Targeting non-small cell lung cancer: driver mutation beyond epidermal growth factor mutation and anaplastic lymphoma kinase fusion

The continually evolving landscape of novel therapies in oncogene-driven advanced non-small-cell lung cancer

Non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is a highly heterogeneous disease that is frequently associated with a host of known oncogenic alterations. Advances in molecular diagnostics and drug development have facilitated the targeting of novel alterations such that the majority of NSCLC patients have driver mutations that are now clinically actionable. The goal of this review is to gain insights into clinical research and development principles by summary, analysis, and discussion of data on agents targeting known alterations in oncogene-driven, advanced NSCLC beyond those in the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK). A search of published and presented literature was conducted to identify prospective trials and integrated analyses reporting outcomes for agents targeting driver gene alterations (except those in EGFR and ALK) in molecularly selected, advanced NSCLC. Clinical efficacy data were extracted from eligible reports and summarized in text and tables. Findings show that research into alteration-directed therapies in oncogene-driven, advanced NSCLC is an extremely active research field. Ongoing research focuses on the expansion of new agents targeting both previously identified targets (particularly hepatocyte growth factor receptor (MET), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), and Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS)) as well as novel, potentially actionable targets (such as neuregulin-1 (NRG1) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)). The refinement of biomarker selection criteria and the development of more selective and potent agents are allowing for increasingly specific and effective therapies and the expansion of clinically actionable alterations. Clinical advances in this field have resulted in a large number of regulatory approvals over the last 3 years. Future developments should focus on the continued application of alteration therapy matching principles and the exploration of novel ways to target oncogene-driven NSCLC.

Afatinib as first-line treatment for advanced lung squamous cell carcinoma harboring uncommon EGFR G719C and S768I co-mutation: A case report and literature review

Ten percent of non-small cell lung cancer patients with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations harbor uncommon variants. These mutations are mainly involved in lung adenocarcinomas but are rare in lung squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC). In 2018, the Food and Drug Administration-approved afatinib for this specific patient population. However, there is limited information regarding the effectiveness of afatinib for LSCC with EGFR mutations. This case report documented a unique case of a patient with LSCC, which had a rare compound EGFR mutation (G719C and S768I) and showed significant response to afatinib treatment, with 10 months of progression-free survival. New NTRK1 and RET gene mutations may play a potential role in the development of acquired resistance to afatinib following clinical progression. This case highlights the importance of genetic profiling in patients with LSCC. Although these patients have a low positive rate of EGFR mutations, searching for EGFR mutations in these patients might broaden their treatment options.

Prominent response to savolitinib monotherapy in high-grade fetal adenocarcinoma with MET amplification and concurrent brain metastasis: a case report

Background

Mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MET) represents a potential therapeutic target in various cancers, with amplification of the MET gene identified in a subset of patients with pulmonary adenocarcinomas. However, MET gene amplification is rarely observed in high-grade fetal adenocarcinoma (H-FLAC).

Case Description

Here we present a novel case of a patient diagnosed with stage IV H-FLAC harboring MET amplifications and treated with savolitinib. The 69-year-old male patient, who presented with a primary complaint of cough and white sputum, had a history of hypertension for over 10 years and a 45-year smoking history. The patient received savolitinib monotherapy treatment due to brain metastases. Despite the omission of radiotherapy for asymptomatic brain metastases, a notable response to savolitinib therapy was observed, with a partial response (PR) achieved after 4 weeks and a reduction in the brain tumor. At the time of the submission of this report, the patient received over 24 weeks of savolitinib treatment, and was maintained PR. The patient was still undergoing treatment. This highlights the potential clinical benefits of targeted therapy against MET amplification in H-FLAC.

Conclusions

H-FLAC harboring MET amplification and brain metastasis is rare. Treatment with savolitinib monotherapy resulted in a PR, providing preliminary insights to the efficacy of savolitinib for H-FLAC with MET amplification.

Real-World Outcomes of Crizotinib in ROS1-Rearranged Advanced Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Real-world data on the use and outcomes of crizotinib in ROS1-rearranged non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) are limited. This study aims to analyze the real-world efficacy of crizotinib in South Korea and explore the utilization of liquid biopsies that implement next-generation sequencing (NGS) using cell-free total nucleic acids. In this prospective multicenter cohort study, 40 patients with ROS1-rearranged NSCLC, either starting or already on crizotinib, were enrolled. Patients had a median age of 61 years, with 32.5% presenting brain/central nervous system (CNS) metastases at treatment initiation. At the data cutoff, 48.0% were still in treatment; four continued with it even after disease progression due to the clinical benefits. The objective response rate was 70.0%, with a median duration of response of 27.8 months. The median progression-free survival was 24.1 months, while the median overall survival was not reached. Adverse events occurred in 90.0% of patients, primarily with elevated transaminases, yet these were mostly manageable. The NGS assay detected a CD74-ROS1 fusion in 2 of the 14 patients at treatment initiation and identified emerging mutations, such as ROS1 G2032R, ROS1 D2033N, and KRAS G12D, during disease progression. These findings confirm crizotinib's sustained clinical efficacy and safety in a real-world context, which was characterized by a higher elderly population and higher rates of brain/CNS metastases. The study highlights the clinical relevance of liquid biopsy for detecting resistance mechanisms, suggesting its value in personalized treatment strategies.

External Validation of Robust Radiomic Signature to Predict 2-Year Overall Survival in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is the second most fatal disease worldwide. In the last few years, radiomics is being explored to develop prediction models for various clinical endpoints in lung cancer. However, the robustness of radiomic features is under question and has been identified as one of the roadblocks in the implementation of a radiomic-based prediction model in the clinic. Many past studies have suggested identifying the robust radiomic feature to develop a prediction model. In our earlier study, we identified robust radiomic features for prediction model development. The objective of this study was to develop and validate the robust radiomic signatures for predicting 2-year overall survival in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). This retrospective study included a cohort of 300 stage I-IV NSCLC patients. Institutional 200 patients' data were included for training and internal validation and 100 patients' data from The Cancer Image Archive (TCIA) open-source image repository for external validation. Radiomic features were extracted from the CT images of both cohorts. The feature selection was performed using hierarchical clustering, a Chi-squared test, and recursive feature elimination (RFE). In total, six prediction models were developed using random forest (RF-Model-O, RF-Model-B), gradient boosting (GB-Model-O, GB-Model-B), and support vector(SV-Model-O, SV-Model-B) classifiers to predict 2-year overall survival (OS) on original data as well as balanced data. Model validation was performed using 10-fold cross-validation, internal validation, and external validation. Using a multistep feature selection method, the overall top 10 features were chosen. On internal validation, the two random forest models (RF-Model-O, RF-Model-B) displayed the highest accuracy; their scores on the original and balanced datasets were 0.81 and 0.77 respectively. During external validation, both the random forest models' accuracy was 0.68. In our study, robust radiomic features showed promising predictive performance to predict 2-year overall survival in NSCLC.

The search for therapeutic targets in lung cancer: Preclinical and human studies of carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 5 expression and its associated molecular landscape

OBJECTIVES

CEACAM5 is a cell-surface glycoprotein expressed on epithelial cells of some solid tumors. Tusamitamab ravtansine (SAR408701), a humanized antibody-drug conjugate targeting CEACAM5, is in clinical development for nonsquamous non-small cell lung cancer (NSQ-NSCLC) with CEACAM5 high expression (HE), defined as membranous CEACAM5 immunohistochemistry staining at ≥ 2+ intensity in ≥ 50% of tumor cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We investigated correlations between CEACAM5 expression by immunohistochemistry, CEACAM5 protein expression by ELISA, and CEACAM5 RNA expression by RNA-seq in NSQ-NSCLC patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models, and tumor responses to tusamitamab ravtansine in these models. We assessed prevalence of CEACAM5 HE, clinicopathologic characteristics and molecular markers in patients with NSQ-NSCLC in clinical cohorts.

RESULTS

In a lung PDX set of 10 NSQ-NSCLC specimens, correlations between CEACAM5 by IHC, ELISA and RNA-seq ranged from 0.72 to 0.88. In a larger lung PDX set, higher H-scores were present in NSQ- (n = 93) vs SQ-NSCLC (n = 128) models, and in 12 of these NSQ-NSCLC models, more tumor responses to tusamitamab ravtansine occurred in CEACAM5 HE (5/8; 62.5%) versus moderate or negative expression (1/4; 25%), including 3 with KRAS mutations among the 6 responders. In clinical NSQ-NSCLC samples, CEACAM5 HE prevalence was (52/214; 24.3%) in primary tumors and (6/17; 35.3%) in metastases. In NSQ-NSCLC primary tumors, CEACAM5 HE prevalence was significantly higher in KRAS-altered versus wild-type (35.0% vs 19.5%; P = 0.028) and in programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) negative (tumor cells 0%)/low (1-49%) versus high (≥50%) (33.3%, 26.1%, 5.0%; P = 0.031), but not significantly different in EGFR-mutated versus wild-type (20.0% vs 25.7%, P = 0.626).

CONCLUSIONS

In NSQ-NSCLC tumors, CEACAM5 HE prevalence was 24.3% overall and was higher with KRAS altered and with PD-L1 negative/low tumors but similar regardless of EGFR mutation status. These findings support targeting CEACAM5 and the clinical development of tusamitamab ravtansine for patients with NSQ-NSCLC with CEACAM5 HE.

Targeted therapies in non-small cell lung cancer: present and future

Lung cancer is the leading cause of malignancy-related death in the United States and the second most common cancer diagnosis worldwide. In the last two decades, lung cancer treatment has evolved to include advances in the development of mutation-based targeting, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, and minimally invasive surgical techniques. The discovery of lung cancer as a molecularly heterogeneous disease has driven investigation into the development of targeted therapies resulting in improved patient outcomes. Despite these advances, there remain opportunities, through further investigation of mechanisms of resistance, to develop novel therapeutics that better direct the personalization of lung cancer therapy. In this review, we highlight developments in the evolution of targeted therapies in non-small cell lung cancer, as well as future directions shaped by emerging patterns of resistance.

Gain-of-function mutations in the catalytic domain of DOT1L promote lung cancer malignant phenotypes via the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway

Lung cancer is a lethal malignancy lacking effective therapies. Emerging evidence suggests that epigenetic enzyme mutations are closely related to the malignant phenotype of lung cancer. Here, we identified a series of gain-of-function mutations in the histone methyltransferase DOT1L. The strongest of them is R231Q, located in the catalytic DOT domain. R231Q can enhance the substrate binding ability of DOT1L. Moreover, R231Q promotes cell growth and drug resistance of lung cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Mechanistic studies also revealed that the R231Q mutant specifically activates the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway by enriching H3K79me2 on the RAF1 promoter and epigenetically regulating the expression of downstream targets. The combination of a DOT1L inhibitor (SGC0946) and a MAPK/ERK axis inhibitor (binimetinib) can effectively reverse the R231Q-induced phenomena. Our results reveal gain-of-function mutations in an epigenetic enzyme and provide promising insights for the precise treatment of lung cancer patients.

Overall survival in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer with KRAS G12C mutation with or without STK11 and/or KEAP1 mutations in a real-world setting

BACKGROUND

KRAS mutations occur frequently in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (aNSCLC); the G12C mutation is the most prevalent. Alterations in STK11 or KEAP1 commonly co-occur with KRAS mutations in aNSCLC. Using real-world data, we assessed the effect of KRAS G12C mutation with or without STK11 and/or KEAP1 mutations on overall survival (OS) in patients with aNSCLC receiving cancer immunotherapy (CIT), chemotherapy, or both in first line (1L) and second line (2L).

METHODS

Patients diagnosed with aNSCLC between January 2011 and March 2020 in a clinico-genomic database were included. Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for left truncation, baseline demographics and clinical characteristics were used to analyze the effect of STK11 and/or KEAP1 co-mutational status on OS in patients with KRAS wild-type (WT) or G12C mutation.

RESULTS

Of 2715 patients with aNSCLC without other actionable driver mutations, 1344 (49.5%) had KRAS WT cancer, and 454 (16.7%) had KRAS G12C-positive cancer. At 1L treatment start, significantly more patients with KRAS G12C-positive cancer were female, smokers, and had non-squamous histology, a higher prevalence of metastasis and programmed death-ligand 1 positivity than those with KRAS WT cancer. Median OS was comparable between patients with KRAS G12C-positive and KRAS WT cancer when receiving chemotherapy or combination CIT and chemotherapy in the 1L or 2L. Median OS was numerically longer in patients with KRAS G12C vs KRAS WT cancer treated with 1L CIT (30.2 vs 10.6 months, respectively) or 2L CIT (11.3 vs 7.6 months, respectively). Co-mutation of STK11 and KEAP1 was associated with significantly shorter OS in patients receiving any type of 1L therapy, regardless of KRAS G12C mutational status.

CONCLUSIONS

This real-world study showed that patients with KRAS G12C-positive or KRAS WT cancer have similar OS in the 1L or 2L when treated with chemotherapy or combination CIT and chemotherapy. In contrast to aNSCLC patients with EGFR or ALK driver mutations, patients with KRAS G12C-positive cancer may benefit from CIT monotherapy. Co-mutation of STK11 and KEAP1 was associated with significantly shorter survival, independent of KRAS G12C mutational status, reflecting the poor prognosis and high unmet need in this patient population.

Amivantamab, an Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) and Mesenchymal-epithelial Transition Factor (MET) Bispecific Antibody, Designed to Enable Multiple Mechanisms of Action and Broad Clinical Applications

Substantial therapeutic advancements have been made in identifying and treating activating mutations in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC); however, resistance to epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and mesenchymal-epithelial transition factor (MET) inhibitors remains common with current targeted therapies. Amivantamab, a fully human bispecific antibody targeting EGFR and MET, is approved in the United States and other countries for the treatment of patients with advanced NSCLC with EGFR exon 20 insertion mutations, for whom disease has progressed on or after platinum-based chemotherapy. Preliminary efficacy and safety have also been demonstrated in patients with common EGFR- or MET-mutated NSCLC. Amivantamab employs 3 distinct potential mechanisms of action (MOAs) including ligand blocking, receptor degradation, and immune cell-directing activity, such as antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity and trogocytosis. Notably, efficacy with amivantamab does not require all 3 MOAs to occur simultaneously, broadening applicability by using diverse antitumor mechanisms. This review focuses on the molecular characteristics of amivantamab and its unique MOAs leading to in vitro and in vivo efficacy and safety in preclinical and clinical studies.

Circulating tumour cells: The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

This review is an overview of the current knowledge regarding circulating tumour cells (CTCs), which are potentially the most lethal type of cancer cell, and may be a key component of the metastatic cascade. The clinical utility of CTCs (the "Good"), includes their diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic potential. Conversely, their complex biology (the "Bad"), including the existence of CD45+/EpCAM+ CTCs, adds insult to injury regarding their isolation and identification, which in turn hampers their clinical translation. CTCs are capable of forming microemboli composed of both non-discrete phenotypic populations such as mesenchymal CTCs and homotypic and heterotypic clusters which are poised to interact with other cells in the circulation, including immune cells and platelets, which may increase their malignant potential. These microemboli (the "Ugly") represent a prognostically important CTC subset, however, phenotypic EMT/MET gradients bring additional complexities to an already challenging situation.

UPLC-MS based integrated plasma proteomic and metabolomic profiling of TSC-RAML and its relationship with everolimus treatment

Aim: To profile the plasma proteomics and metabolomics of patients with renal cysts, sporadic angiomyolipoma (S-AML) and tuberous sclerosis complex related angiomyolipoma (TSC-RAML) before and after everolimus treatment, and to find potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers as well as reveal the underlying mechanism of TSC tumorigenesis. Materials and Methods: We retrospectively measured the plasma proteins and metabolites from November 2016 to November 2017 in a cohort of pre-treatment and post-treatment TSC-RAML patients and compared them with renal cyst and S-AML patients by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS). The tumor reduction rates of TSC-RAML were assessed and correlated with the plasma protein and metabolite levels. In addition, functional analysis based on differentially expressed molecules was performed to reveal the underlying mechanisms. Results: Eighty-five patients with one hundred and ten plasma samples were enrolled in our study. Multiple proteins and metabolites, such as pre-melanosome protein (PMEL) and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), demonstrated both diagnostic and prognostic effects. Functional analysis revealed many dysregulated pathways, including angiogenesis synthesis, smooth muscle proliferation and migration, amino acid metabolism and glycerophospholipid metabolism. Conclusion: The plasma proteomics and metabolomics pattern of TSC-RAML was clearly different from that of other renal tumors, and the differentially expressed plasma molecules could be used as prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers. The dysregulated pathways, such as angiogenesis and amino acid metabolism, may shed new light on the treatment of TSC-RAML.

A qualitative study of interactions with oncologists among patients with advanced lung cancer

INTRODUCTION

To support the care of lung cancer patients, oncologists have needed to stay current on treatment advancements and build relationships with a new group of survivors in an era where lung cancer survivorship has been re-defined. The objectives of the study were to (1) understand the perspectives of advanced lung cancer patients whose tumors have oncogenic alterations about their care experiences with their oncologist(s) and (2) describe the perceptions of advanced lung cancer patients about seeking second opinions and navigating care decisions.

METHODS

In this qualitative study, patients with advanced lung cancer (n = 25) on targeted therapies were interviewed to discuss their ongoing experience with their oncologists. We used deductive and inductive qualitative approaches in the coding of the data. We organized the data using the self-determination framework.

RESULTS

Patients described both positive and negative aspects of their care as related to autonomy, provider competency, and connectedness. Patients sought second opinions for three primary reasons: expertise, authoritative advice, and access to clinical trial opportunities. When there is disagreement in the treatment plan between the primary oncologist and the specialist, there can be confusion and tension, and patients have to make difficult choices about their path forward.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients value interactions that support their autonomy, demonstrate the competency of their providers, and foster connectedness. To ensure that patients receive quality and goal-concordant care, developing decision aids and education materials that help patients negotiate recommendations from two providers is an area that deserves further attention.

Analytical and clinical validation of a custom 15-gene next-generation sequencing panel for the evaluation of circulating tumor DNA mutations in patients with advanced non-small-cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND

This is a pilot proof-of-concept study to evaluate the utility of a custom 15-gene circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) panel as a potential companion molecular next-generation sequencing (NGS) assay for identifying somatic single nucleotide variants and indels in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. The custom panel covers the hotspot mutations in EGFR, KRAS, NRAS, BRAF, PIK3CA, ERBB2, MET, KIT, PDGFRA, ALK, ROS1, RET, NTRK1, NTRK2 and NTRK3 genes which serve as biomarkers for guiding treatment decisions in NSCLC patients.

METHOD

The custom 15-gene ctDNA NGS panel was designed using ArcherDX Assay Designer. A total of 20 ng or 50 ng input ctDNA was used to construct the libraries. The analytical performance was evaluated using reference standards at different allellic frequencies (0.1%, 1%, 5% and parental). The clinical performance was evaluated using plasma samples collected from 10 treatment naïve advanced stage III or IV NSCLC patients who were tested for tissue EGFR mutations. The bioinformatics analysis was performed using the proprietary Archer Analysis Software.

RESULTS

For the analytical validation, we achieved 100% sensitivity and specificity for the detection of known mutations in the reference standards. The limit of detection was 1% allelic frequency. Clinical validation showed that the clinical sensitivity and specificity of the assay for detecting EGFR mutation were 83.3% and 100% respectively. In addition, the NGS panel also detected other mutations of uncertain significance in 6 out of 10 patients.

CONCLUSION

This preliminary analysis showed that the custom 15-gene ctDNA NGS panel demonstrated good analytical and clinical performances for the EGFR mutation. Further studies incorporating the validation of other candidate gene mutations are warranted.

Intratumor heterogeneity of driver mutations and TMB distribution in 30 early-stage LUAD patients with multiple lesions

Background

Differentiating multiple pulmonary lesions as multiple primary lung cancer (MLC) or intra-pulmonary metastasis (IPM) is critical. Lung cancer also has a high genetic heterogeneity, which influenced the treatment strategy. Genetic information may aid in tracing lineage information on multiple lung lesions. This study applied comprehensive genomic profiling to decipher the intrinsic genetics of multiple lung lesions.

Methods

Sixty-six lung adenocarcinomas (LUAD) tumor lesions (FFEP) archived from 30 patients were included in this study. The 508 cancer-related genes were evaluated by targeted next-generation sequencing (MGI-seq 2000).

Results

The study included a total of 30 LUADs (66 samples). The majority of tumors demonstrated intra-tumoral heterogeneity. Two hundred twenty-four mutations were detected by sequencing the 66 samples. We investigated the driver gene mutations of NSCLC patients with multiple lesions. EGFR was the most frequently (48/198) mutated driver gene. The codons in EGFR mainly affected by mutations were p.L858R (18/66 [27.3%]) and exon 19del (8/66 [12.1%]). In addition, additional driver genes were found, including TP53, BRAF, ERBB2, MET, and PIK3CA. We also found that the inter-component heterogeneity of different lesions and more than two different mutation types of EGFR were detected in seven patients with two lesions (P3, P10, P24, P25, P28, P29, and P30). The TMB values of different lesions in each patient were different in 26 patients (except P4, P5, P14, and P30).

Conclusions

Comprehensive genomic profiling should be applied to distinguishing the nature of multiple lung lesions irrespective of radiologic and histologic diagnoses.

Dual-receptor-targeted nanomedicines: emerging trends and advances in lung cancer therapeutics

Cancer is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Among all cancer types, lung cancer is recognized as the most lethal and highly metastatic. The application of targeted nanomedicine loaded with anticancer drugs is highly desirable for successful lung cancer treatment. However, due to the heterogenicity and complexity of lung cancer, the therapeutic effectiveness of a single receptor targeting nanomedicine is unfortunately limited. Therefore, the concept of dual-receptor-targeted nanomedicine is an emerging trend for the advancement in lung cancer therapeutics. In this review, the authors discuss various single- and dual-receptor-targeted nanomedicines that have been developed for lung cancer treatment. Furthermore, the authors also discussed all the types of receptors that can be utilized in combination for the development of dual-receptor-targeted nanomedicines.

The state of the art for artificial intelligence in lung digital pathology

Lung diseases carry a significant burden of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The advent of digital pathology (DP) and an increase in computational power have led to the development of artificial intelligence (AI)-based tools that can assist pathologists and pulmonologists in improving clinical workflow and patient management. While previous works have explored the advances in computational approaches for breast, prostate, and head and neck cancers, there has been a growing interest in applying these technologies to lung diseases as well. The application of AI tools on radiology images for better characterization of indeterminate lung nodules, fibrotic lung disease, and lung cancer risk stratification has been well documented. In this article, we discuss methodologies used to build AI tools in lung DP, describing the various hand-crafted and deep learning-based unsupervised feature approaches. Next, we review AI tools across a wide spectrum of lung diseases including cancer, tuberculosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and COVID-19. We discuss the utility of novel imaging biomarkers for different types of clinical problems including quantification of biomarkers like PD-L1, lung disease diagnosis, risk stratification, and prediction of response to treatments such as immune checkpoint inhibitors. We also look briefly at some emerging applications of AI tools in lung DP such as multimodal data analysis, 3D pathology, and transplant rejection. Lastly, we discuss the future of DP-based AI tools, describing the challenges with regulatory approval, developing reimbursement models, planning clinical deployment, and addressing AI biases. © 2022 The Authors. The Journal of Pathology published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland.

TCRP1 activated by mutant p53 promotes NSCLC proliferation via inhibiting FOXO3a

Previously, our lab explored that tongue cancer resistance-associated protein (TCRP1) plays a central role in cancer chemo-resistance and progression. Absolutely, TCRP1 was significantly increased in lung cancer. But the mechanism is far from elucidated. Here, we found that TCRP1 was increased in p53-mutant non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), comparing to that in NSCLC with wild type p53. Further study showed that mutant p53 couldn't bind to the promoter of TCRP1 to inhibit its expression. While the wild type p53 did so. Next, loss-and gain-of-function assays demonstrated that TCRP1 promoted cell proliferation and tumor growth in NSCLC. Regarding the mechanism, TCRP1 encouraged AKT phosphorylation and blocked FOXO3a nuclear localization through favoring FOXO3a ubiquitination in cytoplasm, thus, promoted cell cycle progression. Conclusionly, TCRP1 was upregulated in NSCLC cells with mutant p53. TCRP1 promoted NSCLC progression via regulating cell cycle.

PEAC: An Ultrasensitive and Cost-Effective MRD Detection System in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer Using Plasma Specimen

Circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA), a tumor-derived fraction of cell-free DNA (cfDNA), has emerged as a promising marker in targeted therapy, immunotherapy, and minimal residual disease (MRD) monitoring in postsurgical patients. However, ctDNA level in early-stage cancers and postsurgical patients is very low, which posed many technical challenges to improve the detection rate and sensitivity, especially in the clinical practice of MRD detection. These challenges usually include insufficient DNA input amount, limit of detection (LOD), and high experimental costs. To resolve these challenges, we developed an ultrasensitive ctDNA MRD detection system in this study, namely PErsonalized Analysis of Cancer (PEAC), to simultaneously detect up to 37 mutations, which account for 70–80% non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) driver mutations from low plasma sample volume and enables LOD of 0.01% at a single-site level. We demonstrated the high performance achieved by PEAC on both cfDNA reference standards and clinical plasma samples from three NSCLC patient cohorts. For cfDNA reference standards, PEAC achieved a specificity of 99% and a sensitivity of 87% for the mutations at 0.01% allele fraction. In the second cohort, PEAC showed 100% concordance rate between ddPCR and Next-generation sequencing (NGS) among 29 samples. In the third cohort, 22 of 59 patients received EGFR TKI treatment. Among them, three in four patients identified low level actionable gene mutations only by PEAC had partial responses after targeted therapy, demonstrating high ctDNA detection ability of PEAC. Overall, the developed PEAC system can detect the majority of NSCLC driver mutations using 8–10 ml plasma samples, and has the advantages of high detection sensitivity and lower costs compared with the existing technologies such as ddPCR and NGS. These advantages make the PEAC system quite appropriate for ctDNA and MRD detection in early-stage NSCLC and postsurgical recurrence monitoring.

Review of Therapeutic Strategies for Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase-Rearranged Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Simple Summary

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK)-rearranged non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) was first reported in 2007. Following the development of crizotinib as a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) targeting ALK, the treatment of advanced NSCLC with ALK-rearrangements has made remarkable progress. Currently, there are five ALK-TKIs approved by the FDA, and the development of new agents, including fourth-generation TKI, is ongoing. Clinical trials with angiogenesis inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors are also underway, and further progress in the treatment of ALK-rearranged advanced NSCLC is expected. The purpose of this manuscript is to provide information on the recent clinical trials of ALK-TKIs, angiogenesis inhibitors, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and chemotherapy, to describe tissue and liquid biopsy as a method to investigate the mechanisms of resistance against ALK-TKIs and suggest a proposed treatment algorithm.

Abstract

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with anaplastic lymphoma kinase rearrangement (ALK) was first reported in 2007. ALK-rearranged NSCLC accounts for about 3–8% of NSCLC. The first-line therapy for ALK-rearranged advanced NSCLC is tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKI) targeting ALK. Following the development of crizotinib, the first ALK-TKI, patient prognosis has been greatly improved. Currently, five TKIs are approved by the FDA. In addition, clinical trials of the novel TKI, ensartinib, and fourth-generation ALK-TKI for compound ALK mutation are ongoing. Treatment with angiogenesis inhibitors and immune checkpoint inhibitors is also being studied. However, as the disease progresses, cancers tend to develop resistance mechanisms. In addition to ALK mutations, other mechanisms, including the activation of bypass signaling pathways and histological transformation, cause resistance, and the identification of these mechanisms is important in selecting subsequent therapy. Studies on tissue and liquid biopsy have been reported and are expected to be useful tools for identifying resistance mechanisms. The purpose of this manuscript is to provide information on the recent clinical trials of ALK-TKIs, angiogenesis inhibitors, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and chemotherapy to describe tissue and liquid biopsy as a method to investigate the mechanisms of resistance against ALK-TKIs and suggest a proposed treatment algorithm.

Molecular Testing and Treatment Strategies in RET-Rearranged NSCLC Patients: Stay on Target to Look Forward

RET alterations are recognized as key oncogenic drivers in different cancer types, including non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Multikinase inhibitors (MKIs) with anti-RET activities resulted in variable efficacy with significant toxicities because of low target specificity. Selective RET kinase inhibitors, such as pralsetinib and selepercatinib, demonstrated high efficacy and favorable tolerability in advanced RET-rearranged NSCLC patients, leading to their introduction in the clinical setting. Among the different approaches available for the identification of RET rearrangements, next-generation sequencing (NGS) assays present substantial advantages in terms of turnaround time and diagnostic accuracy, even if potentially limited by accessibility issues. The recent advent of novel effective targeted therapies raises several questions regarding the emergence of resistance mechanisms and the potential ways to prevent/overcome them. In this review, we discuss molecular testing and treatment strategies to manage RET fusion positive NSCLC patients with a focus on resistance mechanisms and future perspectives in this rapidly evolving scenario.

Spotlight on Sotorasib (AMG 510) for KRAS G12C Positive Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Mutations in codon 12 of KRAS have been identified in 13% of non-small cell lung cancer patients. Developing targeted therapies against KRAS^G12C mutation has proven to be challenging due to the abundance of GTP in the cytoplasm, rapid hydrolysis of GTP, and difficulty designing small molecules to achieve sufficient concentration for KRAS inhibition. Based on promising results in both preclinical and clinical trials, sotorasib, a novel KRAS^G12C inhibitor, was given conditional approval by the FDA in May 2021. The Phase I portion of the clinical trial produced 32% confirmed response with 56% of patients with stable disease. About 91.2% of patients who received the highest dose of 960mg daily achieved disease control. The Phase II portion, which used 960mg daily dosing resulted in 37.1% of patients with confirmed response and 80.6% of patients with disease control. Both phase I and phase II had similar progression-free survival, in 6.3 months and 6.8 months, respectively. In both phases, grade 4 adverse events occurred in only one patient. The most common adverse events were elevations in LFTs, which down-trended upon dose reduction and steroid treatment. While the conditional approval of sotorasib was a major breakthrough for those patients harboring KRAS^G12C mutations, resistance mutations to sotorasib are increasingly common. Many proposals have been made to address this, such as the use of combination therapy for synthetic lethality, which are producing encouraging results. Here, we explore in further detail the development of sotorasib, its efficacy, mechanism of resistance, and strategies to overcome these resistances.

A call to action: molecular pathology in Brazil

Background

Adoption of molecular pathology in Brazil is currently very limited. Of note, there are no programs for training new molecular pathologists in the country; thus, documents compiling nationally applicable information on molecular pathology are few.

Methods

A selected panel of Brazilian experts in fields related to molecular pathology were provided with a series of relevant questions to address prior to the multi-day conference. Within this conference, each narrative was discussed and edited by the entire group, through numerous drafts and rounds of discussion until a consensus was achieved.

Results

The panel proposes specific and realistic recommendations for implementing molecular pathology in cancer care in Brazil. In creating these recommendations, the authors strived to address all barriers to the widespread use and impediments to access mentioned previously within this manuscript.

Conclusion

This manuscript provides a review of molecular pathology principles as well as the current state of molecular pathology in Brazil. Additionally, the panel proposes practical and actionable recommendations for the implementation of molecular pathology throughout the country in order to increase awareness of the importance molecular pathology in Brazil.

The Downregulation of LSAMP Expression Promotes Lung Cancer Progression and Is Associated with Poor Survival Prognosis

Lung cancer has been a leading cause of cancer-related death for decades and therapeutic strategies for non-driver mutation lung cancer are still lacking. A novel approach for this type of lung cancer is an emergent requirement. Here we find that loss of LSAMP (Limbic System Associated Membrane Protein), compared to other IgLON family of proteins NTM (Neurotrimin) and OPCML (OPioid-binding Cell adhesion MoLecule), exhibits the strongest prognostic and therapeutic significance in predicting lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) progression. Lower expression of LSAMP and NTM, but not OPCML, were found in tumor parts compared with normal parts in six LUAD patients, and this was validated by public datasets, Oncomine^® and TCGA. The lower expression of LSAMP, but not NTM, was correlated to shorter overall survival. Two epigenetic regulations, including hypermethylation and miR-143-3p upregulation but not copy number variation, were associated with downregulation of LSAMP in LUAD patients. Pathway network analysis showed that NEGR1 (Neuronal Growth Regulator 1) was involved in the regulatory loop of LSAMP. The biologic functions by LSMAP knockdown in lung cancer cells revealed LSMAP was linked to cancer cell migration via epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) but not proliferation nor stemness of LUAD. Our result showed for the first time that LSAMP acts as a potential tumor suppressor in regulating lung cancer. A further deep investigation into the role of LSAMP in lung cancer tumorigenesis would provide therapeutic hope for such affected patients.

The rapidly evolving landscape of novel targeted therapies in advanced non-small cell lung cancer

Lung cancer is a highly heterogeneous disease often driven by well-characterized driver mutations. Although the best studied are common alterations in the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) oncogenes, rapid advances in molecular characterization has led to the development of novel therapeutics that inhibit additional oncogenic alterations in advanced NSCLC. The literature search identified 62 eligible phase I/II clinical trials or integrated analyses of assessing novel targeted agents against the following molecular alterations: ROS1-rearranged, BRAF V600E-mutant, NTRK-rearranged, MET-altered, uncommon EGFR-mutant, RET-rearranged, HER2-positive, KRAS G12C-mutant and NRG1-rearranged. This rapidly evolving field has produced many new targeted treatment options and promising outcomes have led to the FDA approval of seven novel agents for use in ROS1-rearranged, BRAF V600E-mutant, NTRK-rearranged, MET exon 14 skipping-mutant or RET-rearranged advanced NSCLC. Research continues at a rapid pace, with a number of phase III trials underway to fully evaluate new promising agents under development for improving outcomes in patients with NSCLC harboring distinct molecular subtypes. This review will provide a comprehensive summary of existing data as well as a user-friendly guide on the current status of novel targeted therapy in oncogene-driven advanced NSCLC.

A narrative review of advances in treatment and survival prognosis of HER2-positive malignant lung cancers

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), as a receptor tyrosine kinase of EGF receptor family, whose mutation is often associated with even if less frequency but poor prognosis and shorter survival in pulmonary malignant tumor. HER2 status include mutation, overexpression, amplification and also some rare genotypes, detected by next generation sequencing (NGS), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and also fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Different genotypes represent different therapeutic targets and indicate different clinical prognosis concluded by previous studies. Unfortunately, no standard guidelines for first-line treatment are widely recognized, and current therapeutic schedules include chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy. Especially for patients with advanced metastasis, chemotherapy is based as a systemic therapy using studies of breast cancer or EGFR-positive lung adenocarcinoma as a template. Studies already explored treatment including EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) such as gefitinib and afatinib, and also trastuzumab and its conjugation like HER2-targeted antibody-drug conjugate trastuzumab emtansine (T-DM1) and conjugate trastuzumab deruxtecan (T-DXd). Also, he researches explored combination therapy with chemotherapy and TKIs or monoclonal antibodies. This review describes commonly used therapies for HER2-positive/HER2-overexpression patients and general relationship between genotypes of HER2, drug selection and final prognosis in order to provide suggestions for future diagnosis and treatment.

Combining liquid biopsy and radiomics for personalized treatment of lung cancer patients. State of the art and new perspectives

Lung cancer has become a paradigm for precision medicine in oncology, and liquid biopsy (LB) together with radiomics may have a great potential in this scenario. They are both minimally invasive, easy to perform, and can be repeated during patient's follow-up. Also, increasing evidence suggest that LB and radiomics may provide an efficient way to screen and diagnose tumors at an early stage, including the monitoring of any change in the tumor molecular profile. This could allow treatment optimization, improvement of patients' quality of life, and healthcare-related costs reduction. Latest reports on lung cancer patients suggest a combination of these two strategies, along with cutting-edge data analysis, to decode valuable information regarding tumor type, aggressiveness, progression, and response to treatment. The approach seems more compatible with clinical practice than the current standard, and provides new diagnostic companions being able to suggest the best treatment strategy compared to conventional methods. To implement radiomics and liquid biopsy directly into clinical practice, an artificial intelligence (AI)-based system could help to link patients' clinical data together with tumor molecular profiles and imaging characteristics. AI could also solve problems and limitations related to LB and radiomics methodologies. Further work is needed, including new health policies and the access to large amounts of high-quality and well-organized data, allowing a complementary and synergistic combination of LB and imaging, to provide an attractive choice e in the personalized treatment of lung cancer.

Upregulation of endogenous TRAIL-elicited apoptosis is essential for metformin-mediated antitumor activity against TNBC and NSCLC

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) shows promising antitumor activity in preclinical studies. However, the efficacy of recombinant TRAIL in clinical trials is compromised by its short serum half-life and low in vivo stability. Induction of endogenous TRAIL may overcome the limitations and become a new strategy for cancer treatment. Here, we discovered that metformin increased TRAIL expression and induced apoptosis in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. Metformin did not alter the expression of TRAIL receptors (TRAIL-R1/DR4 and TRAIL-R2/DR5). Metformin-upregulated TRAIL was secreted into conditioned medium (CM) and found to be functional, since the CM promoted TNBC cells undergoing apoptosis, which was abrogated by a recombinant TRAIL-R2-Fc chimera. Moreover, blockade of TRAIL binding to DR4/DR5 or specific knockdown of TRAIL expression significantly attenuated metformin-induced apoptosis. Studies with a tumor xenograft model revealed that metformin not only significantly inhibited tumor growth but also elicited apoptosis and enhanced TRAIL expression in vivo. Collectively, we have demonstrated that upregulation of TRAIL and activation of death receptor signaling are pivotal for metformin-induced apoptosis in TNBC and NSCLC cells. Our studies identify a novel mechanism of action of metformin exhibiting potent antitumor activity via induction of endogenous TRAIL.

Crizotinib in Patients With MET-Amplified NSCLC

INTRODUCTION

MET amplification is a rare, potentially actionable, primary oncogenic driver in patients with NSCLC.

METHODS

The influence of MET amplification on the clinical activity of the ALK, ROS1, and MET inhibitor, crizotinib (250 mg twice daily), was examined in patients with NSCLC (NCT00585195) who were enrolled into high (≥4 MET-to-CEP7 ratio), medium (>2.2 to <4 MET-to-CEP7 ratio), or low (≥1.8 to ≤2.2 MET-to-CEP7 ratio) amplification categories. Retrospective next-generation sequencing profiling was performed on archival tumor tissue. End points included objective response rate (ORR), duration of response, and progression-free survival.

RESULTS

A total of 38 patients with a MET-to-CEP7 ratio greater than or equal to 1.8 by local fluorescence in situ hybridization testing received crizotinib. All patients were response-assessable, among whom 21, 14, and 3 had high, medium, and low MET amplification, respectively. ORRs of 8 of 21 (38.1%), 2 of 14 (14.3%), and 1 of 3 (33.3%), median duration of response of 5.2, 3.8, and 12.2 months, and median progression-free survival values of 6.7, 1.9, and 1.8 months were observed for those with high, medium, and low MET amplification, respectively. MET amplification gene copy number greater than or equal to 6 was detected by next-generation sequencing in 15 of 19 (78.9%) analyzable patients. Of these 15 patients, objective responses were observed in six (40%), two of whom had concurrent MET exon 14 alterations. No responses were observed among five patients with concurrent KRAS, BRAF, or EGFR mutations.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with high-level, MET-amplified NSCLC responded to crizotinib with the highest ORR. Use of combined diagnostics for MET and other oncogenes may potentially identify patients most likely to respond to crizotinib.

Generation of osimertinib-resistant cells from epidermal growth factor receptor L858R/T790M mutant non-small cell lung carcinoma cell line

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer contributes to high cancer mortality worldwide with 80% of total cases diagnosed as non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase (TK) domain serves as a druggable target in NSCLC patients with exon 19 deletion and L858R mutation. However, patients eventually succumbed to resistance to first- and second-generation EGFR-TK inhibitors through activation of T790M mutation. Third-generation EGFR-TKI, Osimertinib exhibits high efficacy in patients with exon 19 deletion/L858R/T790M mutation but they experienced acquired resistance thereafter. Available treatment options in NSCLC patients remains a challenge due to unknown molecular heterogeneity responsible for acquired resistance to EGFR-TKI. In this study, we aim to generate Osimertinib-resistant (OR) cells from H1975 carrying L858R/T790M double mutation which can be used as a model to elucidate mechanism of resistance.

METHODS

OR cells were established via stepwise-dose escalation and limiting single-cell dilution method. We then evaluated Osimertinib resistance potential via cell viability assay. Proteins expression related to EGFR-signalling, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), and autophagy were analyzed via western blot.

RESULTS

OR cell lines exhibited increased drug resistance potential compared to H1975. Distinguishable mesenchymal-like features were observed in OR cells. Protein expression analysis revealed EGFR-independent signaling involved in the derived OR cells as well as EMT and autophagy activity.

CONCLUSION

We generated OR cell lines in-vitro as evidenced by increased drug resistance potential, increased mesenchymal features, and enhanced autophagy activity. Development of Osimertinib resistance cells may serve as in-vitro model facilitating discovery of molecular aberration present during acquired mechanism of resistance.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of first-line treatments for advanced epidermal growth factor receptor-mutant non-small cell lung cancer patients

Objectives

Recent studies showed prolonged survival for advanced epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)‐mutant non‐small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with both monotherapies and combined therapies. However, high costs limit clinical applications. Thus, we conducted this cost‐effectiveness analysis to explore an optimal first‐line treatment for advanced EGFR‐mutant NSCLC patients.

Materials and Methods

Survival data were extracted from six clinical trials, including ARCHER1050 (dacomitinib vs. gefitinib); FLAURA (osimertinib vs. gefitinib/erlotinib); JO25567 and NEJ026 (bevacizumab +erlotinib vs. erlotinib); NEJ009 (gefitinib +chemotherapy vs. gefitinib); and NCT02148380 (gefitinib +chemotherapy vs. gefitinib vs. chemotherapy) trials. Cost‐related data were obtained from hospitals and published literature. The effect parameter (quality‐adjusted life year [QALY]) was the reflection of both survival and utility. Incremental cost‐effectiveness ratio (ICER), average cost‐effectiveness ratio (ACER), and net benefit were calculated, and the willingness‐to‐pay (WTP) threshold was set at $30828/QALY from the perspective of the Chinese healthcare system. Sensitivity analysis was performed to explore the stability of results.

Results

We compared treatment groups with control groups in each trial. ICERs were $1897750.74/QALY (ARCHER1050), $416560.02/QALY (FLAURA), ‐$477607.48/QALY (JO25567), ‐$464326.66/QALY (NEJ026), ‐$277121.22/QALY (NEJ009), ‐$399360.94/QALY (gefitinib as comparison, NCT02148380), and ‐$170733.05/QALY (chemotherapy as comparison, NCT02148380). Moreover, ACER and net benefit showed that the combination of EGFR‐TKI with chemotherapy and osimertinib was of more economic benefit following first‐generation EGFR‐TKIs. Sensitivity analyses showed that the impact of utilities and monotherapy could be cost‐effective with a 50% cost reduction.

Conclusion

First‐generation EGFR‐TKI therapy remained the most cost‐effective treatment option for advanced EGFR‐mutant NSCLC patients. Our results could serve as both a reference for both clinical practice and the formulation of medical insurance reimbursement.

Canadian Consensus for Biomarker Testing and Treatment of TRK Fusion Cancer in Adults

The tyrosine receptor kinase (TRK) inhibitors larotrectinib and entrectinib were recently approved in Canada for the treatment of solid tumours harbouring neurotrophic tyrosine receptor kinase (NTRK) gene fusions. These NTRK gene fusions are oncogenic drivers found in most tumour types at a low frequency (<5%), and at a higher frequency (>80%) in a small number of rare tumours (e.g., secretory carcinoma of the salivary gland and of the breast). They are generally mutually exclusive of other common oncogenic drivers. Larotrectinib and entrectinib have demonstrated impressive overall response rates and tolerability in Phase I/II trials in patients with TRK fusion cancer with no other effective treatment options. Given the low frequency of TRK fusion cancer and the heterogeneous molecular testing landscape in Canada, identifying and optimally managing such patients represents a new challenge. We provide a Canadian consensus on when and how to test for NTRK gene fusions and when to consider treatment with a TRK inhibitor. We focus on five tumour types: thyroid carcinoma, colorectal carcinoma, non-small cell lung carcinoma, soft tissue sarcoma, and salivary gland carcinoma. Based on the probability of the tumour harbouring an NTRK gene fusion, we also suggest a tumour-agnostic consensus for NTRK gene fusion testing and treatment. We recommend considering a TRK inhibitor in all patients with TRK fusion cancer with no other effective treatment options.

ILT3 promotes tumor cell motility and angiogenesis in non-small cell lung cancer

Immunoglobulin-like transcript (ILT) 3 is an immunosuppressive molecule that negatively regulates myeloid cell activation. ILT3 overexpression in tumor cells induces immune escape of solid tumors and facilitates invasion of monocytic acute myeloid leukemia cells. However, the expression and function of ILT3 in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells remain elusive. Herein, we found that ILT3 was enriched in human NSCLC cells, and predicted advanced disease and poor overall survival. ILT3 overexpression enhanced the migration and invasion of NSCLC cells and tubule formation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells by upregulating and interacting with its ligand apolipoprotein E (ApoE) in vitro. Mechanistically, ILT3 recruited SHP2 and SHIP1, and subsequently activated ERK1/2 signaling mediating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and increasing vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A expression in NSCLC cells, which are responsible for tumor cell motility and angiogenesis, respectively. Using murine metastasis models, we further confirmed ILT3 promoted NSCLC metastasis and explored the exact correlation of ILT3 with ApoE, EMT, and VEGF-A in vivo. These results unraveled novel mechanisms for ILT3-induced tumor progression and proposed ILT3 as a potential therapeutic target and prognostic biomarker for NSCLC patients.