthic drugs are common. Still, their effectiveness should be verified by sensitive and specific copromicroscopic analyses. This study assessed longitudinal parasitological monitoring, by FLOTAC® dual technique, in mammals housed in an Italian faunistic park, in order to verify the effectiveness of the two adopted ivermectin prophylactic treatments. Twenty-one species of herbivorous mammals from ten families were treated twice per year with ivermectin in an in-feed formulation (medicated feed containing 1.7 g/ton ivermectin daily, for 30 days in March and November), while 13 species of carnivores and primates from five families were treated once a month with oral or subcutaneous administrations of ivermectin (200 μg/kg body weight (b.w.), from March to November). Fecal samples were collected in June–July and October 2019 (late spring–early summer and autumn sampling groups, respectively). All nematode infections, sustained by Nematodirus spp., Capillaria spp., Trichuris spp., Parascaris spp. and Strongylida, were detected in samples collected from herbivores, presenting prevalence rates of infection of 17.3% (9/52), 15.4% (8/52), 15.4% (8/52), 5.8% (3/52), and 3.8% (2/52), respectively. All carnivores and primates tested negative. The general linear mixed model showed that nematode eggs’ excretion in herbivores were influenced by sampling and sampling-host family interaction. Results showed that frequency and dose of prophylactic treatments in herbivores should be improved according to host and parasite taxonomic groups. The treatment adopted in carnivores and primates, together with hygienic management, was effective in nematode control.

Raillietiella hemidactyli (Pentastomida: Raillietiellidae) in Tarentola mauritanica geckoes: A new zoonotic parasite for Europe

Pentastomida is a subclass of parasitic arthropods, related to crustaceans, which develop in the respiratory tract of vertebrates (i.e., fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals). Within this group of parasites, Raillietiella spp. adults develop in the lungs of lizards, snakes and toads, whereas larval stages in insects (e.g., cockroaches), which are intermediate hosts. Lizards were captured under the frame of a study on reptile zoonotic parasites. Feces of the collected animals were examined and pentastomids were diagnosed in Tarentola mauritanica geckoes (1.2%; 3/259) from Linosa island. Adult forms of Railietiella hemidactyli pentastomids were morphologically characterized and molecularly identified through 18S rDNA amplification and sequencing. Positive animals had adult forms of R. hemidactyli pentastomids in the lungs as well as embryonated eggs in feces. Raillietiella was herein identified for the first time in synanthropic geckoes in a confined population of one of the southernmost islands of Italy, representing the first report of this zoonotic pentastomid in synanthropic and invasive reptiles in Europe. Further studies should focus on the prevalence of pentastomids on synanthropic reptiles in other Italian regions to assess the zoonotic risk of infection and to warn veterinarians and physicians about the risk they may represent for several species of hosts, including dogs, cats and humans.

Fox Serum Proteomics Analysis Suggests Host-Specific Responses to Angiostrongylus vasorum Infection in Canids

Dogs infected with the cardiopulmonary nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum may suffer from respiratory distress and/or bleeding disorders. Descriptions of clinical signs in foxes are rare, despite high prevalence. To evaluate the impact of infection on coagulation and immune response, serum proteins from eight experimentally infected foxes before and after inoculation (day 0, 35, 84, 154) were subjected to differential proteomic analyses based on quantitative data and compared to available data from dogs. The number of proteins with differential abundance compared to the uninfected baseline increased with chronicity of infection. Bone marrow proteoglycan, chitinase 3-like protein 1 and pulmonary surfactant-associated protein B were among the most prominently increased proteins. The abundance of several proteins involved in coagulation was decreased. Enriched pathways obtained from both increased and decreased proteins included, among others, "platelet degranulation" and "haemostasis", and indicated both activation and suppression of coagulation. Qualitative comparison to dog data suggests some parallel serum proteomic alterations. The comparison, however, also indicates that foxes have a more adequate immunopathological response to A. vasorum infection compared to dogs, facilitating persistent infections in foxes. Our findings imply that foxes may be more tolerant to A. vasorum infection, as compared to dogs, reflecting a longer evolutionary host-parasite adaptation in foxes, which constitute a key wildlife reservoir.

Gastro-intestinal parasites of sympatric red panda and livestock in protected areas of Nepal

Background

Disease transmission among humans, domestic animals and wildlife can have profound consequences in human health, wildlife conservation and maintenance of biodiversity. The issue of disease transmission can be particularly important for threatened wildlife species, yet such information remains scarce due to logistic constraints and government regulation on animal handlings. The red panda (Ailurus fulgens) is one of the globally threatened species challenged with habitat fragmentation and human disturbance. In Nepal, livestock grazing is recognised as one of the major threats to the red panda.

Aim

We aimed to provide the first empirical data on gastro‐intestinal parasites for sympatric livestock and red panda from two geographically isolated regions in Nepal.

Methods

In this study, we systematically sampled, and examined the faecal of livestock and red panda in two separate protected areas to provide the first empirical data on their gastro‐intestinal parasite, including the prevalence, parasite richness and load.

Results

We documented 11 parasite taxa (7 nematodes, 2 cestodes, 1 trematode and 1 coccidian), of which 8 are shared by both livestock and red panda. Furthermore, parasite prevalence, parasite load and parasite richness were generally higher in the livestock than the red panda.

Conclusion

The data provided from this systematic survey on parasites of sympatric livestock and red panda in wild raises the concern about the potential role of livestock mediating disease dynamics in the red panda. Our study suggests that cross‐transmission of parasites between livestock and red panda are likely, and the livestock may be a competent agent bringing disease to both red panda and human. Therefore, managing human‐livestock‐wildlife contact to reduce disease risk to all groups should be a key component in conservation planning of protected areas.

Angiostrongylosis in Animals and Humans in Europe

Lungworms in the genus Angiostrongylus cause disease in animals and humans. The spread of Angiostrongylus vasorum within Europe and the recent establishment of Angiostrongylus cantonensis increase the relevance of these species to veterinary and medical practitioners, and to researchers in parasitology, epidemiology, veterinary science and ecology. This review introduces the key members of the genus present in Europe and their impacts on health, and updates the current epidemiological situation. Expansion of A. vasorum from localized pockets to wide distribution across the continent has been confirmed by a rising prevalence in foxes and increasing reports of infection and disease in dogs, while the list of carnivore and mustelid definitive hosts continues to grow. The tropically distributed rat lungworm A. cantonensis, meanwhile, has been recorded on islands south of Europe, previously the Canary Islands, and now also the Balearic Islands, although so far with limited evidence of zoonotic disease. Other members of the genus, namely, A. chabaudi, A. daskalovi and A. dujardini, are native to Europe and mainly infect wildlife, with unknown consequences for populations, although spill-over can occur into domestic animals and those in zoological collections. The epidemiology of angiostrongylosis is complex, and further research is needed on parasite maintenance in sylvatic hosts, and on the roles of ecology, behaviour and genetics in disease emergence. Improved surveillance in animals and humans is also required to support risk assessments and management.

Reaching over the gap: A review of trends in and status of red panda research over 193 years (1827-2020)

The red panda is a unique species taxonomically known for its peculiar biological and ecological characteristics, and extreme attractiveness. Despite being highly significant from conservation, scientific and economic perspectives, this species has experienced a declining population in the wild. Thus, to direct further research priorities and conservation actions and assess gaps in the current research trend of this species, a systematic literature review was conducted covering 175 journal articles published in English over 193 years (1827-2020). This review revealed that (1) the biological aspect was highly studied compared to other thematic areas of red panda (2) captive-based studies are relatively higher than the studies based in wild populations (3) China is leading the red panda studies amongst all red panda range (4) The universities were found contributing more to red panda studies than other institutions. Surprisingly, we found that the researchers from the non-range country were leading red panda study than those from range countries. Our review highlighted the need of prioritising studies in underrepresented locations and understudied thematic areas focusing on the assessment of climate change impact, bamboo distribution status, ecosystem services of red panda habitat, behavior and movement ecology, population estimation, and metapopulation dynamics. We urge landscape-level studies and long-term population monitoring. Besides, we also suggest the documentation and evaluation of the effectiveness of ongoing red panda-focused conservation programs. We also stress the need for strengthening the capacity of institutions and people from range countries.

DICTYOCAULUS CERVI-LIKE LUNGWORM INFECTION IN A ROCKY MOUNTAIN ELK (CERVUS CANADENSIS NELSONI) FROM WYOMING, USA

Dictyocaulus spp. infections are common in North American cervids, with Dictyocaulus viviparus described as most common. A Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus canadensis nelsoni) was found dead in Wyoming, US with significant bronchitis and pneumonia. In the bronchi and trachea, numerous large nematodes were found and grossly identified as Dictyocaulus spp. lungworms. Macroscopic alterations, such as distended interlobular septa and edema with foam and mucus observed on cut surface and in trachea and bronchi, were consistent with those commonly described in D. viviparus infections. Female lungworms were identified to Dictyocaulus spp. level via morphologic examination and molecular analyses based on mitochondrial cyclooxygenase 1 and 18S ribosomal RNA genes. A phylogenetic analysis was conducted employing the maximum likelihood method. Based on both morphologic and genetic assays, the isolated lungworms were most likely a strain of Dictyocaulus cervi. Within the female adult worms, free first stage larvae were observed besides worm eggs, which had not been described for Dictyocaulus spp. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that our parasites clustered closely with D. cervi, forming a subclade with that species within a larger clade that includes Dictyocaulus eckerti. While the elk tested positive for chronic wasting disease, it is assumed that significant pathology in the present case was caused directly by infection with the D. cervi-like lungworm, not previously described in North America.

Are golden jackals (Canis aureus) definitive hosts for Angiostrongylus vasorum?

Angiostrongylosis caused by Angiostrongylus vasorum is an emerging disease in Europe. Recent reports have shown that, besides the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) recognized as the main definitive host and reservoir for the parasite, the role of the definitive host can be taken by a range of mammals. We considered that, due to the rapid large-scale expansion of its populations in Europe, the golden jackal (Canis aureus) could assume an important role in the epidemiology of the disease. The aim of the investigations was to explore the role of the golden jackal as the definitive host for A. vasorum. Sixty-three golden jackals, legally hunted in lowlands around the Danube River in Serbia recognized as the core area of the species' distribution in Europe, were subjected to patho-morphological and parasitological examination. The adult forms of A. vasorum were detected in the pulmonary arteries in six golden jackals with gross lesions manifested in the lungs. The finding of first stage larvae (L1) of A. vasorum in microscopic smears of the lung tissue altered by infection, which was consistent with the presence of adult parasites and manifestation of gross lesions in the lungs, confirms the successful reproduction of the parasite in the golden jackal. Migration of L1 from the blood vessels to the airways was confirmed by histopathology and, subsequently, their shedding was demonstrated by the Baermann method. The results support the hypothesis that the golden jackal acts as a suitable definitive host for A. vasorum. As a definitive host with a large-scale expansion of its populations in Europe, the golden jackal may be an important part of the parasite's host repertoire by spreading the parasite into previously non-endemic areas and by being an additional definitive host in endemic areas of vulpine angiostrongylosis.

Shedding of feline lungworm larvae and their infectivity to snail intermediate hosts after anthelmintic treatment

Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and Troglostrongylus brevior are snail-transmitted helminths causing respiratory diseases in infected cats. The shedding of feline lungworm L1s and their infectivity to the snail intermediate host, after administration of anthelminthic products to cats, are poorly documented. To assess the efficacy of 8.3% fipronil, 10% (S)-methoprene, 0.4% eprinomectin and 8.3% praziquantel (i.e. eprinomectin formulation) and 10% imidacloprid/1% moxidectin (i.e. moxidectin formulation) against these nematodes and to determine the number of days post-treatment until viable L1s are released in the faeces, 384 animals were screened by faecal examination. Of the 54 positive animals (i.e., 14.1%; 7.3% A. abstrusus, 6.2% T. brevior and 0.5% coinfected), 36 were randomly allocated to four groups. Groups A and B were composed of cats positive for T. brevior and treated with the eprinomectin and with the moxidectin formulations, respectively, whereas cats in groups C and D were positive to A. abstrusus and treated with the eprinomectin and the moxidectin formulations, respectively. Prior to and every day after treatment, faecal samples were analysed by the Baermann technique and the number of larvae per gram of faeces determined, and again four weeks after treatment, to assess the efficacy of a single administration of the products. In addition, to evaluate the pre- and post-treatment infectivity of L1s to snail intermediate hosts, one/two snails per cat were infected with 100 L1s collected from the faeces of enrolled animals and then digested 28 days p.i. Based on L1s faecal counts, the efficacy of the eprinomectin and the moxidectin formulations at 28 days was 100% for both A. abstrusus and T. brevior, with a mean number of days of 7.9 ± 1.2 in group A, 7.8 ± 1.9 in B, 6.9 ± 1.6 in C and 8.9 ± 2.0 in D to become negative. Following the artificial digestion, active L3s of T. brevior and A. abstrusus were found in 160 (87.4%) experimentally infected snails. The results of this study demonstrate that a single administration of the two formulations is effective in the treatment of A. abstrusus and T. brevior infections and that during the post-treatment period live L1s are shed for up to 8.9 ± 2.0 days. L1s of both lungworm species released in the faeces after drug administration are still able to reach the infective larval stage in the infected snails. Hence, preventative measures after the treatment of infected animals should include keeping cats indoors and disposal of their faeces for approximately 10 days to avoid environmental contamination and infection of gastropod intermediate hosts.

Angiostrongylus vasorum and Aelurostrongylus abstrusus: Neglected and underestimated parasites in South America

The gastropod-borne nematodes Angiostrongylus vasorum and Aelurostrongylus abstrusus are global causes of cardio/pulmonary diseases in dogs and cats. In the last decade, the number of reports on canine and feline lungworms has increased in several areas of Europe and North America. The unspecific clinical signs and prolonged course of these diseases often renders diagnosis challenging. Both infections are considered as emerging and underestimated causes of disease in domestic pets. In South America, little information is available on these diseases, apart from occasional reports proving the principle presence of A. vasorum and A. abstrusus. Thus, the purpose of this review is to summarize reports on infections in both domestic and wildlife animals in South America and to increase the awareness on gastropod-borne metastrongyloid parasites, which also include important zoonotic species, such as A. cantonensis and A. costaricensis. This review highlights the usefulness of diagnostic tools, such as the Baermann funnel technique, serology and PCR, and proposes to include these routinely on cases with clinical suspicion for lungworm infections. Future national epidemiological surveys are recommended to be conducted to gain a deeper insight into the actual epidemiological situation of gastropod-borne parasitoses in South America.

Troglostrongylus brevior: a feline lungworm of paediatric concern

The immature immune system of cats in their paediatric age (i.e., first six months of life) favours the establishment of infectious respiratory tract diseases mainly caused by well recognized viruses and bacteria species. Conversely, lungworm infections are less investigated during respiratory disorders in kittens. In the last decade, Troglostrongylus brevior has been found affecting the respiratory tract of cats, along with the better-known Aelurostrongylus abstrusus. Given the scant data available on the epidemiology of feline troglostrongylosis, faecal samples from 575 domestic animals living in three Italian municipalities (i.e., Bari, Messina and Siena) were screened for lungworm infection by Baermann and molecular tecniques. Animals were grouped according to their age as ≤6 months (i.e., paediatric patients), 6-24 months, or >24 months. Paediatric cats were further sub-divided in infant (2-6 weeks), weanling (6-12 weeks) and juvenile (3-6 months). Of the 575 animals tested, 241 (42.0%) were younger than 6 months, 188 (33%) were 6-24-month-old and 146 (25%) were older than 24 months. Lungworm infection was diagnosed in 84 (14.6%) of the examined cats. Of the 49 (20.3%) paediatric animals positive for lungworms, T. brevior was the nematode species most frequently diagnosed (n = 44; 89.8%), followed by A. abstrusus (n = 2; 4.1%), and three cats (6.1%) were co-infected by both species. The diagnosis of T. brevior infection was significantly associated with animals aging ≤6 months (18.2%; P < 0.01) than elder cats. Indeed, the prevalence of infection by T. brevior decreased in animals aging 6-24 months (3.2%) being not detected in cats older than two years. Results of this study indicate that paediatric cats are at higher risk of T. brevior infection compared to adults (P < 0.01).

Filaroidosis Infection in an Immunocompetent Adult Dog from France

A dog from Paris (France) was referred with a 2-week history of dry cough, intermittent acute onset of dyspnoea, and acute abdominal pain. A generalised bronchoalveolar infiltrate with a patchy distribution was observed at chest x-rays and computed tomography (CT) scans. Negative results were obtained through several faecal examinations for cardiorespiratory nematodes by using the Baermann technique and at two blood analysis with a commercially available test for the detection of A. vasorum antigen (the first one at the first visit and second one at the control visit, one month later). PCR methods for the identification of A. vasorum and C. vulpis were also accomplished. At the control visit, nematode L1s were found during direct microscopic examination of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). Thus, a different antigen-based assay for the detection of A. vasorum was performed with a positive result. Moreover, based on morphology, isolated larvae were identified as Filaroides hirthi. The dog was treated with fenbendazole (50 mg/kg per os once daily) for two consecutive weeks. After five months, the dog was referred again for the intermittent acute onset of dyspnoea and was found to be still positive for F. hirthi larvae at BALF examination. A 15-day treatment regimen with fenbendazole in combination with three subcutaneous injections of ivermectin (0.4 mg/kg, once every two weeks), was then performed. No larvae were detected at two BALF microscopical examinations performed one month apart. Results from this case report underline the importance of including F. hirthi infections in the differential diagnosis of dog bronchopneumonia.

Meerkats (Suricata suricatta), a new definitive host of the canid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum

Angiostronglyus vasorum is a cardiopulmonary nematode infecting mainly canids such as dogs (Canis familiaris) and foxes (Vulpes vulpes). Natural infections have also been reported in mustelids and red pandas (Ailurus fulgens fulgens). We report the occurrence of natural A. vasorum infections in a group of captive meerkats (Suricata suricatta), housed at a university facility in Switzerland. A. vasorum first-stage larvae (L1) were initially identified in a pooled faecal sample. Individual samples, investigated with the Baermann-Wetzel technique, revealed that 41% (7/17) of the meerkats were infected, with ranges of 2–125 L1/g faeces. PCR and sequencing of part of the ITS-2 region resulted in 100% identity with A. vasorum. Infected animals did not show clinical signs. One meerkat died two days after diagnosis. Upon necropsy one adult specimen was recovered; histological examination of the lung revealed granulomatous pneumonia caused by A. vasorum larvae and eggs as well as intima and media hyperplasia and isolated arteriosclerosis of larger lung vessels. However, the cause of death was a spleen rupture with associated blood loss. All meerkats were topically treated with 10 mg imidacloprid/2.5 mg moxidectin per animal, after which they became negative in all follow up faecal examinations. Potential intermediate (gastropods) and paratenic hosts (birds) were collected from within or outside the meerkats enclosure. Gastropods were examined by PCR and bird samples by digestion. Four out of 193 (2.1%) gastropod samples were positive for A. vasorum, whereas none of the bird samples were positive. Meerkats, belonging to the Herpestidae, therefore are suitable definitive hosts for A. vasorum, with production and excretion of live L1. Meerkats kept in captivity in areas where A. vasorum is endemic and with potential contact to intermediate hosts are at risk of infection. Regular faecal examinations including Baermann-Wetzel technique should be considered.

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Meerkats are suitable definitive hosts for Angiostrongylus vasorum.

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This is the first case of A. vasorum in the Herpestidae family.

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A. vasorum larvae and eggs caused granulomatous pneumonia in an infected meerkat.

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2% of gastropods around the meerkats enclosure were positive for A. vasorum L3.

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Captive animal species in areas where A. vasorum is endemic are at risk of infection.

Status of gastrointestinal parasites in Red Panda of Nepal

Red pandas are known to be highly susceptible to endoparasites, which can have a prominent impact on the population dynamics of this endangered species. There are very limited published reports on prevalence and risk of parasites in wild populations of red panda, especially localized reports. This study attempts to provide an in-depth insight of the status of endoparasites in red pandas, which is critical for strengthening conservation efforts. A total of 272 fecal samples were collected through systematic sampling across the red panda distribution range in Nepal and coprological examination was completed using standard techniques. It was followed by an estimation of prevalence and mean intensity of parasites, as well as statistical analysis, which was carried out using R statistical software. Parasite prevalence was documented in 90.80% (n = 247) out of 272 samples examined which includes seven different species along with three genera of parasites belonging to Protozoans (3 species), Cestodes (1 genus, 1 species) and Nematodes (2 genera, 3 species). Nematodes predominated in all infected samples (87.62%). Prevalence of Ancyclostoma duodenale (n = 227, 70.06%), having a mean intensity of 3.45 ± 2.88 individuals per sample, was observed, followed by Ascaris lumbricoides (n = 19, 5.86%) and Entamoeba histolytica (n = 24, 7.41%). Eight variables for assessing the determinants of infestation were tested: protected areas; non-protected areas; aspect; elevation; slope; and distance to water sources, herding stations, and settlements. Only the settlement displayed significant association (β = −1534e−04, t =  − 2.192, p = 0.0293) though each parasite species displayed dissimilar association with different variables. This study indicates the urgent need of improving existing herding practice through habitat zonation, rotational grazing, medication of livestock, and prohibition of open defecation within and around red panda habitat.

Larval development of Angiostrongylus chabaudi, the causative agent of feline angiostrongylosis, in the snail Cornu aspersum

Nematodes of the Angiostrongylidae family, such as Angiostrongylus vasorum and Angiostrongylus cantonensis, may cause potentially life-threatening diseases in several mammal species. Alongside these well-known species, Angiostrongylus chabaudi has been recently found affecting the cardiopulmonary system of domestic and wild cats from Italy, Germany, Greece, Romania and Bulgaria. Nonetheless, significant gaps in the understanding of A. chabaudi epidemiology include the lack of information of species acting as intermediate host and of the morphological description of larval stages. Cornu aspersum (n = 30) land snails were infected with 100 first-stage larvae of A. chabaudi collected from a naturally infected wildcat in Romania. Larvae at different developmental stages were found in 29 out of 30 (96·7%) infected snails and a total of 282 (mean 9·8 ± 3·02 larvae per each specimen) were collected from the gastropods. Here we demonstrate that A. chabaudi develops in snails and report C. aspersum as potential intermediate host for this parasitic nematode. Findings of this study are central to understand the ecological features of feline angiostrongylosis and its epidemiology within paratenic and intermediate hosts.

Lungworms and gastrointestinal parasites of domestic cats: a European perspective

With the exception of Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, feline lungworms have been poorly studied. Information on their distribution is patchy and mostly limited to case reports. In this study, the occurrence of feline lungworms and co-infecting gastrointestinal parasites has been investigated in 12 European countries (i.e. Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Switzerland and the United Kingdom). An average of 10 domestic cats, with regular outdoor access, was sampled each month for 12months, and freshly passed faeces were collected. Stools were processed using a McMaster assay and a quantitative Baermann-Wetzel method. Animals positive for lungworms and/or gastrointestinal parasites were treated with a formulation containing fipronil, (S)-methoprene, eprinomectin, and praziquantel (Broadline®, Merial), and re-sampled 28days post-treatment. The association between lungworm infection and risk factors was analysed using statistical medians/means and the efficacy of the treatment against each lungworm species was assessed. Of 1990 cats sampled, 613 (30.8%) were positive for at least one parasite, while 210 (10.6%) were infected by lungworms. The prevalence of lungworm infection varied between the sampled sites, with the highest recorded in Bulgaria (35.8%) and the lowest in Switzerland (0.8%). None of the cats from Austria or the United Kingdom were infected by lungworms. Aelurostrongylus abstrusus was the species most frequently detected (78.1%), followed by Troglostrongylus brevior (19.5%), Eucoleus aerophilus (14.8%) and Oslerus rostratus (3.8%). The overall efficacy of the treatment was 99% for A. abstrusus and 100% for T. brevior, O. rostratus and E. aerophilus. Data presented provide a comprehensive account of the diagnosis, epidemiology and treatment of feline lungworms in Europe, as well as of the occurrence of co-infections by gastrointestinal parasites.

Use of a commercial serologic test for Angiostrongylus vasorum for the detection of A. chabaudi in wildcats and A. daskalovi in badgers

Three species of the genus Angiostrongylus are known to infect European carnivores: A. vasorum (mainly in canids but also in other carnivores), A. chabaudi (in felids) and A. daskalovi (in mustelids). A. vasorum is responsible for clinically severe disease in domestic dogs, most commonly diagnosed based on fecal examination and serological detection of circulating antigens. Considering the poorly known host range and the challenging larval differentiation in the feces between the three species of Angiostrongylus infecting European carnivores, our aim was to evaluate the cross-reactivity of A. chabaudi and A. daskalovi with A. vasorum using a commercial serologic test developed for domestic dogs. Badgers (Meles meles) (n=10) and wildcats (Felis silvestris) (n=8) were examined between 2015 and 2016 by full parasitological necropsy with subsequent morphological and molecular identification of nematodes and by serology, using IDEXX Angio Detect™ tests. Five out of the ten badgers and two out of the eight wildcats were harboring nematodes in the pulmonary arteries. All nematodes were identified morphologically as A. daskalovi in badgers and A. chabaudi in wildcats, respectively. Serological examination of the plasma samples revealed the positivity of the same animals as found in necropsy. None of the animals negative at necropsy was positive at serology. The 100% correlation between the necropsy results and the serologic positivity to IDEXX Angio Detect™ in badgers infected with A. daskalovi and wildcats infected with A. chabaudi suggest that these rapid tests are able to identify circulating antigens of all species of Angiostrongylus found in European carnivores: A. vasorum, A. daskalovi and A. chabaudi. The possibility for future in-clinic use of this test in domestic cats should be further investigated.

The white-nosed coati (Nasua narica) is a naturally susceptible definitive host for the zoonotic nematode Angiostrongylus costaricensis in Costa Rica

Angiostrongylus costaricensis (Strongylida, Angiostrongylidae) is a roundworm of rodents, which may cause a severe or fatal zoonosis in several countries of the Americas. A single report indicated that the white-nosed coati (Nasua narica), acts as a potential free-ranging wildlife reservoir. Here we investigated the prevalence and features of A. costaricensis infection in two procyonid species, the white-nosed coati and the raccoon (Procyon lotor) from Costa Rica to better understand their possible role in the epidemiology of this zoonotic infection. Eighteen of 32 (56.2%) white-nosed coatis collected between July 2010 and March 2016 were infected with A. costaricensis but none of 97 raccoons from the same localities were diagnosed with this infection. First-stage larvae of A. costaricensis were obtained from feces of 17 fresh white-nosed coati carcasses by Baermann technique. Parasite identity was confirmed by morphology, histology and molecular characterization of target genes. These data demonstrate that the white-nosed coati is a naturally susceptible definitive host for A. costaricensis in Costa Rica contrary to findings in the raccoon.

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) as a potential reservoir host of cardiorespiratory parasites in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is considered as reservoir of different cardiorespiratory parasites of veterinary and medical importance. Since data on cardiorespiratory parasites in foxes in Bosnia and Herzegovina are still lacking, the aims of the present study were to (i) investigate the prevalence and geographical distribution of these parasites, (ii) determine genetic diversity of detected parasite species, and (iii) to estimate the role of foxes in the transmission cycle to companion animals and humans. Four species, morphologically and molecularly identified as Eucoleus boehmi (64.6%; 51/79), Eucoleus aerophilus (69.7%; 154/221), Crenosoma vulpis (45.7%; 101/221) and Linguatula serrata (1.3%; 1/79) were retrieved from nasal cavity and lungs in 184 (83.3%) animals. The occurrence of heartworms, Angiostrongylus vasorum and Dirofilaria immitis was not detected by necropsy or PCR. Furthermore, three distinct haplotypes of E. aerophilus (I, III, XV) and two of C. vulpis (I, II) previously reported in pet animals and wild carnivores were confirmed in this study. A new haplotype of C. vulpis (designated as haplotype V) was also identified based on 12S rRNA gene for the first time. The present study indicates a high prevalence and wide distribution of nasal and lung nematodes in fox population in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and supports the existence of transmission patterns between wildlife and pet animals.

RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF MORTALITY IN THE NORTH AMERICAN CAPTIVE RED PANDA (AILURUS FULGENS) POPULATION, 1992-2012

Red pandas ( Ailurus fulgens ) are managed as captive populations in both North America and Europe. Regular review of pathology reports is a useful tool for developing veterinary care and husbandry strategies for such populations. Though thorough pathology reviews have been conducted for the European studbook, the North American population has not been reviewed similarly until now. Complete gross and histopathology reports were requested from institutions holding red pandas that died during 1992 through 2012 (n = 530), and reports were received for 95.8% of the individuals, including full necropsy records for 366 red pandas. These reports were classified by subspecies, gender, and age, then reviewed for primary cause of death and secondary pathological findings. A substantial portion of the deaths (40.2%) were neonates (<30 days of age). In both neonatal and juvenile (age = 31-365 days) animals, pneumonia was the most common cause of death. In adult (age = 366 days-10 yr) and geriatric red pandas (age >10 yr), cardiovascular disease was the most common cause of death. Renal disease and gastrointestinal disease also were common pathologic findings in adult and geriatric animals. These findings suggest that stress associated with captivity and husbandry practices, including those associated with social, environmental, and nutritional conditions, may contribute to immune and cardiovascular pathologies, and other common necropsy findings.

First report of a naturally patent infection of Angiostrongylus costaricensis in a dog

Angiostrongylus costaricensis is the zoonotic agent of abdominal angiostrongyliasis in several countries in North and South America. Rodents are recognized as the main definitive hosts of A. costaricensis, but other wildlife species can develop patent infections. Although, several human cases have been described in the literature, the role of domestic animals in the epidemiology of the infection is not clear. Here we review the literature available on A. costaricensis in mammals and describe the first confirmed fatal case of abdominal angiostrongyliasis in a 4-month-old dog, presented with intestinal perforation, peritonitis and faecal shedding of first-stage larvae. Parasite identity was confirmed by morphology, histology and molecular characterization of target genes. This is the first record of a naturally infected dog acting as a definitive host for A. costaricensis. These data suggest that dogs may potentially spread this parasite in urbanized areas.

Recent advances in the epidemiology, clinical and diagnostic features, and control of canine cardio-pulmonary angiostrongylosis

The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive update on the biology, epidemiology, clinical features, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of canine cardio-pulmonary angiostrongylosis. This cardiopulmonary disease is caused by infection by the metastrongyloid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum. The parasite has an indirect life cycle that involves at least two different hosts, gastropod molluscs (intermediate host) and canids (definitive host). A. vasorum represents a common and serious problem for dogs in areas of endemicity, and because of the expansion of its geographical boundaries to many areas where it was absent or uncommon; its global burden is escalating. A. vasorum infection in dogs can result in serious disorders with potentially fatal consequences. Diagnosis in the live patient depends on faecal analysis, PCR or blood testing for parasite antigens or anti-parasite antibodies. Identification of parasites in fluids and tissues is rarely possible except post mortem, while diagnostic imaging and clinical examinations do not lead to a definitive diagnosis. Treatment normally requires the administration of anthelmintic drugs, and sometimes supportive therapy for complications resulting from infection.

Fatal Parastrongylus dujardini Infection in Captive Callitrichids

Intravascular nematodes were considered the cause of death of 14 captive callitrichids. All animals were captive born at zoos in France and died with little or no premonitory signs of disease. No consistent gross lesions were observed at necropsy, although in certain cases intracardiac adult parasites were noted. The most significant histologic findings were verminous pneumonia and pulmonary endarteritis. In all cases except one, intravascular adult nematodes were observed with eggs and larvae in the lungs. Adult nematodes were obtained from 8 animals and in all cases were identified as Parastrongylus dujardini. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first report of intravascular angiostrongylosis with primary cardiopulmonary location in callitrichids in France.

Development of the feline lungworms Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and Troglostrongylus brevior in Helix aspersa snails

Aelurostrongylus abstrusus (Strongylida, Angiostrongylidae) and Troglostrongylus brevior (Strongylida, Crenosomatidae) are regarded as important lungworm species of domestic felids, with the latter considered an emerging threat in the Mediterranean region. The present study aimed to assess their concurrent development in the mollusc Helix aspersa (Pulmonata, Helicidae). Thirty snails were infested with 100 first-stage larvae (L1) of A. abstrusus and T. brevior, isolated from a naturally infested kitten. Larval development was checked by digesting five specimens at 2, 6 and 11 days post infestation. Larvae retrieved were morphologically described and their identification was confirmed by specific PCR and sequencing. All H. aspersa snails were positive for A. abstrusus and T. brevior, whose larval stages were simultaneously detected at each time point. In addition, snails were exposed to outdoor conditions and examined after overwintering, testing positive up to 120 days post infestation. Data herein presented suggest that A. abstrusus and T. brevior develop in H. aspersa snails and may eventually co-infest cats. Data on the morphology of both parasitic species in H. aspersa provide additional information on their development and identification, to better understand the population dynamics of these lungworms in receptive snails and paratenic hosts.

Parasite epidemiology in a changing world: can molecular phylogeography help us tell the wood from the trees?

SUMMARY Molecular phylogeography has revolutionised our ability to infer past biogeographic events from cross-sectional data on current parasite populations. In ecological parasitology, this approach has been used to address fundamental questions concerning host-parasite co-evolution and geographic patterns of spread, and has raised many technical issues and problems of interpretation. For applied parasitologists, the added complexity inherent in adding population genetic structure to perceived parasite distributions can sometimes seem to cloud rather than clarify approaches to control. In this paper, we use case studies firstly to illustrate the potential extent of cryptic diversity in parasite and parasitoid populations, secondly to consider how anthropogenic influences including movement of domestic animals affect the geographic distribution and host associations of parasite genotypes, and thirdly to explore the applied relevance of these processes to parasites of socio-economic importance. The contribution of phylogeographic approaches to deeper understanding of parasite biology in these cases is assessed. Thus, molecular data on the emerging parasites Angiostrongylus vasorum in dogs and wild canids, and the myiasis-causing flies Lucilia spp. in sheep and Cochliomyia hominovorax in humans, lead to clear implications for control efforts to limit global spread. Broader applications of molecular phylogeography to understanding parasite distributions in an era of rapid global change are also discussed.

Troglostrongylus brevior and Troglostrongylus subcrenatus (Strongylida: Crenosomatidae) as agents of broncho-pulmonary infestation in domestic cats

BACKGROUND

Aelurostrongylus abstrusus is currently regarded as the main metastrongyloid infesting domestic cats, whereas the reports of Troglostrongylus spp. in domestic and wild felids largely remain anecdotic. This paper reports on pulmonary infestation caused by Troglostrongylus brevior and Troglostrongylus subcrenatus in two kittens and describes, for the first time, associated clinical presentations and pathological features. Morphometrical, molecular and phylogenetic analyses have also been conducted to differentiate here the examined Troglostrongylus species from A. abstrusus, towards a clearer delineation of metastrongyloids affecting cats.

METHODS

Two kittens were referred for respiratory distress and hospitalized with a diagnosis of severe aelurostrongylosis, based on the presence of metastrongyloid larvae in the faeces. Despite prompt treatment, kittens died within 48 hours. Both kittens were submitted to necropsy to determine the cause of death.

RESULTS

At necropsy, nematode specimens were found in the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles and were associated with respiratory signs (i.e., dyspnoea, polypnea, severe coughing and nasal discharge). Morphology and measurements of adult parasites found allowed the unequivocal identification of T. brevior and T. subcrenatus, even if first stage larvae were rather similar to those of A. abstrusus. Briefly, T. brevior and T. subcrenatus larvae were shorter in length and lacking the typical knob-like terminal end of A. abstrusus. Molecular and phylogenetic analyses corroborated morphological identification and provided data on mitochondrial and ribosomal DNA genes of T. brevior.

CONCLUSIONS

Data presented here indicate that T. brevior and T. subcrenatus may cause major respiratory distress in domestic cats. Consequently, these two species should be included, along with A. abstrusus, in the differential diagnosis of cat bronchopulmonary affections and treatment protocols need to be evaluated. Through research on the biology, epidemiology and control of Troglostrongylus spp. infestations in domestic cats are advisable to implement current knowledge on these neglected metastrongyloids.

Clinical implications of infection with a novel metastrongyloid species in the red panda (Ailurus fulgens)

In a recent survey, 30% of the European red panda (Ailurus fulgens) population was found to be infected with a newly discovered metastrongyloid nematode. In a following prospective study, four naturally infected captive-bred red pandas infected with this parasite were examined and compared with two uninfected control animals. On clinical examination, no abnormalities were detected with respect to vital parameters and cardiovascular system in all six examined animals. Similarly, few and nonspecific changes were recorded on serum biochemistry. No changes on pulmonary pattern were noted on thoracic radiographs. Vertebral heart scores were between 7.2 to 8.6, and no difference was noted between infected and control animals. Two animals had slightly prolonged clotting time and reaction time on thromboelastography but not likely to be of clinical relevance. In conclusion, infection with the newly identified metastrongyloid nematode in the red pandas seems to have little or no clinical importance.

Improved detection of canine Angiostrongylus vasorum infection using real-time PCR and indirect ELISA

This study reports the development of a real-time PCR assay and an indirect ELISA to improve on current detection of canine Angiostrongylus vasorum infection. A highly specific fluorescent probe-based, real-time PCR assay was developed to target the A. vasorum second internal transcribed spacer region and detected DNA in EDTA blood, lung tissue, broncho-alveolar larvage fluid, endotracheal mucus, pharyngeal swabs and faecal samples. PCR was fast (∼1 h), highly efficient when using EDTA blood samples, consistently detected a single molecule of parasite DNA and did not amplify DNA from other parasitic nematodes or definitive host species. An indirect ELISA was also developed using the soluble protein fraction from adult A. vasorum worms. Some cross-reactive antigen recognition was observed when tested against sera from dogs infected with Crenosoma vulpis (n = 8), Toxocara canis (n = 5) and Dirofilaria immitis (n = 5). This was largely overcome by setting the cut-off for a positive result at an appropriately high level. Field evaluation of the real-time PCR and ELISA was conducted by testing sera and EDTA blood from dogs with suspected A. vasorum infection (n = 148) and compared with the Baermann's larval migration test in faeces. Thirty-one dogs were positive by at least one test. Of these, 20 (65%) were detected by the Baermann method, 18 (58%) by blood PCR, 24 (77%) by ELISA and 28 (90%) by blood PCR and ELISA together. Combined testing using real-time PCR and ELISA therefore improved the detection rate of A. vasorum infection and holds promise for improved clinical diagnosis and epidemiological investigation.

The use of intermittent positive pressure ventilation to differentiate pneumonia from atelectasis during anesthesia in a red panda (Ailurus fulgens)

Radiography is a valuable tool for assessment of pulmonary disease. Specifically, radiographs utilizing positive pressure ventilation can distinguish between anesthesia-induced atelectasis and pulmonary disease when survey radiographs are ambiguous. Positive pressure ventilation can be used to radiographically prove or disprove pulmonary disease. This is of particular clinical importance when working with exotic, zoo, or wildlife species because the majority of these patients require general anesthesia to perform physical examinations and diagnostics such as radiography safely and efficiently. This report is a case example of pulmonary disease in a red panda (Ailurus fulgens) and demonstrates how positive pressure ventilation verified both the presence of pulmonary disease and the eventual resolution of the disease. Anesthetized patients on gas anesthesia will rapidly become atelectic. Through the use of positive pressure ventilation, anesthesia-induced atelectasis and true pulmonary disease can readily be distinguished. This is a technique that should not be overlooked when performing thoracic radiography in zoo species.

Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in dogs: Presentation and risk factors

Infection with the nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum is an emerging cause of canine disease in Europe and part of North America, yet published data on its epidemiology in endemic areas are lacking. This study tested faecal samples from 897 dogs attending veterinary practices in the southern part of Great Britain, a long standing endemic focus. Among 790 dogs presenting with respiratory or other signs broadly suggestive of angiostrongylosis, 16% tested positive on a single Baermann's examination, compared with 2% of healthy dogs in the same catchment areas. Risk factors for positive tests included age (higher risk in younger dogs), season (more cases earlier in the calendar year), and worming history (lower risk if given milbemycin oxime in the past 12 weeks). Sex, neutering status and breed were not significant in terms of risk of testing positive. The most common clinical signs in infected dogs were respiratory, along with non-specific signs such as lethargy and exercise intolerance, while bleeding, neurological and gastrointestinal signs were also recorded. Around half the dogs sampled that showed signs of extra-pulmonary disease also had respiratory signs. Direct faecal smears and Baermann's tests read after one hour detected 56% and 83% of diagnosed cases respectively. The data confirm that A. vasorum is commonly associated with disease in endemic areas, which manifests with a broad range of signs at primary care level. Information on risk factors is useful in diagnosis and control, and forms a basis for further epidemiological investigation.

Angiostrongylus species in wild carnivores in the Iberian Peninsula

A survey of Angiostrongylus parasites was carried out between 2003 and 2006 in wild carnivore species in the Basque Country (Northern Spain). Parasitological examination consisted in the dissection of heart and lungs for the extraction of adult worms. Nematodes were identified using morphometrical features and also PCR amplification and sequencing analysis. The animal species included in this study were Eurasian badger (Meles meles), Weasel (Mustela nivalis), Beech marten (Martes foina), Pine marten (Martes martes), Polecat (Mustela putorius), American mink (Mustela vison), Red fox (Vulpes vulpes), Wolf (Canis lupus), Wild cat (Felis silvestris), and Small-spotted genet (Genetta genetta). Angiostrongylus parasites were only found in foxes and badgers at prevalences of 33.3% and 24%, respectively. Identification of the nematodes by morphometrical features revealed that foxes were infected with A. vasorum while badgers were infected by a different species of Angiostrongylus most likely A. daskalovi. Sequencing data of the second internal transcribed spacer region of ribosomal DNA (ITS2) of isolates from each species confirmed the species difference. The high prevalence of Angiostrongylus found in the present survey, indicates that the wild cycle of two different species of Angiostrongylus is present in the Basque Country. To our knowledge this is the first report of A. daskalovi in the Iberian Peninsula.

Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and Troglostrongylus sp. (Nematoda: Metastrongyloidea) infections in cats inhabiting Ibiza, Spain

Multiple species of metastrongylid lungworm (Nematoda: Metastrongyloidea) have been reported to infect members of the Felidae. This study describes two metastrongylid species infecting cats in Ibiza, Spain, including clinical features of infection and diagnosis via morphological and molecular characterisation of larval stages. Cats (n=7) presented with suspect lungworm infection, exhibiting coughing and other respiratory signs of infection. Faecal samples were collected from each cat and were subjected to the Baermann method for the detection of first stage larvae. In four cats, two different species of larvae were observed on the basis of morphology and were further molecularly characterised by PCR and sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene. Sequence data confirmed the presence of Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and an unknown species of Troglostrongylus. Molecular characterisation of Oslerus rostratus is also reported for the first time. Given the diversity of metastrongylid species capable of infecting cats, and morphological similarity of larval stages, an emphasis should be placed on the use of molecular characterisation for accurate diagnosis of infection.

Diversity and prevalence of metastrongyloid nematodes infecting the red panda (Ailurus fulgens) in European zoos

Metastrongyloid induced pneumonia has been described sporadically in the red panda (Ailurus fulgens). Early descriptions in pandas recently imported to the USA from China involved parasites morphologically similar to Angiostrongylus spp. and Crenosomatidae. More recently, four cases of severe verminous pneumonia associated with Angiostrongylus vasorum have been reported from European zoos. A coprological survey of the red panda population within European zoos was conducted in 2008. Faecal samples from 115 pandas originating from 54 zoos were collected on 3 consecutive days. Using Baermann technique, 40 animals (35%) from 20 zoos (37%) were found to shed metastrongyloid first stage larvae (L(1)). Based on their morphology and size, the L(1) observed could be divided into three morphologically distinct types: (1) a Crenosoma sp. type (n=5, overall prevalence: 4.3%), (2) an A. vasorum type (n=3, 2.6%), and (3) an unidentified metastrongyloid species, similar to, but morphologically distinct from A. vasorum (n=32, 27.8%). Further confirmation of species identification was provided by PCR amplification and sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene, which confirmed three different species. The novel Crenosoma species was most genetically analogous to Crenosoma mephitidis and the unidentified metastrongyloid species was most similar to Stenurus minor and Torynurus convulutus. Routine and quarantine health care of red pandas in captivity should take account of the risk of Angiostrongylus and Crenosoma infection in endemic areas, but should also be cognisant of the widespread presence of an apparently less pathogenic species of lungworm. The identity of the two potentially novel species is subject to further work.

PCR detection of Angiostrongylus vasorum in faecal samples of dogs and foxes

The cardiovascular nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum is spreading in the fox and dog populations of northern Europe. A. vasorum can result in severe clinical manifestations in dogs; therefore, specific diagnosis is crucial for assessing its prevalence. In the present study, faecal samples from foxes and domestic dogs were tested by a new polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the second internal transcribed region of the ribosomal DNA (ITS2) of A. vasorum. Initial isolation of faecal larvae by sieving facilitated the processing of larger sample volumes and allowed for the recovery of dead larvae from frozen samples. The sieve-PCR method enabled the identification of a single larva per 2 g of faecal sample and did not amplify DNA of a range of canine helminths, thus presenting a non-invasive tool for wildlife surveillance and for confirmative diagnosis in dogs.

Elucidating the spread of the emerging canid nematode Angiostrongylus vasorum between Palaearctic and Nearctic ecozones

Angiostrongylus vasorum is an emerging parasite that is currently distributed through Western Europe and parts of South America. An isolated population is also present in Newfoundland, Canada. This presents a risk of onward spread into North America, but its origin is unknown. To ascertain the phylogeographic relationships and genetic diversity of A. vasorum within the western Palaearctic and eastern Nearctic ecozones, a total of 143 adult and larval nematode specimens were collected from foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) in Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Portugal and the United Kingdom, and a coyote (Canis latrans) in Canada. DNA was extracted and the second internal transcribed spacer and two mitochondrial loci were amplified and sequenced. Multiple haplotypes (n=35) based on combined mitochondrial sequences (1078bp) of the partial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI), large subunit ribosomal RNA (rrnL) and the complete nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide dehydrogenase 3 (NADH3) sequences, were observed throughout the Palaearctic countries sampled; however, only a single haplotype was observed for the Canadian A. vasorum population. The likely origin of A. vasorum in Newfoundland is therefore inferred to be within the western Palaearctic. There was no evidence of genetic segregation of parasites in dogs, foxes and coyotes, supporting the hypothesis that transmission occurs between wild and domestic canids. The transmission dynamics and population structure of this nematode are further discussed.