Spontaneous Thought and Vulnerability to Mood Disorders: The Dark Side of the Wandering Mind

Disorganisation and depression: a re-examination of how we think and speak when depressed

Disorganised thinking in severe mental illness seriously cripples social functions. Historically, the study of disorganisation has primarily concentrated on schizophrenia, utilizing tools designed to assess formal thought disorder (FTD). This review examines the characteristics, prevalence, and possible neural correlates of FTD within the framework of depressive disorders. Our focus is on disturbances in thought, language, and communication associated with depression, alongside the relevant subjective experiences. We also discuss the challenges and opportunities in using FTD as a predictor of future illness trajectory and advocate for using the broader construct of depressive disorganisation. We review the disruption of brain networks associated with FTD, such as the salience, language, and default mode networks, within the context of depression. In conclusion, we advocate for increased focus on personal narratives, computational psychopathology, and a broader emphasis on thought dynamics to enhance the identification of disorganisation in depression. Renewed emphasis on this neglected area of psychopathology could provide insights on improving employment and social functioning for individuals affected by mood disorders.

Low mood, worry and mind wandering in children

Previous research with adults and adolescents has established that mind wandering-characterized by a shift in attention from external tasks to internal thoughts-is associated with negative affect and reduced psychological well-being, particularly when focused on past events. This study explored the relations between low mood, worry, and the frequency and temporal orientation of mind wandering in children aged 8-12 years (N = 77). In a testing session conducted via videoconferencing software, we assessed mind wandering using intermittent thought probes during a listening activity and collected mood and worry data through self-report questionnaires and carer reports. Our findings indicate that children's minds wandered approximately 23% of the time, aligning with existing literature. We found a significant association between lower mood and increased mind wandering. Specifically, children with lower mood showed a higher propensity for mind wandering. Moreover, low mood was a significant predictor of past-oriented mind wandering, and a significant relation was observed between worry and future-oriented thought. These results highlight the need for future research using experimental designs to clarify the causal relationships between children's mood, worry, and mind wandering. A deeper understanding of these dynamics is essential for developing targeted interventions that aim to enhance emotional well-being in children.

Cognitive disengagement syndrome and depressive symptoms in early adolescents: Examining the moderating role of a negative interpretation bias

BACKGROUND

Despite previous research demonstrating an independent association between cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS; previously termed sluggish cognitive tempo) and depressive symptoms, studies have yet to examine what factors may moderate this link. A negative interpretation bias (i.e., maladaptive information processing whereby emotionally aversive meaning is perceived in ambiguous situations) is associated with the development and maintenance of depression and may moderate the association between CDS and depression. Using a multi-informant, multi-method design, this study examined whether negative interpretation bias exacerbated the association between CDS and depressive symptoms.

METHODS

336 adolescents (ages 10-12 years; 52.7% female; 61.9% White) and their caregivers completed measures of CDS and depressive symptoms. Adolescents completed the Scrambled Sentences Test, a task-based measure of interpretation bias. Regression analyses were conducted to examine interpretation bias as a potential moderator of the association between CDS and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

For adolescent-reported depressive symptoms, higher caregiver- and adolescent-reported CDS symptoms and interpretation bias scores were each independently associated with higher depressive symptoms (all ps < .01), but CDS and interpretation bias did not interact in predicting depression (ps > .05). By contrast, significant CDS symptoms × interpretation bias interactions were found in models using both caregiver- and adolescent-reported CDS symptoms in relation to caregiver-reported depressive symptoms (ps = .01 and .003, respectively), such that CDS was more strongly associated with depression at higher levels of interpretation bias.

CONCLUSIONS

Negative interpretation bias strengthens the association between CDS symptoms and depressive symptoms when depressive symptoms are rated by caregivers, but not by adolescents. Findings highlight the importance of multiple informants when examining CDS and internalizing symptoms, with a need for longitudinal research to examine CDS and interpretation bias in relation to the progression and maintenance of depression across adolescence.

Spontaneous thought separates into clusters of negative, positive, and flexible thinking

The nature and frequency of spontaneous thoughts play a critical role in cognitive processes like perception, decision-making, attention, and memory. Deficits in these processes are also greatly associated with the development and maintenance of psychopathology. However, the underlying cognitive dynamics of free and stuck spontaneous thought remain unclear, as these often occur in the absence of measurable behaviors. Here, we analyze free word-association data using attractor-state dynamic modeling, which conceptualizes stuck spontaneous thought as navigating a multidimensional semantic space while in the presence of strong attractor locations. Word-association data was collected from an exploratory sample (N1 = 65), a first replication sample (N2 = 79), and, following pre-registration, a second replication sample (N3 = 222). After the data was embedded into a 3-dimensional semantic space and fit by our dynamic model, unsupervised learning consistently grouped data into four clusters across all independent samples. These clusters were characterized by two distinct patterns of stuck negative thinking, a pattern of protective positive thinking, and a pattern of flexible mind-wandering. Our results support a method for modeling spontaneous thought and isolate distinct sub-types that may not be accessible using retrospective self-report methods. We discuss implications for clinical and cognitive science.

Autonomic Inertia as a Proximal Risk Marker for Moments of Perseverative Cognition in Everyday Life in Remitted Depression

Background: Trait perseverative cognition (PC) is associated with inflexible autonomic activity and risk for depressive recurrence. However, the identification of dynamic psychophysiological markers of PC that fluctuate within individuals over time could facilitate the passive detection of moments when PC occurs in daily life. Methods: Using intensively sampled data across 1 week (3x/day) in adults with remitted major depressive disorder (rMDD) and never-depressed controls (CONs), we investigated the utility of monitoring ambulatory autonomic complexity to predict moments of PC engagement in everyday life. Autonomic complexity metrics, including the root mean square of successive difference (RMSSD), indexing vagal control, and sample entropy, indexing signal complexity, were calculated in the 30 min before each measurement of PC to enable time-lagged analyses. Multilevel models examined proximal fluctuations in the mean level and inertia of complexity metrics as predictors of subsequent PC engagement. Results: Momentary increases in the inertia of sample entropy, but not other metrics, predicted higher levels of subsequent PC in the rMDD group, but not among never-depressed CONs. Conclusions: The inertia of sample entropy could index autonomic rigidity and serve as a dynamic risk marker for real-world PC in individuals with a history of depression. This could inform the development of technologies to passively detect fluctuations in risk for PC, facilitating real-time interventions to prevent PC and reduce the risk for depressive recurrence.

Influence of mindfulness meditation on intracranial EEG parameters in epileptic and non-epileptic brain areas

OBJECTIVE

Mind-wandering is a pervasive human brain state and, when in excess, may promote negative affect and neuropsychiatric conditions. Mindfulness meditation may promote alternate brain states, improving affect and reducing stress. An understanding of the neural basis between these brain states could thus advance treatment of neuropsychiatric conditions, including those associated with epilepsy.

METHODS

To explore the neural basis of mindfulness meditation versus mind-wandering, we enrolled eight patients in a trial of structured mindfulness meditation and open mind-wandering who underwent stereo electroencephalography (sEEG) within the mesial temporal lobe for seizure localization. Electrophysiology was compared between mind-wandering and mindfulness separately for epileptic and non-epileptic MTL. Using fitting-one-over-f modeling, periodic components of electrophysiology were compared in canonical frequency bands of theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-13 Hz), beta (13-30 Hz), and gamma (30-55 Hz). Aperiodic components of the power spectra were assessed by the model offset, knee, and exponent.

RESULTS

We found a significant reduction in gamma power (30-55 Hz) within the mesial temporal lobe (MTL) during mindfulness meditation compared with mind-wandering in non-epileptic (p = 1.20E-4) but not in epileptic MTL (p = 0.352).There was also a significant difference between epileptic versus non-epileptic MTL in gamma power between conditions (p = 0.011). There were no significant changes in power across any frequency band within epileptic mesial temporal MTL between brain states. Conversely, there were significant differences between mind-wandering and mindfulness within epileptic MTL in aperiodic components (offset, knee, and exponent, all p < 0.05), while no differences in aperiodic components were seen in non-epileptic MTL (all p > 0.70).

SIGNIFICANCE

Intracranial electrophysiologic modulations between brain state (mind-wandering versus mindfulness) may differ between epileptic and non-epileptic MTL. Modulations in gamma activity in non-epileptic MTL may represent functional changes in brain state, while aperiodic changes in epileptic MTL may modulate propensity for seizures.

Mind-wandering in daily life in depressed individuals: An experience sampling study

BACKGROUND

A diagnostic criterion for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is difficulty concentrating and increased distractibility. One form of distraction that occurs in everyday life is mind-wandering. The current study aims to test how individuals with MDD and healthy controls differ in their mind-wandering in everyday life.

METHODS

Adults diagnosed with MDD (n = 53) and healthy controls (n = 53) completed a week of experience sampling, with prompts administered up to eight times per day. At each prompt, participants reported the occurrence and characteristics of their mind-wandering. They also reported levels of momentary negative affect (NA), positive affect (PA), and rumination.

RESULTS

MDD participants reported mind-wandering almost twice as often as healthy control participants. Compared to healthy participants, MDD participants rated their mind-wandering as more negative, but did not differ in terms of temporal orientation. Higher NA and lower PA predicted mind-wandering in the MDD group but not healthy controls, even after controlling for rumination. Time-lagged analyses revealed that current mind-wandering predicted future levels of PA in MDD participants but not in healthy controls; in contrast, current NA and PA did not predict future mind-wandering.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations include our examination of specific forms of mind-wandering (i.e., we did not sample the full spectrum of this construct).

CONCLUSIONS

Individuals with MDD frequently report engaging in mind-wandering in everyday life, and this appears to be coupled with affect. Mind-wandering may have maladaptive effects in MDD and could serve as a target for intervention.

The mind wanders to dark places: Mind-wandering catalyzes rumination in the context of negative affect and impulsivity

Spontaneous mind-wandering has been theorized to increase susceptibility for rumination, contributing to risk for major depressive disorder (MDD). Clarifying whether-and under what circumstances-mind-wandering leads to rumination could inform the development of targeted interventions to reduce risk for ruminative sequelae. Using intensively sampled data in 44 young adults with remitted MDD and 38 healthy volunteers with 1,558 total observations collected from 2018 to 2022, we conducted multilevel models to investigate temporal relationships between mind-wandering and rumination. Contextual factors (e.g., intensity of negative affect; momentary impulsivity) and individual factors (e.g., MDD history) were examined as moderators of these relationships. Mind-wandering predicted increased rumination, whereas rumination did not predict increased mind-wandering. When individuals experienced greater negative affect or acted more impulsively compared to their usual levels, they showed a stronger relationship between mind-wandering and subsequent rumination. Depression history did not significantly moderate temporal relationships between mind-wandering and rumination. Spontaneous mind-wandering may transition into rumination, particularly during moments when people experience more negative affect or impulsivity compared to usual. Delivering interventions in these moments could reduce risk for ruminative sequelae. The tendency to ruminate in response to mind-wandering is suggested to be consistent regardless of depression history, suggesting the transdiagnostic and dimensional nature of rumination as a possible consequence of mind-wandering. Future work is needed to determine whether these associations are generalizable across the lifespan. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Functional activity and connectivity signatures of ketamine and lamotrigine during negative emotional processing: a double-blind randomized controlled fMRI study

Ketamine is a highly effective antidepressant (AD) that targets the glutamatergic system and exerts profound effects on brain circuits during negative emotional processing. Interestingly, the effects of ketamine on brain measures are sensitive to modulation by pretreatment with lamotrigine, which inhibits glutamate release. Examining the antagonistic effects of ketamine and lamotrigine on glutamate transmission holds promise to identify effects of ketamine that are mediated through changes in the glutamatergic system. Investigating this modulation in relation to both the acute and sustained effects of ketamine on functional activity and connectivity during negative emotional processing should therefore provide novel insights. 75 healthy subjects were investigated in a double-blind, single-dose, randomized, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study with three treatment conditions (ketamine, lamotrigine pre-treatment, placebo). Participants completed an emotional face viewing task during ketamine infusion and 24 h later. Acute ketamine administration decreased hippocampal and Default Mode Network (DMN) activity and increased fronto-limbic coupling during negative emotional processing. Furthermore, while lamotrigine abolished the ketamine-induced increase in functional connectivity, it had no acute effect on activity. Sustained (24 h later) effects of ketamine were only found for functional activity, with a significant reduction in the posterior DMN. This effect was blocked by pretreatment with lamotrigine. Our results suggest that both the acute increases in fronto-limbic coupling and the delayed decrease in posterior DMN activity, but not the attenuated limbic and DMN recruitment after ketamine, are mediated by altered glutamatergic transmission.

Integrating dynamic psychophysiological indices across time and contexts: Elucidating mechanisms, risk markers, and intervention targets

Why should researchers measure psychophysiological processes repeatedly over time? The study of psychophysiology inherently involves sampling biological processes as they manifest over time. The most common approach is to use a brief sample to make conclusions about how individuals or groups differ. Although these types of between-subject comparisons have utility for understanding individual and group differences, many of the important conceptual questions in the field involve processes that are dynamic, varying within individuals over time. Using examples from the literature on affect regulation, this conceptual review contrasts three types of study designs: the classic single-observation design and the aggregated and temporally linked repeated observation designs, which have great promise for measuring variables that fluctuate dynamically over time. Importantly, these designs can be integrated to elucidate research questions about risk (when and for whom will the likelihood of an unwanted outcome occurring increase?), mechanisms (how and why does a change in psychophysiology contribute to a change in another process of interest?), and interventions (how and when should interventions take place to modify an outcome?). Researchers are encouraged to implement intensive sampling in their research, which can be conducted in traditional laboratory settings (e.g., fMRI, event-related brain potentials, and heart rate variability) and in ecologically valid contexts in everyday life using ambulatory assessment.

Recurrent involuntary memories and mind wandering are related but distinct

Spontaneous thought is common in daily life, and includes recurrent involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs; memories retrieved unintentionally and repetitively) and mind wandering (MW). Both recurrent IAMs and MW are often unintentional or unconstrained, and both predict symptoms of mental health disorders. However, not all MW is unintentional, and not all IAMs are unconstrained. To what extent do recurrent IAMs and MW converge versus diverge? Undergraduates (N = 2,701) completed self-report measures of recurrent IAMs, trait MW, and psychopathology (i.e., PTSD, depression, anxiety). Regressions indicated that recurrent IAMs were significantly associated with spontaneous MW, but not deliberate MW. Further, both spontaneous MW and recurrent IAMs had unique relationships with disorder symptoms. Results suggest that recurrent IAMs are related to MW to the extent that recurrent IAMs are spontaneous. Conversely, recurrent IAMs are distinct from MW to the extent that recurrent IAMs' associations with disorder symptoms could not be solely explained by trait MW (and vice versa). This work highlights related, but distinguishable, forms of spontaneous thought and their transdiagnostic links with psychopathology.

Comparison of trait and state mind wandering among schizotypal, subclinically depressed, and control individuals

BACKGROUND

Mind wandering is a common phenomenon in daily life. However, the manifestations and cognitive correlates of mind wandering in different subclinical populations remain unclear. In this study, these aspects were examined in individuals with schizotypal traits and individuals with depressive symptoms, i.e., subclinical populations of patients with schizophrenia and depression.

METHODS

Forty-two individuals with schizotypal traits, 42 individuals with subclinical depression, and 42 controls were recruited to complete a mind wandering thought sampling task (state level) and a mind wandering questionnaire (trait level). Measures of rumination and cognitive functions (attention, inhibition, and working memory) were also completed by participants.

RESULTS

Both subclinical groups exhibited more state and trait mind wandering than did the control group. Furthermore, individuals with schizotypal traits demonstrated more trait mind wandering than individuals with subclinical depression. Rumination, sustained attention, and working memory were associated with mind wandering. In addition, mind wandering in individuals with subclinical depression can be accounted for by rumination or attention, while mind wandering in individuals with high schizotypal traits cannot be accounted for by rumination, attention, or working memory.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that individuals with high schizotypal traits and subclinical depression have different patterns of mind wandering and mechanisms. These findings have implications for understanding the unique profile of mind wandering in subclinical individuals.

Why do we think? The dynamics of spontaneous thought reveal its functions

Spontaneous thought-mind wandering, daydreaming, and creative ideation-makes up most of everyday cognition. Is this idle thought, or does it serve an adaptive function? We test two hypotheses about the functions of spontaneous thought: First, spontaneous thought improves memory efficiency. Under this hypothesis, spontaneous thought should prioritize detailed, vivid episodic simulations. Second, spontaneous thought helps us achieve our goals. Under this hypothesis, spontaneous thought should prioritize content relevant to ongoing goal pursuits, or current concerns. We use natural language processing and machine learning to quantify the dynamics of thought in a large sample (N = 3,359) of think aloud data. Results suggest that spontaneous thought both supports memory optimization and keeps us focused on current concerns.

Brain decoding of spontaneous thought: Predictive modeling of self-relevance and valence using personal narratives

The contents and dynamics of spontaneous thought are important factors for personality traits and mental health. However, assessing spontaneous thoughts is challenging due to their unconstrained nature, and directing participants' attention to report their thoughts may fundamentally alter them. Here, we aimed to decode two key content dimensions of spontaneous thought-self-relevance and valence-directly from brain activity. To train functional MRI-based predictive models, we used individually generated personal stories as stimuli in a story-reading task to mimic narrative-like spontaneous thoughts (n = 49). We then tested these models on multiple test datasets (total n = 199). The default mode, ventral attention, and frontoparietal networks played key roles in the predictions, with the anterior insula and midcingulate cortex contributing to self-relevance prediction and the left temporoparietal junction and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex contributing to valence prediction. Overall, this study presents brain models of internal thoughts and emotions, highlighting the potential for the brain decoding of spontaneous thought.

Disentangling boredom from depression using the phenomenology and content of involuntary autobiographical memories

Recurrent involuntary autobiographical memories (IAMs) are memories retrieved unintentionally and repetitively. We examined whether the phenomenology and content of recurrent IAMs could differentiate boredom and depression, both of which are characterized by affective dysregulation and spontaneous thought. Participants (n = 2484) described their most frequent IAM and rated its phenomenological properties (e.g., valence). Structural topic modeling, a method of unsupervised machine learning, identified coherent content within the described memories. Boredom proneness was positively correlated with depressive symptoms, and both boredom proneness and depressive symptoms were correlated with more negative recurrent IAMs. Boredom proneness predicted less vivid recurrent IAMs, whereas depressive symptoms predicted more vivid, negative, and emotionally intense ones. Memory content also diverged: topics such as relationship conflicts were positively predicted by depressive symptoms, but negatively predicted by boredom proneness. Phenomenology and content in recurrent IAMs can effectively disambiguate boredom proneness from depressive symptoms in a large sample of undergraduate students from a racially diverse university.

Reduced REM and N2 sleep, and lower dream intensity predict increased mind-wandering

Mind-wandering is a mental state in which attention shifts from the present environment or current task to internally driven, self-referent mental content. Homeostatic sleep pressure seems to facilitate mind-wandering as indicated by studies observing links between increased mind-wandering and impaired sleep. Nevertheless, previous studies mostly relied on cross-sectional measurements and self-reports. We aimed to combine the accuracy of objective sleep measures with the use of self-reports in a naturalistic setting in order to examine if objective sleep parameters predict the tendency for increased mind-wandering on the following day. We used mobile sleep electroencephalographic (EEG) headbands and self-report scales over 7 consecutive nights in a group of 67 healthy participants yielding ~400 analyzable nights. Nights with more wakefulness and shorter REM and slow wave sleep were associated with poorer subjective sleep quality at the intraindividual level. Reduced REM and N2 sleep, as well as less intense dream experiences, predicted more mind-wandering the following day. Our micro-longitudinal study indicates that intraindividual fluctuations in the duration of specific sleep stages predict the perception of sleep quality as assessed in the morning, as well as the intensity of daytime mind-wandering the following hours. The combined application of sleep EEG assessments and self-reports over repeated assessments provides new insights into the subtle intraindividual, night-to-day associations between nighttime sleep and the next day's subjective experiences.

The aversiveness of intrusiveness: Evidence from involuntary musical imagery

OBJECTIVE

Intrusive thoughts are characterized by a sense of intrusiveness of foreign entry into cognition. While not always consisting of negative content, intrusive thoughts are almost solely investigated in that context. Involuntary Musical Imagery (INMI) offers a promising alternative, as it is a type of involuntary cognition that can be used to evaluate intrusiveness without negative content.

METHODS

In Study 1, 200 participants completed self-report questionnaires to assess several aspects of intrusiveness: meta-awareness, control, repetitiveness, frequency, and subjective experience of INMI. In Study 2, 203 participants completed self-report questionnaires to explore the clinical characteristics (depression, stress, anxiety, and rumination) which might mediate the connection between INMI frequency and INMI negative experience.

RESULTS

Study 1 revealed, through exploratory factor analysis, that intrusiveness shares variance with the negative experience of INMI but not with INMI frequency. In Study 2, ruminative thinking was found to mediate the relationship between frequent INMI and the negative experience of INMI.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that INMI might be used to investigate intrusiveness in the lab without the potential confound of negative emotions. In addition, the results suggest that neither the content nor the frequency of intrusive thoughts can solely explain why these thoughts are aversive to some but not others. Ruminative style might be the missing link to explain how and why these intrusive thoughts become aversive and obsessive. In other words, we suggest that the cause for intrusiveness lies not in the thought or repetitiveness, but in the thinker.

Investigating the protective effects of mindfulness-based attention training on mind wandering in applied settings

Introduction

Mind wandering, a phenomenon in which attention drifts away from the task-at-hand, is associated with deleterious effects on performance and well-being. As such, efforts to curb mind wandering are warranted. Recently, mindfulness training (MT) has been found to protect against mind wandering. Yet, many MT programs are at risk of falling off the implementation cliff due to challenges implementing these programs in applied settings. To mitigate against this, early-stage research in small convenience samples may be necessary to spur stakeholder engagement and collaboration. Herein, the effects of MT on mind wandering were examined via an internal meta-analysis of early-stage studies of a manualized, context-adaptable short-form MT program, referred to as Mindfulness-Based Attention Training (MBAT).

Methods

Five longitudinal studies (N = 304) were conducted in a variety of organizational cohorts. Self-reported mind wandering and meta-awareness, as well as accuracy (A') and response time variability (intra-individual coefficient of variation, ICV) during performance of the sustained attention to response task (SART) were assessed at baseline (T1) and 4 weeks later (T2) in MBAT and no-training participants.

Results

Standardized mean change (SMC) from T1 to T2 significantly differed between MBAT and no-training groups for mind wandering (ΔSMC = -0.387, p < 0.001), meta-awareness (ΔSMC = -0.374, p < 0.001), and ICV (ΔSMC = -0.376, p = 0.043), suggesting potential protective effects in self-reported and performance-based metrics of mind wandering.

Discussion

These results serve as preliminary proof-of-concept support for MBAT's protective effects on mind wandering. Further, they suggest that MBAT is amenable to implementation across a variety of applied and organizational settings and warrants additional research employing larger sample sizes in randomized controlled designs.

The impact of mood-induction on maladaptive thinking in the vulnerability for depression

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Mind-wandering, and specifically the frequency and content of mind-wandering, plays an important role in the psychological well-being of individuals. Repetitive negative thinking has been associated with a high risk to develop and maintain Major Depressive Disorder. We here combined paradigms and techniques from cognitive sciences and experimental clinical psychology to study the transdiagnostic psychiatric phenomenon of repetitive negative thinking. This allowed us to investigate the adjustability of the content and characteristics of mind-wandering in individuals varying in their susceptibility to negative affect.

METHODS

Participants high (n = 42) or low (n = 40) on their vulnerability for negative affect and depression performed a Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART) after a single session of positive fantasizing and a single session of stress induction in a cross-over design. Affective states were measured before and after the interventions.

RESULTS

After stress, negative affect increased, while after fantasizing both positive affect increased and negative affect decreased. Thoughts were less off-task, past-related and negative after fantasizing compared to after stress. Individuals more susceptible to negative affect showed more off-task thinking after stress than after fantasizing compared to individuals low on this.

LIMITATIONS

In this cross-over design, no baseline measurement was included, limiting comparison to 'uninduced' mind-wandering. Inclusion of self-related concerns in the SART could have led to negative priming.

CONCLUSIONS

Stress-induced negative thinking underlying vulnerability for depression could be partially countered by fantasizing in a non-clinical sample, which may inform the development of treatments for depression and other disorders characterized by maladaptive thinking.

Aberrant degree centrality profiles during rumination in major depressive disorder

Rumination is closely linked to the onset and maintenance of major depressive disorder (MDD). Prior neuroimaging studies have identified the association between self-reported rumination trait and the functional coupling among a network of brain regions using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). However, little is known about the underlying neural circuitry mechanism during active rumination in MDD. Degree centrality (DC) is a simple metric to denote network integration, which is critical for higher-order psychological processes such as rumination. During an MRI scan, individuals with MDD (N = 45) and healthy controls (HC, N = 46) completed a rumination state task. We examined the interaction effect between the group (MDD vs. HC) and condition (rumination vs. distraction) on vertex-wise DC. We further characterized the identified brain region's functional involvement with Neurosynth and BrainMap. Network-wise seed-based functional connectivity (FC) analysis was also conducted for the identified region of interest. Finally, exploratory correlation analysis was conducted between the identified region of interest's network FCs and self-reported in-scanner affect levels. We found that a left superior frontal gyrus (SFG) region, generally overlapped with the frontal eye field, showed a significant interaction effect. Further analysis revealed its involvement with executive functions. FCs between this region, the frontoparietal, and the dorsal attention network (DAN) also showed significant interaction effects. Furthermore, its FC to DAN during distraction showed a marginally significant negative association with in-scanner affect level at the baseline. Our results implicated an essential role of the left SFG in the rumination's underlying neural circuitry mechanism in MDD and provided novel evidence for the conceptualization of rumination in terms of impaired executive control.

Recent advances in the neuroscience of spontaneous and off-task thought: implications for mental health

People spend a remarkable 30-50% of awake life thinking about something other than what they are currently doing. These experiences of being "off-task" can be described as spontaneous thought when mental dynamics are relatively flexible. Here we review recent neuroscience developments in this area and consider implications for mental wellbeing and illness. We provide updated overviews of the roles of the default mode network and large-scale network dynamics, and we discuss emerging candidate mechanisms involving hippocampal memory (sharp-wave ripples, replay) and neuromodulatory (noradrenergic and serotonergic) systems. We explore how distinct brain states can be associated with or give rise to adaptive and maladaptive forms of thought linked to distinguishable mental health outcomes. We conclude by outlining new directions in the neuroscience of spontaneous and off-task thought that may clarify mechanisms, lead to personalized biomarkers, and facilitate therapy developments toward the goals of better understanding and improving mental health.

Autonomic complexity dynamically indexes affect regulation in everyday life

Affect regulation often is disrupted in depression. Understanding biomarkers of affect regulation in ecologically valid contexts is critical for identifying moments when interventions can be delivered to improve regulation and may have utility for identifying which individuals are vulnerable to psychopathology. Autonomic complexity, which includes linear and nonlinear indices of heart rate variability, has been proposed as a novel marker of neurovisceral integration. However, it is not clear how autonomic complexity tracks with regulation in everyday life, and whether low complexity serves as a marker of related psychopathology. To measure regulation phenotypes with diminished influence of current symptoms, 37 young adults with remitted major depressive disorder (rMDD) and 28 healthy comparisons (HCs) completed ambulatory assessments of autonomic complexity and affect regulation across one week in everyday life. Multilevel models indicated that in HCs, but not rMDD, autonomic complexity fluctuated in response to regulation cues, increasing in response to reappraisal and distraction and decreasing in response to negative affect. Higher complexity across the week predicted greater everyday regulation success, whereas greater variability of complexity predicted lower (and less variable) negative affect, rumination, and mind-wandering. Results suggest that ambulatory assessment of autonomic complexity can passively index dynamic aspects of real-world affect and regulation, and that dynamic physiological reactivity to regulation is restricted in rMDD. These results demonstrate how intensive sampling of dynamic, nonlinear regulatory processes can advance our understanding of potential mechanisms underlying psychopathology. Such measurements might inform how to test interventions to enhance neurovisceral complexity and affect regulation success in real time. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Transdiagnostic phenomena of psychopathology in the context of the RDoC: protocol of a multimodal cross-sectional study

In the past, affective and cognitive processes related to psychopathology have been examined within the boundaries of phenotype-based diagnostic labels, which has led to inconsistent findings regarding their underlying operating principles. Investigating these processes dimensionally in healthy individuals and by means of multiple modalities may provide additional insights into the psychological and neuronal mechanisms at their core. The transdiagnostic phenomena Neuroticism and Rumination are known to be closely linked. However, the exact nature of their relationship remains to be elucidated. The same applies to the associations between Hedonic Capacity, Negativity Bias and different Emotion Regulation strategies.This multimodal cross-sectional study examines the relationship of the transdiagnostic phenomena Neuroticism and Rumination as well as Hedonic Capacity, the Negativity Bias and Emotion Regulation from a RDoC (Research Domain Criteria) perspective. A total of 120 currently healthy subjects (past 12 months) will complete several questionnaires regarding personality, emotion regulation, hedonic capacity, and psychopathologies as well as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during cognitive and emotional processing, to obtain data on the circuit, behavioral and self-report level.This study aims to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between cognitive and affective processes associated with psychopathologies as well as their neuronal correlates. Ultimately, a grounded understanding of these processes could guide improvement of diagnostic labels and treatments. Limitations include the cross-sectional design and the limited variability in psychopathology scores due to the restriction of the sample to currently healthy subjects.

Breaking the vise of hopelessness: Targeting its components, antecedents, and context

Hopelessness is a painful cognitive state that is related to depression and suicide. Despite its importance, only unsystematic efforts have been made to specifically target hopelessness in interventions, and no comprehensive review is currently available to guide future clinical studies. In this narrative review, we first analyze the phenomenon of hopelessness, by highlighting its components (e.g., dismal expectations, blocked goal-directed processing, and helplessness), antecedents (e.g., inferential styles), and contextual factors (e.g., loneliness and reduced social support). Then, we review the currently available interventions and manipulations that target these mechanisms, either directly or indirectly, and we highlight both their strengths and lacunae. Finally, we propose possible avenues to improve our clinical toolbox for breaking the vise of hopelessness.

Sex/gender differences in cognitive abilities

Sex/gender differences in cognitive sciences are riddled by conflicting perspectives. At the center of debates are clinical, social, and political perspectives. Front and center, evolutionary and biological perspectives have often focused on 'nature' arguments, while feminist and constructivist views have often focused on 'nurture arguments regarding cognitive sex differences. In the current narrative review, we provide a comprehensive overview regarding the origins and historical advancement of these debates while providing a summary of the results in the field of sexually polymorphic cognition. In so doing, we attempt to highlight the importance of using transdisciplinary perspectives which help bridge disciplines together to provide a refined understanding the specific factors that drive sex differences a gender diversity in cognitive abilities. To summarize, biological sex (e.g., birth-assigned sex, sex hormones), socio-cultural gender (gender identity, gender roles), and sexual orientation each uniquely shape the cognitive abilities reviewed. To date, however, few studies integrate these sex and gender factors together to better understand individual differences in cognitive functioning. This has potential benefits if a broader understanding of sex and gender factors are systematically measured when researching and treating numerous conditions where cognition is altered.

Self-compassion is associated with the superior longitudinal fasciculus in the mirroring network in healthy individuals

Self-compassion (SC) involves taking an emotionally positive attitude towards oneself when suffering. Although SC has positive effects on mental well-being as well as a protective role in preventing symptoms in healthy individuals, few studies on white matter (WM) microstructures in neuroimaging studies of SC has been studied. Brain imaging data were acquired from 71 healthy participants. WM regions of mirroring network were analyzed using tract-based spatial statistics. After the WM regions associated with SC were extracted, exploratory correlation analysis with the self-forgiveness scale, the coping scale, and the world health organization quality of life scale abbreviated version was performed. We found that self-compassion scale total scores were negatively correlated with the fractional anisotropy (FA) values of the superior longitudinal fasciculus (SLF) in healthy individuals. The self-kindness and mindfulness subscale scores were also negatively correlated with FA values of the same regions. These FA values were negatively correlated with the total scores of self-forgiveness scale, and self-control coping strategy and confrontation coping strategy. Our findings suggest levels of SC may be associated with WM microstructural changes of SLF in healthy individuals. These lower WM microstructures may be associated with positive personal attitudes, such as self-forgiveness, self-control and active confrontational strategies.

Spanish and cross-cultural validation of the mind excessively wandering scale

Introduction

Over the last decade, excessive spontaneous mind wandering (MW) has been consistently associated with emotional disorders. The main aims of the present study were (1) to re-examine the factor structure of the Mind Excessively Wandering Scale (MEWS); (2) to validate the Spanish version of the MEWS; and (3) to conduct a cross-cultural validation of the MEWS in Spanish and UK samples.

Methods

A forward/backward translation to Spanish was conducted. Data of 391 Spanish and 713 British non-clinical individuals were analysed.

Results

A revised 10-item version of the MEWS (MEWS-v2.0) demonstrated to be a valid instrument to assess MW. A 2-correlated factor structure properly captured the MEWS-v2.0 variance, accounting for two specific but interrelated dimensions (Uncontrolled thoughts and Mental Overactivity).

Discussion

The Spanish MEWS-v2.0 showed adequate internal consistency and construct validity, as well as appropriate convergent/divergent validity. Cross-cultural analyses showed that MEWS-v2.0 captured the same construct in both UK and Spanish samples. In conclusion, both Spanish and English MEWS-v2.0 demonstrated to be reliable measures to capture spontaneous MW phenomenon in non-clinical adult populations.

Rumination as a Transdiagnostic Phenomenon in the 21st Century: The Flow Model of Rumination

Rumination and its related mental phenomena share associated impairments in cognition, such as executive functions and attentional processes across different clinical conditions (e.g., in psychotic disorders). In recent decades, however, the notion of rumination has been increasingly narrowed to the "self-focused" type in depressive disorders. A closer review of the literature shows that rumination may be construed as a broader process characterized by repetitive thoughts about certain mental contents that interfere with one's daily activities, not only limited to those related to "self". A further examination of the construct of rumination beyond the narrowly focused depressive rumination would help expand intervention opportunities for mental disorders in today's context. We first review the development of the clinical construct of rumination with regard to its historical roots and its roles in psychopathology. This builds the foundation for the introduction of the "Flow Model of Rumination (FMR)", which conceptualizes rumination as a disruption of a smooth flow of mental contents in conscious experience that depends on the coordinated interactions between intention, memory, affect, and external events. The conceptual review concludes with a discussion of the impact of rapid technological advances (such as smartphones) on rumination. Particularly in contemporary societies today, a broader consideration of rumination not only from a cognition viewpoint, but also incorporating a human-device interaction perspective, is necessitated. The implications of the FMR in contemporary mental health practice are discussed.

Psychopathology and mind wandering in young university students

Mind wandering has often been studied in relation to psychopathology. However, debates remain as to whether sluggish cognitive tempo, recently termed cognitive disengagement syndrome (CDS), and ADHD symptoms could be unique predictors of mind wandering. Therefore, this study was aimed at documenting the associations between CDS, ADHD symptoms and mind wandering while controlling for age, sex, internalized symptoms, and sleep. A sample consisting of university students (N = 60; aged between 17 and 32 years; 65% female) completed measures of CDS, ADHD symptoms, internalized functioning and insomnia. Mind wandering was also assessed using the 5-item Mind Wandering Questionnaire (MWQ) and thought sampling during a reading task. Multiple regression analyses show that while younger age and inattention were significant predictors of greater levels of self-reported mind wandering on the MWQ, sex, CDS, hyperactivity/impulsivity, internalized symptoms, and sleep were not. In addition, no variables were able to significantly predict spontaneous and deliberate mind wandering as assessed by thought sampling. These findings raise important questions regarding the equivalence between measures of state-level and trait-level mind wandering. The associations between ADHD, CDS and mind wandering in young adults are still unclear, but our findings highlight critical methodological considerations for future studies that might further our understanding of the relationship between task-unrelated thought and psychopathology.

Comparing resting state and task-based EEG using machine learning to predict vulnerability to depression in a non-clinical population

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) affects a large portion of the population and levies a huge societal burden. It has serious consequences like decreased productivity and reduced quality of life, hence there is considerable interest in understanding and predicting it. As it is a mental disorder, neural measures like EEG are used to study and understand its underlying mechanisms. However most of these studies have either explored resting state EEG (rs-EEG) data or task-based EEG data but not both, we seek to compare their respective efficacy. We work with data from non-clinically depressed individuals who score higher and lower on the depression scale and hence are more and less vulnerable to depression, respectively. Forty participants volunteered for the study. Questionnaires and EEG data were collected from participants. We found that people who are more vulnerable to depression had on average increased EEG amplitude in the left frontal channel, and decreased amplitude in the right frontal and occipital channels for raw data (rs-EEG). Task-based EEG data from a sustained attention to response task used to measure spontaneous thinking, an increased EEG amplitude in the central part of the brain for individuals with low vulnerability and an increased EEG amplitude in right temporal, occipital and parietal regions in individuals more vulnerable to depression were found. In an attempt to predict vulnerability (high/low) to depression, we found that a Long Short Term Memory model gave the maximum accuracy of 91.42% in delta wave for task-based data whereas 1D-Convolution neural network gave the maximum accuracy of 98.06% corresponding to raw rs-EEG data. Hence if one has to look at the primary question of which data will be good for predicting vulnerability to depression, rs-EEG seems to be better than task-based EEG data. However, if mechanisms driving depression like rumination or stickiness are to be understood, task-based data may be more effective. Furthermore, as there is no consensus as to which biomarker of rs-EEG is more effective in the detection of MDD, we also experimented with evolutionary algorithms to find the most informative subset of these biomarkers. Higuchi fractal dimension, phase lag index, correlation and coherence features were also found to be the most important features for predicting vulnerability to depression using rs-EEG. These findings bring up new possibilities for EEG-based machine/deep learning diagnostics in the future.

Maladaptive task-unrelated thoughts: Self-control failure or avoidant behavior? Preliminary evidence from an experience sampling study

Introduction

Task-unrelated thoughts (TUT) play an important role in everyday life functioning (e.g., anticipating the future, or providing a mental break). However, TUT might also be maladaptive, impairing cognitive performance emotion regulation, and increasing the risk of psychological disorders. In the present study, we aimed to test how self-reported control over TUT and task valence moderate the link between task difficulty and TUT intensity, testing the context regulation and avoidant alternative hypotheses of TUT occurrence.

Method

Forty-nine participants took part in an experience sampling study. They were asked to answer five times a day for 5 days a series of questions assessing the intensity, valence, control over TUT, and their momentary affect along with characteristics of the task they were currently performing. They also filled in trait questionnaires assessing their tendency to daydream, ruminate, and their beliefs on emotions' usefulness and controllability.

Results

The results showed that both task difficulty and one's lower control over thoughts along with their interaction significantly increased TUT intensity. Task negative valence significantly predicted TUT intensity and moderated the link between task difficulty and TUT intensity. In addition, the tendency to daydream and beliefs in the controllability of negative emotions affect the relations in this model.

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to provide quantitative evidence from an experience sampling study on the role of the valence of currently performed tasks and beliefs on emotions on TUT intensity. It might be an important indication for research and clinical practice that maladaptive TUT might not be only linked to self-control failure but also to emotion regulation strategies one is using.

Daydreaming and psychopathology in adolescence: An exploratory study

AIM

Daydreaming is a cognitive phenomenon characterized by the redirection of attention from the external world to inner representations. Although serving several adaptive functions, excessive daydreaming has been related to emotional problems and poor psychosocial adjustment. During adolescence, this phenomenon has been scarcely explored as potential psychopathological correlate. This study aims to explore daydreaming frequency and association with psychopathological symptoms in a non-referred population.

METHODS

Participants were adolescents from a community sample (N = 251). Daydreaming was assessed through the Daydreaming Frequency Scale (DDFS). Youth Self-Report (YSR) and Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) were used as self-reports to evaluate psychopathological problems and adaptive functioning.

RESULTS

Excessive daydreaming was present in 12.7% of participants. DDFS scores were significantly elevated in respondents with clinical scores for internalizing, depressive, obsessive-compulsive, and post-traumatic stress problems. Symptom severity correlated positively with the DDFS. Higher daydreaming was also associated with emotional symptoms, conduct problems and total difficulties on the SDQ.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents who daydream show increased depressive, obsessive-compulsive, and post-traumatic stress symptoms. Possible cognitive processes at play in the relationship between daydreaming and psychopathology are discussed. Daydreaming may represent a silent psychopathological index that deserves better recognition in the clinical practice and in mental health initiatives for adolescents.

Self-caught methodologies for measuring mind wandering with meta-awareness: A systematic review

Mind wandering, also known as task-unrelated thought, refers to the drift of attention from a focal task or train of thought. Because self-caught measures of mind wandering require participants to spontaneously indicate when they notice their attention drift, self-caught methodologies provide a way to measure mind wandering with meta-awareness. Given the proposed role of meta-awareness in mental health and psychological interventions, an overview of existing self-caught methodologies would help clinicians and researchers make informed decisions when choosing or adapting a mind wandering or meta-awareness measure. This systematic review included 39 studies after 790 studies were assessed for eligibility. All studies operationalised mind wandering as instances of attention drift from a primary task. Three types of primary task were identified: (1) tasks adapted from computerised continuous performance tests (CPT) of sustained attention, (2) tasks involving focusing on the breath or a stream of aural beats, akin to in-vivo mindfulness meditation, (3) tasks involving an everyday life activity such as reading. Although data on mind wandering without meta-awareness (e.g., measured with probe-caught measures) was also obtained in many studies, such data was not always used in conjunction with self-caught mind wandering data to determine level of mind wandering meta-awareness. Few studies reported both reliability and validity of the measures used. This review shows that considerable methodological heterogeneity exists in the literature. Methodological variants of self-caught mind wandering methodologies are documented and examined, and suggestions for future research and clinical work are suggested.

Neural representations of self-generated thought during think-aloud fMRI

Is the brain at rest during the so-called resting state? Ongoing experiences in the resting state vary in unobserved and uncontrolled ways across time, individuals, and populations. However, the role of self-generated thoughts in resting-state fMRI remains largely unexplored. In this study, we collected real-time self-generated thoughts during "resting-state" fMRI scans via the think-aloud method (i.e., think-aloud fMRI), which required participants to report whatever they were currently thinking. We first investigated brain activation patterns during a think-aloud condition and found that significantly activated brain areas included all brain regions required for speech. We then calculated the relationship between divergence in thought content and brain activation during think-aloud and found that divergence in thought content was associated with many brain regions. Finally, we explored the neural representation of self-generated thoughts by performing representational similarity analysis (RSA) at three neural scales: a voxel-wise whole-brain searchlight level, a region-level whole-brain analysis using the Schaefer 400-parcels, and at the systems level using the Yeo seven-networks. We found that "resting-state" self-generated thoughts were distributed across a wide range of brain regions involving all seven Yeo networks. This study highlights the value of considering ongoing experiences during resting-state fMRI and providing preliminary methodological support for think-aloud fMRI.

Relationships between resting-state EEG functional networks organization and individual differences in mind wandering

When performing cognitively demanding tasks, people tend to experience momentary distractions or personal associations that intercept their stream of consciousness. This phenomenon is known as Mind Wandering (MW) and it has become a subject of neuroscientific investigations. Off-task thoughts can be analyzed during task performance, but currently, MW is also understood as a dimension of individual differences in cognitive processing. We wanted to recognize the intrinsically-organized functional networks that could be considered the neuronal basis for MW dispositional variability. To achieve this goal we recruited a group of normal adults, and eventually divided the group in half, based on participants' scores on the scale measuring dispositional MW. Next, these groups were compared regarding the arrangement of preselected intrinsic functional networks, which were reconstructed based on multi-channel signal-source resting-state EEG. It appeared that subjects who tend to mind wander often exhibited decreased synchronization within the default mode network, and, simultaneously, strengthened connectivity between 'on-task' networks of diverse functional specificity. Such within- and between networks integrity patterns might suggest that greater Mind Wanderers present an atypical organization of resting-state brain activity, which may translate into attenuated resources needed to maintain attentional control in task-related conditions.

When self comes to a wandering mind: Brain representations and dynamics of self-generated concepts in spontaneous thought

Self-relevant concepts are major building blocks of spontaneous thought, and their dynamics in a natural stream of thought are likely to reveal one's internal states that are important for mental health. Here, we conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging experiment (n = 62) to examine brain representations and dynamics of self-generated concepts in the context of spontaneous thought using a newly developed free association-based thought sampling task. The dynamics of conceptual associations were predictive of individual differences in general negative affectivity, replicating across multiple datasets (n = 196). Reflecting on self-generated concepts strongly engaged brain regions linked to autobiographical memory, conceptual processes, emotion, and autonomic regulation, including the medial prefrontal and medial temporal subcortical structures. Multivariate pattern-based predictive modeling revealed that the neural representations of valence became more person-specific as the level of perceived self-relevance increased. Overall, this study sheds light on how self-generated concepts in spontaneous thought construct inner affective states and idiosyncrasies.

Automatically detecting task-unrelated thoughts during conversations using keystroke analysis

Task-unrelated thought (TUT), commonly referred to as mind wandering, is a mental state where a person's attention moves away from the task-at-hand. This state is extremely common, yet not much is known about how to measure it, especially during dyadic interactions. We thus built a model to detect when a person experiences TUTs while talking to another person through a computer-mediated conversation, using their keystroke patterns. The best model was able to differentiate between task-unrelated thoughts and task-related thoughts with a kappa of 0.363, using features extracted from a 15 second window. We also present a feature analysis to provide additional insights into how various typing behaviors can be linked to our ongoing mental states.

Linguistic Equivalence, Validity and Reliability Study of the Mind Excessively Wandering Scale

INTRODUCTION

The main objective was to study the linguistic equivalence, validity and reliability of the transliterated Turkish version of Mind Excessively Wandering Scale (MEWS) developed by Prof. Philip Asherson in England (2016). Mind excessively wandering defines uncontrolled mental phenomena, which is proposed as the psychological counterpart of Default Mode Network in literature.

METHOD

Mind Excessively Wandering Scale, Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale, Barratt Impulsiveness Scale, Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale have been used. The sample group consists of 64 patients previously diagnosed as adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder for validity, 60 students for transliteral equivalence, and 80 healthy controls for test re-test reliability.

RESULTS

Transliteral equivalence study demonstrates that Turkish version of MEWS is highly correlated with the English version and is statistically significant. The sixth item in the scale was removed in order to ensure the consistency model established by LISREL in the validity study according to the confirmatory factor analysis. When the sixth item was excluded, it was concluded that the structure of the scale was compatible. In the reliability study of the MEWS, the Cronbach's alpha value (α) of the scale was found to be 0.826. It is seen that the item with the highest distinctiveness feature is Item-10 (0.618) and the item with the lowest distinctiveness feature is Item-5 (0.318). In the linguistic equivalence study, no statistical difference was found between the English form and the Turkish versions of the scale.

CONCLUSION

As a result of the practical and statistical evaluations, our study demonstrated that the Turkish version of the MEWS is a valid and reliable measurement tool.

The steady state visual evoked potential (SSVEP) tracks "sticky" thinking, but not more general mind-wandering

For a large proportion of our daily lives, spontaneously occurring thoughts tend to disengage our minds from goal-directed thinking. Previous studies showed that EEG features such as the P3 and alpha oscillations can predict mind-wandering to some extent, but only with accuracies of around 60%. A potential candidate for improving prediction accuracy is the Steady-State Visual Evoked Potential (SSVEP), which is used frequently in single-trial contexts such as brain-computer interfaces as a marker of the direction of attention. In this study, we modified the sustained attention to response task (SART) that is usually employed to measure spontaneous thought to incorporate the SSVEP elicited by a 12.5-Hz flicker. We then examined whether the SSVEP could track and allow for the prediction of the stickiness and task-relatedness dimensions of spontaneous thought. Our results show that the SSVEP evoked by flickering words was able to distinguish between more and less sticky thinking but not between whether a participant was on- or off-task. This suggests that the SSVEP is able to track spontaneous thinking when it is strongly disengaged from the task (as in the sticky form of off-task thinking) but not off-task thought in general. Future research should determine the exact dimensions of spontaneous thought to which the SSVEP is most sensitive.

Sad reflections of happy times: depression vulnerability and experiences of sadness and happiness upon retrieval of positive autobiographical memories

Instructed retrieval of positive autobiographical memories typically improves mood for healthy individuals, but not always for depressed individuals. No mood improvement may occur when depressed individuals retrieve positive memories that are self-incongruent, or when they ruminate upon positive memory retrieval. Mindfulness is associated with lower self-incongruency and rumination. The present study examined whether recurrent depression predicted emotional experience upon involuntary and voluntary retrieval of positive memories, and whether recurrent depression and trait mindfulness were associated with emotional experience upon positive memory retrieval through state rumination and self-incongruency. Recurrently and never-depressed individuals completed measures of depression, trait mindfulness, and a diary for reporting on everyday positive memories. Recurrently depressed individuals reported diminished happiness upon retrieving involuntary and voluntary positive memories compared to never-depressed individuals; and greater sadness upon involuntary positive memory retrieval, independent of current depression. Recurrent depression was associated with diminished happiness upon involuntary memory retrieval and greater sadness upon involuntary and voluntary positive memory retrieval, through state brooding, self-incongruency, or both. Higher trait mindfulness was associated with lower sadness upon involuntary and voluntary positive memory retrieval through state brooding and reflection. These findings highlight potential mechanisms in the relationship between depression vulnerability and emotional processing of positive autobiographical memories.

The initial Polish adaptation of the Mind Wandering Questionnaire: translation and verification of the scale internal consistency

Introduction: The aim of the current study was to present the results of the first step of the Mind Wandering Questionnaire (MWQ) adaptation to the Polish sample. The adaptation involved performing translation of the scale, verification of the translated items’ accessibility and the analysis of the internal consistency.

Material and methods: MWQ in original form is a single-factor short self-assessing questionnaire composed of five items with a 6-point Likert-type answering scale. The translation of items was performed by a professional language expert according to psychometric rules. The research group included 70 healthy young adults (students), aged 21.53, an equal number of males and females.

Results: The adapted questionnaire exhibited a single-factorial structure and satisfactory parameters of internal consistency: Cronbach’s alpha was 0.78, all individual items were significantly correlated with MWQ total score, and the mean value of correlation reached 0.74. The mean value of the adopted MWQ total score reached 15.84 (SD = 4.11).

The study showing the initial step of the questionnaire adaptation revealed that the scale in the Polish version has an internal structure comparable with the original one, and its internal consistency exhibited good parameters.

Conclusions: In the next steps of the scale full adaptation, a convergent validity assessment should be carried out together with correlations with other scales assessing psychological constructs and dimensions of individual differences associated with Mind Wandering, such as neuroticism and impulsiveness.

Mind wandering in adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Preliminary evaluation using the Mind Excessively Wandering Scale in a Japanese clinical population

Aim

Mind wandering (MW) has been closely associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); however, the field remains understudied in Japan. The present study examined MW in adults with ADHD using the Mind Excessively Wandering Scale (MEWS) in a Japanese clinical population.

Methods

Fifty-two adults with ADHD (mean age, 33.0 years; 33 men), diagnosed per the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) criteria, completed the MEWS, Mind Wandering Questionnaire, Conners' Adult ADHD Rating Scale (CAARS), Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ), and Japanese Adult Reading Test-25.

Results

The mean MEWS score was 18.8 (standard deviation, 7.6). MEWS scores showed significant correlations with the CAARS Inattention/Memory Problems, Problems with Self-Concept, DSM-IV ADHD Symptoms Total, ADHD Index, and AQ scores. Higher MEWS scores were associated with greater ADHD and autism spectrum disorder symptoms in patients with ADHD.

Conclusion

Our results not only provide supporting evidence of the presence of excessive MW in adults with ADHD, but also indicate the heterogeneous nature of MW in ADHD.

Slow and Powerless Thought Dynamic Relates to Brooding in Unipolar and Bipolar Depression

INTRODUCTION

Depression can be characterized by rumination that is featured by spontaneity and perseveration of internally oriented thoughts. At the same time, depressed subjects complain about abnormal slowness and lack of power/energy in their thoughts, suggesting abnormal "thought dynamics." The relationship between rumination and thought dynamics in depression remains unclear, though.

METHOD

We investigated thought dynamics and rumination in healthy control, major depressive disorder (MDD), and depressed bipolar disorder (BD) subjects. The dynamics in the spontaneous shift between internally and externally oriented thoughts were measured by a novel method of continuous experience sampling whose time series was subjected to power and frequency analyses. Subjects filled out the Beck Depression Inventory-II and Ruminative Response Scale questionnaires to evaluate current depressive symptoms and ruminative responses to negative affect. The methods used to analyze data included χ2, Pearson correlation, ANOVA, and partial correlation.

RESULTS

Our main findings are: (i) increased number and longer duration of internally oriented thought contents in MDD and BD; (ii) reduced thought dynamics with slower frequency (calculated in Hz) and decreased power (power spectral density) in shifting between internally and externally oriented thoughts, especially in MDD and, less strongly, in BD subjects; and (iii) power spectral density as a dimension of thought dynamics is related to brooding rumination with depression severity explaining high degrees of their variance.

CONCLUSION

Our results show slow frequency and low power in the internal-external thought dynamic of acute MDD and depressed BD. Together with its close relation to depression severity and rumination, our findings highlight the key importance of abnormal dynamics on the cognitive level of depression.

Between- versus within-person emotional and cognitive reactivity in relation to depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

Theories connecting depression to emotional reactivity (ER) or cognitive reactivity (CR) have not clearly indicated whether ER and CR are between-person or within-person constructs. Most empirical tests of these theories have focused on either between- or within-person operationalizations of these constructs, but not both. Between- and within-person studies address qualitatively different questions and often generate very different results. Consequently, the goals of the current study were to examine the relation of depressive symptoms to both between- and within-person operationalizations of both ER and CR.

METHODS

Participants were 160 undergraduate students who completed daily diary measures (assessing stress, negative emotions, and negative cognitions) and measures of depressive symptoms. Multilevel modeling (MLM) enabled examination of depressive symptoms to the within- and between-person components of ER and CR.

RESULTS

Depressive symptoms were positively related to within-person ER and CR but not to between-person operationalizations of ER and CR.

LIMITATIONS

The sample only included college students and only assessed depressive symptoms, not clinical diagnoses of major depression.

CONCLUSIONS

Important implications emerge for theory, practice, and future research. We recommend distinguishing between-person from within-person dimensions of ER and CR in future research.

The self and its internal thought: In search for a psychological baseline

Self-consciousness is neuronally associated with the brain's default mode network as its "neuronal baseline" while, psychologically the self is characterized by different thought modes and dynamics. We here raise the question whether they reflect the "psychological baseline" of the self. We investigate the psychological relationship of the self with thought modes (rumination, reflection) and mind-wandering dynamics (spontaneous, deliberate), as well as with depressive symptomatology. Our findings show a relationship between self-consciousness and i) mind-wandering dynamics, and ii) thought functional modes, in their respective forms. At the same time, self-consciousness is more related to spontaneous mind-wandering than deliberate and to rumination than reflection. Furthermore, iii) rumination acts as a mediator between self-consciousness and spontaneous mind-wandering dynamics; and iv) the relationship between high levels of self-consciousness and depressive symptoms is mediated by ruminative modes and spontaneous mind-wandering dynamics. Together, these findings support the view of the self as "psychological baseline".

Mediating Role of Rumination and Negative Affect in the Effect of Mind-Wandering on Symptoms in Patients With Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

To explore the relationship between negative affect, mind-wandering, rumination and obsessive-compulsive symptoms, 100 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder and 100 healthy controls were assessed using the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory, the Beck Anxiety Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Mind Wandering Scale and the Ruminative Response Scale. The results show that (i) patients diagnosed with obsessive-compulsive disorder displayed higher obsessive-compulsive symptoms, negative affect, mind-wandering and rumination compared with healthy controls; (ii) negative affect, mind-wandering and rumination were positively correlated with the severity of obsessive-compulsive symptoms; (iii) mind-wandering predicted the severity of obsessive-compulsive symptoms (both directly and indirectly); (iv) rumination and negative affect mediated the relationship between mind-wandering and obsessive-compulsive symptoms. The results preliminarily reveal the relationship between mind-wandering and psychopathological obsessive-compulsive symptoms, providing a reference for exploring novel psychological treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Exploring self-generated thoughts in a resting state with natural language processing

The present study seeks to examine individuals' stream of thought in real time. Specifically, we asked participants to speak their thoughts freely out loud during a typical resting-state condition. We first examined the feasibility and reliability of the method and found that the oral reporting method did not significantly change the frequency or content characteristics of self-generated thoughts; moreover, its test-retest reliability was high. Based on methodological feasibility, we combined natural language processing (NLP) with the Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformers (BERT) model to directly quantify thought content. We analyzed the divergence of self-generated thought content and expressions of sadness and empirically verified the validity and behavioral significance of the metrics calculated by BERT. Furthermore, we found that reflection and brooding could be differentiated by detecting the divergence of self-generated thought content and expressions of sadness, thus deepening our understanding of rumination and depression and providing a way to distinguish adaptive from maladaptive rumination. Finally, this study provides a new framework to examine self-generated thoughts in a resting state with NLP, extending research on the continuous content of instant self-generated thoughts with applicability to resting-state functional brain imaging.

Cognitive attentional syndrome and metacognitive beliefs as potential treatment targets for metacognitive therapy in bipolar disorder

Most treatment guidelines emphasize the use of psychotropic drugs for both the acute and maintenance treatment of bipolar disorder (BD). However, relying only on psychotropics without adjunctive psychosocial interventions may be insufficient in treating patients with BD. Given its unique view in the explanation of psychopathological states, metacognitive therapy (MCT) might be helpful for BD. Metacognitive theory posits that psychopathology is a result of the cognitive attentional syndrome (CAS) and that it is influenced and maintained by dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs, perseverative thinking, attentional biases, and dysfunctional coping strategies. In this review, literature data regarding these areas in BD are examined. Studies suggest that perseverative thinking might be among the emotion regulation strategies endorsed in individuals with BD. Regarding attentional biases, literature data show that state-dependent, mood-changing attentional biases and a ruminative self-focused attention are present. Studies also suggest that cognitive self-consciousness is higher in BD compared to controls. It is seen that maladaptive coping strategies are frequently reported in BD, and that these strategies are associated with depression severity, negative affect and relapse risk. Studies focusing on dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs in BD reported that individuals with BD had higher scores for negative metacognitive beliefs, self-consciousness, need to control thoughts, and a lack of cognitive confidence. Also, dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs were associated with depressive symptomatology. These findings suggest that the components of CAS and dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs are evident in BD. For a subgroup of patients with BD who fail to respond to evidence-based psychopharmacological and adjunctive psychotherapeutic interventions, MCT might be an alternative way to consider as a treatment option. In conclusion, taken the available data together, we propose a sequential treatment protocol for BD, mainly based on the MCT treatment plan of depressive disorders.

Predictors of obsessive-compulsive symptomology: mind wandering about the past and future

Purpose

Obsessive and compulsive tendencies are known to occur in the general population and involve worry around specific concerns (obsessions) and an urge to resolve the concern with thoughts or behaviours (compulsions). Spontaneous, but not deliberate, mind wandering experiences (when attention turns to internal mentation), have been found to predict obsessive– compulsive tendencies [Seli, P., Risko, E.F., Purdon, C. & Smilek, D. (2017). Intrusive thoughts: linking spontaneous mind wandering and OCD symptomatology. Psychological Research, 81, 392–398. 10.1007/s00426-016-0756-3]. Recent cognitive theory suggests a particular role for future-oriented spontaneous thought in obsessive–compulsive (OC) symptoms. Thus, we hypothesised that future-oriented rather than past-oriented spontaneous mind wandering would predict OC symptoms, such that more future-oriented mind wandering would be associated with increases in OC symptoms.

Methods

In an online survey design (nonclinical sample of 104 adults), participants completed three measures: Mind wandering: Spontaneous (MW-S) and Deliberate (MW-D) (Carriere, Seli & Smilek, 2013); Involuntary Autobiographical Memory Inventory (Berntsen, Rubin & Salgado, 2015); and Dimensional Obsessive–Compulsive Scale (DOCS) (Abramowitz et al., 2010). We adopted a linear regression approach to examine our hypotheses.

Results

We provided the first replication of the finding that OC symptoms are predicted by the frequency of spontaneous (but not deliberate) mind wandering, with an underlying positive relationship. Additionally, we found that temporality of spontaneous thought had different predictive effects as a function of the dimension of OC symptoms (i.e., responsibility, unacceptable thoughts, need for symmetry/completeness).

Conclusions

We found moderate support for our temporality hypothesis, which highlights how the construct of temporality can add to our understanding of OC symptoms. The present study also adds to recent conceptual debates regarding mind wandering. We suggest new cognitive and methodological approaches to enhance the understanding of obsessive–compulsive disorder, opening new avenues for clinical and experimental research.