Neuroplasticity-related effects of vitamin D relevant to its neuroprotective effects: A narrative review

The pathophysiology of a wide range of central nervous system (CNS) disorders, such as neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases, has been associated with impairment of neurogenic and synaptogenic processes. Therefore, pharmacological and/or nutritional strategies based on the stimulation and/or restoration of these processes may have beneficial effects against diseases in which these processes are impaired. In this context, vitamin D has emerged as a promising neuroprotective compound. Due to its pleiotropic properties, it can interact with multiple molecular targets and thereby affect different cell types, including neurons and glial cells. This neurosteroid contributes to CNS homeostasis by non-genomic and genomic mechanisms through its interaction with vitamin D receptors (VDRs). Among several properties of this vitamin, its role in neuronal proliferation and differentiation as well as in synaptic plasticity has received attention. Considering this background, this narrative review aims to highlight the neuroplasticity-related mechanisms of vitamin D that may be associated with its neuroprotective effects.

Innovative mechanisms of micro- and nanoplastic-induced brain injury: Emphasis on the microbiota-gut-brain axis

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), emerging environmental pollutants, infiltrate marine, terrestrial, and freshwater systems via diverse pathways, culminating in their accumulation in the human body through food chain transmission, posing potential health risks. Researches have demonstrated that MNPs disrupt gut microbiota equilibrium and compromise intestinal barrier integrity, as well as traverse the blood-brain barrier, leading to brain damage. Moreover, the complex interaction between the gut and the nervous system, facilitated by the "gut-brain axis," indicates an additional pathway for MNPs-induced brain damage. This has intensified scientific interest in the intercommunication between MNPs and the gut-brain axis. While existing studies have documented microbial imbalances and metabolic disruptions subsequent to MNPs exposure, the precise mechanisms by which the microbiota-gut-brain axis contributes to MNPs-induced central nervous system damage remain unclear. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the microbiota-gut-brain axis, elucidating the pathogenesis of MNPs-induced gut microbiota dysbiosis and its consequent brain injury. It emphasizes the complex interrelation between MNPs and the microbiota-gut-brain axis, advocating for the gut microbiota as a novel therapeutic target to alleviate MNP-induced brain harm.

Tremendous Fidelity of Vitamin D3 in Age-related Neurological Disorders

Vitamin D3 (VD) is a secosteroid hormone and shows a pleiotropic effect in brain-related disorders where it regulates redox imbalance, inflammation, apoptosis, energy production, and growth factor synthesis. Vitamin D3's active metabolic form, 1,25-dihydroxy Vitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3 or calcitriol), is a known regulator of several genes involved in neuroplasticity, neuroprotection, neurotropism, and neuroinflammation. Multiple studies suggest that VD deficiency can be proposed as a risk factor for the development of several age-related neurological disorders. The evidence for low serum levels of 25-hydroxy Vitamin D3 (25(OH)D3 or calcidiol), the major circulating form of VD, is associated with an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), dementia, and cognitive impairment. Despite decades of evidence on low VD association with neurological disorders, the precise molecular mechanism behind its beneficial effect remains controversial. Here, we will be delving into the neurobiological importance of VD and discuss its benefits in different neuropsychiatric disorders. The focus will be on AD, PD, and HD as they share some common clinical, pathological, and epidemiological features. The central focus will be on the different attributes of VD in the aspect of its anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-cholinesterase activity, and psychotropic effect in different neurodegenerative diseases.

The neuroprotective effect of vitamin D in Parkinson's disease: association or causation

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disease (NDD) due to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons (DNs) in the substantia nigra (SN). PD is characterized by diverse motor symptoms such as rigidity, resting tremors, and bradykinesia, and non-motor symptoms such as cognitive dysfunction and sleep disturbances. Vitamin D (VD), VD receptor (VDR), and VD metabolites are present in the brain and play a role in maintaining the development, differentiation, and functions of the DNs. VDRs exert protective effects against PD neuropathology by modulating functional capacity and DNs neurotransmission in the SN. In virtue of its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, VD could be effective in the prevention and treatment of PD. VD exerts a neuroprotective effect by reducing oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, and by increasing autophagy and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Low VD serum level is connected with cognitive dysfunction and the development of dementia in PD. The VD-mediated cognitive augmenting effect is interrelated to the safeguarding of synaptic plasticity and modulation of neurotransmitter release. VD deficiency is linked with the severity of olfactory dysfunction which precedes the progression of symptomatic PD. However, the precise role of VD in PD remains unidentified, and there is a conflict about whether treatment with VD can ameliorate PD or not.

Vitamin D, Calbindin, and calcium signaling: Unraveling the Alzheimer's connection

Calcium is a ubiquitous second messenger that is indispensable in regulating neurotransmission and memory formation. A precise intracellular calcium level is achieved through the concerted action of calcium channels, and calcium exerts its effect by binding to an array of calcium-binding proteins, including calmodulin (CAM), calcium-calmodulin complex-dependent protein kinase-II (CAMK-II), calbindin (CAL), and calcineurin (CAN). Calbindin orchestrates a plethora of signaling events that regulate synaptic transmission and depolarizing signals. Vitamin D, an endogenous fat-soluble metabolite, is synthesized in the skin upon exposure to ultraviolet B radiation. It modulates calcium signaling by increasing the expression of the calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR), stimulating phospholipase C activity, and regulating the expression of calcium channels such as TRPV6. Vitamin D also modulates the activity of calcium-binding proteins, including CAM and calbindin, and increases their expression. Calbindin, a high-affinity calcium-binding protein, is involved in calcium buffering and transport in neurons. It has been shown to inhibit apoptosis and caspase-3 activity stimulated by presenilin 1 and 2 in AD. Whereas CAM, another calcium-binding protein, is implicated in regulating neurotransmitter release and memory formation by phosphorylating CAN, CAMK-II, and other calcium-regulated proteins. CAMK-II and CAN regulate actin-induced spine shape changes, which are further modulated by CAM. Low levels of both calbindin and vitamin D are attributed to the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. Further research on vitamin D via calbindin-CAMK-II signaling may provide newer insights, revealing novel therapeutic targets and strategies for treatment.

Vitamin D, Alzheimer's disease and related dementia

Vitamin D has been proposed as a potential strategy to mitigate age-related cognitive decline and dementia, including Alzheimer's dementia, the predominant type of dementia. Rodent studies have provided insight into the potential mechanisms underlying the role of vitamin D in Alzheimer's disease and dementia. However, inconsistencies with respect to age, sex, and genetic background of the rodent models used poses some limitations regarding scientific rigor and translation. Several human observational studies have evaluated the association of vitamin D status with cognitive decline and dementia, and the results are conflicting. Randomized clinical trials of vitamin D supplementation have included cognitive outcomes. However, most of the available trials have not been designed specifically to test the effect of vitamin D on age-related cognitive decline and dementia, so it remains questionable how much additional vitamin D will improve cognitive performance. Here we evaluate the strengths and limitations of the available evidence regarding the role of vitamin D in AD, cognitive decline, dementia.

The Influence of Vitamin D Status on Cognitive Ability in Patients with Bipolar Disorder and Healthy Controls

Recent evidence on the association between vitamin D and cognition in mentally healthy individuals is inconsistent. Furthermore, the link between vitamin D and cognitive ability in individuals with bipolar disorder has not been studied yet. Thus, we aimed to investigate the association between 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D), 24,25 dihydroxyvitamin D (24,25(OH)2D, the vitamin D metabolite ratio (VMR) and cognition in a cohort of euthymic patients with bipolar disorder. Vitamin D metabolites were measured simultaneously by liquid-chromatography tandem mass-spectrometry in serum samples from 86 outpatients with bipolar disorder and 93 healthy controls. Neither the inactive precursor 25(OH)D, nor the primary vitamin D catabolite 24,25(OH)2D, or the vitamin D metabolite ratio were significantly associated with the domains "attention", "memory", or "executive function" in individuals with bipolar disorder and healthy controls. Further, no vitamin D deficiency effect or interaction group × vitamin D deficiency was found in the cognitive domain scores. In summary, the present study does not support vitamin D metabolism as a modulating factor of cognitive function in euthymic BD patients. Considering the current study's cross-sectional design, future research should expand these results in a longitudinal setting and include additional aspects of mental health, such as manic or depressive symptoms, long-term illness course and psychopharmacological treatment.

Neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease: potential beneficial effects of vitamin D

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia. In recent years, several studies have robustly shown that neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the pathophysiology of this disease. The co-localization of amyloid-β plaques near activated glial cells and the increased levels of inflammatory cytokines in AD patients indicate the involvement of the neuroinflammatory process in AD progression. Considering that pharmacological treatment remains a challenge for the management of this disease, compounds with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties are promising therapeutic strategies. In this context, vitamin D has gained attention in the last few years due to its neuroprotective property and the high prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in the population. Herein, in this narrative review we present the possible contribution of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of vitamin D for its neuroprotective effects, and the clinical and preclinical data dealing with the effects of vitamin D in AD, focusing mainly on the neuroinflammatory process.

Correlation between serum 25(OH)D and cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between serum 25(OH)D and cognitive impairment in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), hoping to provide possible ideas for the diagnosis and prevention of PD with cognitive impairment. Vitamin D is a neurosteroid with neurotrophic and neuroprotective functions, playing an important role in PD and its progression. In the present study, serum 25(OH)D levels were significantly decreased in PD patients (45.86 ± 14.81 nmol/L)compared to healthy controls(56.54 ± 14.00 nmol/L) (P < 0.001), and significant differences were also observed in PD patients with normal cognition (PD-NC), PD patients with mild cognitive impairment (PD-MCI)and PD patients with dementia (PDD)(P < 0.05). Moreover, there was a positive correlation between serum 25(OH)D levels and Montreal cognitive assessment(MoCA) scores (r = 0.489,P < 0.001).The increased serum 25(OH)D was an independent protective factor of cognitive impairment in PD (OR = 0. 949, P = 0.005), and the sensitivity, specificity, and AUC under the ROC curve area of serum 25(OH)D were 53.3%, 86.5%, and 0.713, respectively. These findings support the relationship between cognitive impairment and Vitamin D in PD patients. Serum 25(OH)D may be a useful biomarker for diagnosing cognitive impairment in patients with PD.

Role of Neural Stem Cells and Vitamin D Receptor (VDR)-Mediated Cellular Signaling in the Mitigation of Neurological Diseases

Specific stem cell-based therapies for treating Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and schizophrenia are gaining importance in recent years. Accumulating data is providing further support by demonstrating the efficacy of neural stem cells in enhancing the neurogenesis in the aging brain. In addition to stem cells, recent studies have shown the efficacy of supplementing vitamin D in promoting neurogenesis and neuronal survival. Studies have also demonstrated the presence of mutational variants and single-nucleotide polymorphisms of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) in neurological disorders; however, implications of these mutations in the pathophysiology and response to drug treatment are yet to be explored. Hence, in this article, we have reviewed recent reports pertaining to the role of neural stem cells and VDR-mediated cellular signaling cascades that are involved in enhancing the neurogenesis through Wnt/β-catenin and Sonic Hedgehog pathways. This review benefits neurobiologists and pharmaceutical industry experts to develop stem cell-based and vitamin D-based therapies to better treat the patients suffering from neurological diseases.

Neuroprotective Effects of Probiotic-Supplemented Diet on Cognitive Behavior of 3xTg-AD Mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is recognized as one of the most common types of senile dementia. AD patients first suffer memory loss for recent events (short-term memory impairment). As the disease progresses, they are deprived of self-awareness. This study aims to explore the effects of a probiotic-supplemented diet on the cognitive behaviors and pathological features of mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Mice in the control group and the 3xTg-AD group were fed a regular diet and a probiotic-supplemented diet, respectively, for 20 weeks. Behavioral experiments like Morris's water maze and Y maze were conducted. Then, feces of mice were collected for 16S sRNA gene sequencing for microorganisms. In the end, soluble and insoluble Aβ40 and Aβ42 in the hippocampus and cortex of mice in each group were quantitatively analyzed with a double-antibody Sandwich ELISA. The expression levels of tau protein and gliocyte in the hippocampus and cortex were detected using the Western Blot method. The result of the Morris water maze experiment indicated that, in the place navigation test, the mice in the 3xTg-AD group experienced a significant decline in the learning ability and a longer escape latency and in the space exploration test, the swimming time of mice in the 3xTg-AD group in the target quadrant decreased and after being treated with the probiotic diet, mice in the 3xTg-AD group had improved learning and memory ability. The result of Y maze showed that the probiotic diet can improve the spontaneous alternation accuracy of mice in the 3xTg-AD group. The result of 16s rRNA gene sequencing showed that, compared with mice in the WT group, those in the 3xTg-AD group experienced a change in the intestinal flora. The Western Blot result displayed a decreased expression level of tau (pS202) (P < 0.05) and decreased expression levels of Iba-1 and GFAP (P < 0.05). The result of the ELISA experiment showed decreased levels of soluble and insoluble Aβ40 and Aβ42 in 3xTg-AD mice (P < 0.05). In conclusion, a probiotic diet can prevent and treat AD by improving the intestinal flora of 3xTg-AD.

Effects of Curcumin on Aging: Molecular Mechanisms and Experimental Evidence

Aging is characterized by a progressive inability to maintain homeostasis, self-repair, renewal, performance, and fitness of different tissues throughout the lifespan. Senescence is occurring following enormous intracellular or extracellular stress stimuli. Cellular senescence serves as an antiproliferative process that causes permanent cell cycle arrest and restricts the lifespan. Senescent cells are characterized by terminal cell cycle arrest, enlarged lysosome, and DNA double-strand breaks as well as lipofuscin granularity, senescence-associated heterochromatin foci, and activation of DNA damage response. Curcumin, a hydrophobic polyphenol, is a bioactive chemical constituent of the rhizomes of Curcuma longa Linn (turmeric), which has been extensively used for the alleviation of various human disorders. In addition to its pleiotropic effects, curcumin has been suggested to have antiaging features. In this review, we summarized the therapeutic potential of curcumin in the prevention and delaying of the aging process.

Association of 25-hydroxyvitamin D status with brain volume changes

Vitamin D is critical to brain function and its deficiency accelerates cognitive impairment. There is limited understanding of the brain-specific areas that undergo volume change in relation to blood vitamin D levels. The objective of this study was to evaluate the association between blood 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) concentration and structural changes in the brain. We analyzed structural three-dimensional T1 MRI images of 201 elderly individuals (mean age = 74.91 ± 9.21 years; 68.1% female; mean 25(OH)D = 18.05 nmol/L), with 10 community-based normal healthy subjects, 33 with subjective cognitive decline, 97 with mild cognitive impairment, and 61 with Alzheimer's disease (AD). To analyze the structural changes in the brain respective to blood 25(OH)D, multiple regression analyses were performed using voxel-based morphometry with age and total intracranial volume as covariates. Lower 25(OH)D level were associated with reduced brain volume in right olfactory, rectus GM regions (FWE-corr, p < .05) for entire subjects. For AD subjects, left parahippocampal, fusiform, and hippocampal areas were positively associated with 25(OH)D (FWE-corr, p < .05). Low blood 25(OH)D was associated with reduced volumes in olfactory and hippocampal regions in elderly patients with cognitive decline. Our results may provide insight into the neurological pathophysiology of vitamin D.

The role of biofactors in the prevention and treatment of age-related diseases

The present demographic changes toward an aging society caused a rise in the number of senior citizens and the incidence and burden of age-related diseases (such as cardiovascular diseases [CVD], cancer, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease [NAFLD], diabetes mellitus, and dementia), of which nearly half is attributable to the population ≥60 years of age. Deficiencies in individual nutrients have been associated with increased risks for age-related diseases and high intakes and/or blood concentrations with risk reduction. Nutrition in general and the dietary intake of essential and nonessential biofactors is a major determinant of human health, the risk to develop age-related diseases, and ultimately of mortality in the older population. These biofactors can be a cost-effective strategy to prevent or, in some cases, even treat age-related diseases. Examples reviewed herein include omega-3 fatty acids and dietary fiber for the prevention of CVD, α-tocopherol (vitamin E) for the treatment of biopsy-proven nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, vitamin D for the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases, thiamine and α-lipoic acid for the treatment of diabetic neuropathy, and the role of folate in cancer epigenetics. This list of potentially helpful biofactors in the prevention and treatment of age-related diseases, however, is not exhaustive and many more examples exist. Furthermore, since there is currently no generally accepted definition of the term biofactors, we here propose a definition that, when adopted by scientists, will enable a harmonization and consistent use of the term in the scientific literature.

Protective effects of vitamin D on learning and memory deficit induced by scopolamine in male rats: the roles of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and oxidative stress

The beneficial effects of vitamin D (vit D) on central nervous system disorders have been suggested. In the current research, the protective effects of vit D on learning and memory deficit induced by scopolamine, oxidative stress criteria, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and nitric oxide (NO) in the brain were investigated. Rats were divided into five groups, including (1) Control, (2) Scopolamine (2 mg/kg), (3-5) Scopolamine + Vit D (100, 1000, and 10,000 IU/kg) groups. Vit D administrated for 2 weeks and in the third week scopolamine co-administrated with vit D and behavioral tests, including Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) tests, were carried out. The cortical and hippocampal tissues were analyzed for BDNF, catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, thiol content, NO metabolites, and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration. Scopolamine injection significantly impaired rats' performance on the MWM and PA test. It further enhanced the MDA and nitrite level while decreased thiol content and BDNF levels and SOD and CAT activities in the brain. Administration of both 1000 and 10,000 IU/kg vit D improved cognitive outcome in MWM and PA tests. In addition, vit D elevated thiol content, SOD and CAT activities, and BDNF levels, while reduced nitrite and MDA concentration. Vit D also increased the levels of vit D and calcium in the serum. The results demonstrated that vit D has protective effects on scopolamine-associated learning and memory impairment by improving BDNF levels and attenuating NO and brain tissue oxidative damage.

Pleiotropic actions of Vitamin D in composite musculoskeletal trauma

Composite tissue injuries are the result of high energy impacts caused by motor vehicle accidents, gunshot wounds or blasts. These are highly traumatic injuries characterized by wide-spread, penetrating wounds affecting the entire musculoskeletal system, and are generally defined by frank volumetric muscle loss with concomitant segmental bone defects. At the tissue level, the breadth of damage to multiple tissue systems, and potential for infection from penetration, have been shown to lead to an exaggerated, often chronic inflammatory response with subsequent dysregulation of normal musculoskeletal healing mechanisms. Aside from the direct effects of inflammation on myogenesis and osteogenesis, frank muscle loss has been shown to directly impair fracture union and ultimately contribute to failed wound regeneration. Care for these injuries requires extensive surgical intervention and acute care strategies. However, often these interventions do not adequately mitigate inflammation or promote proper musculoskeletal injury repair and force amputation of the limb. Therefore, identification of factors that can promote tissue regeneration and mitigate inflammation could be key to restoring wound healing after composite tissue injury. One such factor that may directly affect both inflammation and tissue regeneration in response to these multi-tissue injuries may be Vitamin D. Beyond traditional roles, the pleiotropic and localized actions of Vitamin D are increasingly being recognized in most aspects of wound healing in complex tissue injuries - e.g., regulation of inflammation, myogenesis, fracture callus mineralization and remodeling. Conversely, pre-existing Vitamin D deficiency leads to musculoskeletal dysfunction, increased fracture risk or fracture non-unions, decreased strength/function and reduced capacity to heal wounds through increased inflammation. This Vitamin D deficient state requires acute supplementation in order to quickly restore circulating levels to an optimal level, thereby facilitating a robust wound healing response. Herein, the purpose of this review is to address the roles and critical functions of Vitamin D throughout the wound healing process. Findings from this review suggest that careful monitoring and/or supplementation of Vitamin D may be critical for wound regeneration in composite tissue injuries.

Can Brain Health Be Supported by Vitamin D-Based Supplements? A Critical Review

This review presents recent knowledge on the neuroprotective effects of vitamin D and their usefulness as oral supplementation when combined with other molecules, such as curcumin. A critical look at the effectiveness of vitamin D in this field is also provided. Vitamin D plays a crucial role in neuroprotection and in the cognitive decline associated with aging, where vitamin D’s levels are related to the levels of several neurotrophic factors. An important role of vitamin D has also been observed in the mechanism of neuroinflammation, which is the basis of several aging conditions, including cognitive decline and neurodegeration; furthermore, the neuroprotective effect of vitamin D in the cognitive decline of aging has recently been reported. For this reason, many food supplements created for humans contain vitamin D alone or combined with other molecules with antioxidant properties. However, recent studies also explored negative consequences of the use at a high dosage of vitamin D. Vitamin D in tissues or brain cells can also modulate calbindin-D28K, parvalbumin, and calretinin, and is involved in immune function, thanks also to the combination with curcumin. Curcumin acts as a free radical scavenger and antioxidant, inhibiting lipid peroxidation and oxidative DNA damage. In particular, curcumin is a potent immune-regulatory agent and its administration has been reported to attenuate cognitive impairments. These effects could be exploited in the future to control the mechanisms that lead to the brain decay typical of neurodegenerative diseases.

The Influence of Vitamin D on Neurodegeneration and Neurological Disorders: A Rationale for its Physio-pathological Actions

Vitamin D is a steroid hormone implicated in the regulation of neuronal integrity and many brain functions. Its influence, as a nutrient and a hormone, on the physiopathology of the most common neurodegenerative diseases is continuously emphasized by new studies. This review addresses what is currently known about the action of vitamin D on the nervous system and neurodegenerative diseases such as Multiple Sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Further vitamin D research is necessary to understand how the action of this "neuroactive" steroid can help to optimize the prevention and treatment of several neurological diseases.

Vitamin D status in an Australian patient population: a large retrospective case series focusing on factors associated with variations in serum 25(OH)D

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether sex, age, medical specialty and seasonal variations in serum concentration of 25-hydroxy vitamin D (25(OH)D) are evident among an Australian patient population.

DESIGN

Retrospective study analysing the results of serum 25(OH)D lab tests and vitamin D supplementation from Royal Melbourne Hospital (RMH) between 2014 and 2017.

SETTING

Tertiary healthcare centre in Victoria, Australia.

PARTICIPANTS

30 023 patients (inpatient and outpatient) who had their serum 25(OH)D levels measured at RMH between 2014 and 2017.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Serum 25(OH)D levels stratified according to patients' sex, age and medical specialty admitted to, as well as the season and year (2014 to 2017) 25(OH)D level was measured.

RESULTS

Mean serum 25(OH)D level of study population was 69.9 nmol/L (95% CI 69.5 to 70.2). Only 40.2% patients in this cohort were sufficient in vitamin D (>75 nmol/L). On average, 25(OH)D levels in male patients were 6.1 units (95% CI 5.4 to 6.9) lower than in females. Linear regression analysis found that 25(OH)D levels increased by 0.16 unit (95% CI 0.14 to 0.18) for every year increase in age. One-way analysis of variance showed patients from neurology had the highest average 25(OH)D level, 76.8 nmol/L (95% CI 74.2 to 79.3) compared with other medical specialties. Mean 25(OH)D level during winter, 64.9 nmol/L (95% CI 64.2 to 65.6) was significantly lower compared with other seasons despite supplementation. Average 25(OH)D level measured in 2014, 71.5 nmol/L (95 CI% 70.8 to 72.2) was significantly higher than levels measured in 2016-2017.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a sex, age, medical specialty, seasonal and yearly variation in vitamin D status in an Australian patient population. The association between low vitamin D status and winter despite supplementation suggests other interventions are required to boost serum 25(OH)D levels.

Nutritional and environmental contributions to Autism Spectrum Disorders: Focus on nutrigenomics as complementary therapy

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) has risen sharply in the last 30 years, posing a major public health concern and a big emotional and financial challenge for families. While the underlying causes remain to be fully elucidated, evidence shows moderate genetic heritability contribution, but heavy environmental influence. Over the last decades, modern lifestyle has deeply changed our eating, rest, and exercise habits, while exposure to air, water, and food chemical pollution has increased due to indiscriminate use of pesticides, food additives, adjuvants, and antibiotics. The result is a drastic change in the quality of our energy source input, and an overload for antioxidant and detoxification pathways that compromises normal metabolism and homeostasis. Current research shows high prevalence of food selectivity and/or food allergy among children with autism, resulting in essential micronutrient deficits that may trigger or aggravate physical and cognitive symptoms. Nutrigenomics is an emerging discipline that focuses on genotype-micronutrient interaction, and a useful approach to tailor low risk, personalized interventions through diet and micronutrient supplementation. Here, we review available literature addressing the role of micronutrients in the symptomatology of ASD, the metabolic pathways involved, and their therapeutic relevance. Personalized and supervised supplementation according to individual needs is suggested as a complement of traditional therapies to improve outcome both for children with autism and their families.

Food Components with the Potential to be Used in the Therapeutic Approach of Mental Diseases

BACKGROUND

Neurological disorders represent a high influence in our society throughout the world. Although the symptoms arising from those diseases are well known, the causes and mechanisms are complex and depending on multiple factors. Some food components consumed as part of our diet have been studied regarding their incidence in different common neurological diseases such as Alzheimer disease, major depression, Parkinson disease, autism and schizophrenia among others.

OBJECTIVE

In this review, information has been gathered on the main evidences arising from studies on the most promising food components, related to their therapeutic potential, as part of dietary supplements or through the diet, as an alternative or a complement of the traditional drug treatments. Those food components include vitamins, minerals, fatty acids, carotenoids, polyphenols, bioactive peptides, probiotics, creatine and saponins.

RESULTS

Many in vitro and in vivo animal studies, randomized and placebo control trials, and systematic reviews on the scientific results published in the literature, have been discussed, highlighting the more recent advances, also with the aim to explore the main research needs. Particular attention has been paid to the mechanisms of action of the compounds regarding their anti-inflammatory, antioxidative properties and neuronal protection.

CONCLUSION

More research is needed to prove the therapeutic potential of the food components based on scientific evidence, also on intervention studies to demonstrate the improvement of neuronal and cognitive impairments.

Vitamin D in Synaptic Plasticity, Cognitive Function, and Neuropsychiatric Illness

Over a billion people worldwide are affected by vitamin D deficiency. Although vitamin D deficiency is associated with impaired cognition, the mechanisms mediating this link are poorly understood. The extracellular matrix (ECM) has now emerged as an important participant of synaptic plasticity and a new hypothesis is that vitamin D may interact with aggregates of the ECM, perineuronal nets (PNNs), to regulate brain plasticity. Dysregulation of PNNs caused by vitamin D deficiency may contribute to the presentation of cognitive deficits. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underpinning the role of vitamin D in brain plasticity and cognition could help identify ways to treat cognitive symptoms in schizophrenia and other neuropsychiatric conditions.

Are the protective benefits of vitamin D in neurodegenerative disease dependent on route of administration? A systematic review

Background: The clinical and preclinical exploration of the therapeutic properties of vitamin D have significantly increased in the past decade, owing to the growing associative evidence suggesting vitamin D is neuroprotective. However, whether depletion of vitamin D contributes to the onset of neurological disorders or is a symptom of neurological disease has yet to be defined. Much remains unclear about the causal role of vitamin D and the method of use and forms of vitamin D.Objectives: We sought to quantitatively assess if neuroprotective benefits from vitamin D in neurodegenerative diseases are dependent on route of administration: comparing the effect of endogenously sourced vitamin D from UV exposure to exogenously derived vitamin D through synthetic supplementation.Design: We systematically searched PubMed, Embase and PsycInfo databases which included both pre-clinical and clinical studies investigating vitamin D in neurodegenerative diseases. Articles were subject to strict inclusion criteria and objectively assessed for quality. Additionally, Medline data was analysed to identify trends in topic publications and linguistic characteristics of papers.Results: From a total of 231 screened articles, we identified 73 appropriate for review based on inclusion criteria: original studies that investigated vitamin D levels or levels of vitamin D supplementation in neurodegenerative diseases or investigated past/present sun exposure in disease cohorts. Results indicate there is insufficient evidence to comprehensively reflect on a potential neuroprotective role for vitamin D and if this was dependent on route of administration. The majority of current data supporting neuroprotective benefits from vitamin D are based on pre-clinical and observational studies. Solid evidence is lacking to support the current hypothesis that the beneficial effect of UV exposure results from the synthesis of vitamin D. Sun exposure, independent of vitamin D production, may be protective against multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Yet, further research is required to elucidate the beneficial mechanism of actions of UV exposure. The literature of vitamin D and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis was limited, and no conclusions were drawn. Therefore, in cases where UV-derived vitamin D was hypothesized to be the beneficial mediator in the neuroprotective effects of sun exposure, we propose results are based only on associative evidence.Conclusion: On the basis of this systematic review, strong recommendations regarding therapeutic benefits of vitamin D in neurodegenerative disease cannot be made. It is unclear if vitamin D mediates a protective benefit in neurodegenerative disease or whether it is an associative marker of UV exposure, which may contribute to as of yet unidentified neuroprotective factors.

Health Risks of Hypovitaminosis D: A Review of New Molecular Insights

Hypovitaminosis D has become a pandemic, being observed in all ethnicities and age groups worldwide. Environmental factors, such as increased air pollution and reduced ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation, as well as lifestyle factors, i.e., decreased outdoor activities and/or poor intake of vitamin D-rich food, are likely involved in the etiology of a dramatic reduction of vitamin D circulating levels. The insufficiency/deficiency of vitamin D has long been known for its association with osteoporosis and rickets. However, in the last few decades it has become a serious public health concern since it has been shown to be independently associated with various chronic pathological conditions such as cancer, coronary heart disease, neurological diseases, type II diabetes, autoimmune diseases, depression, with various inflammatory disorders, and with increased risk for all-cause mortality in the general population. Prevention strategies for these disorders have recently involved supplementation with either vitamin D2 or vitamin D3 or their analogs at required daily doses and tolerable upper-limit levels. This review will focus on the emerging evidence about non-classical biological functions of vitamin D in various disorders.

Vitamin D, Cognition and Alzheimer's Disease: The Therapeutic Benefit is in the D-Tails

Since its discovery during the epidemic of rickets in the early 1920s, the physiological effects of vitamin D on calcium/phosphorus homeostasis have been thoroughly studied. Along with the understanding of its actions on skeletal diseases and advances in cellular and molecular biology, this misnamed vitamin has gained attention as a potential player in a growing number of physiological processes and a variety of diseases. During the last 25 years, vitamin D has emerged as a serious candidate in nervous system development and function and a therapeutic tool in a number of neurological pathologies. More recently, experimental and pre-clinical data suggest a link between vitamin D status and cognitive function. Human studies strongly support a correlation between low levels of circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and cognitive impairment or dementia in aging populations. In parallel, animal studies show that supplementation with vitamin D is protective against biological processes associated with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and enhances learning and memory performance in various animal models of aging and AD. These experimental observations support multiple mechanisms by which vitamin D can act against neurodegenerative processes. However, clinical interventional studies are disappointing and fail to associate increased 25(OH)D levels with improved cognitive outcomes. This review collects the current available data from both animal and human studies and discusses the considerations that future studies examining the effects of vitamin D status on neurocognitive function might consider.

Vitamin D in the prevention, prediction and treatment of neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases

Vitamin D research has gained increased attention in recent times due to its roles beyond bone health and calcium homeostasis, such as immunomodulation. In some parts of the brain and on immune cells, vitamin D hydroxylating enzymes and its receptors are located. Epidemiological evidence demonstrates that deficiency of Vitamin D is relevant for disease risk and course in multiple sclerosis (MS) and presumably also in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorders (NMOSD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although the exact mechanism underlying vitamin D effects in these diseases remains widely unexplored, human and animal studies continue to provide some hints. While the majority of vitamin D researchers so far speculate that vitamin D may be involved in disease pathogenesis, others could not show any association although none have reported that sufficient vitamin D worsens disease progression. The studies presented in this review suggest that whether vitamin D may have beneficial effects in disease course or not, may be dependent on factors such as ethnicity, gender, diet, vitamin D receptor (VDR) polymorphisms and sunlight exposure. We here review the possible role of vitamin D in the pathogenesis and disease course of MS, NMOSD, PD, and AD and potential therapeutic effects of vitamin D supplementation which may be relevant for predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine. We suggest areas to consider in vitamin D research for future studies and recommend the need to supplement patients with low vitamin D levels below 30 ng/ml to at least reach sufficient levels.

Role of Vitamin D in Amyloid clearance via LRP-1 upregulation in Alzheimer's disease: A potential therapeutic target?

Amyloid beta (Aβ) deposition is considered to be one of the primary reason to trigger Alzheimer's disease (AD). Literature clearly suggests decline in Aβ clearance to be accountable for progression of late onset AD as compared to augmented Aβ production. There may be several pathways for Aβ clearance out of which one of the major pathway is the vascular-mediated removal of Aβ from the brain across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) via efflux pumps or receptors. Among Aβ scavenger receptors, low density lipoprotein receptor related protein (LRP-1) has been most extensively studied. LRP-1, is highly expressed in neurons and located on abluminal side of the brain capillaries whose expression decreases in AD patients which give rise to increased cerebral Aβ deposition. Recent evidences reveal that post 1,25-(OH)₂D₃ treatment, LRP1 expression increases significantly for both in-vivo and in-vitro studies, since Vitamin D receptors (VDR) are broadly expressed in brain. Biological actions of Vitamin D are mediated via its nuclear hormone receptor vitamin D receptor (VDR) and is found to regulate many genes. Several lines of evidence suggest that VDR deficiency/inhibition can be a potential risk factor for AD and sufficient Vitamin D supplementation is beneficial to prevent AD onset/pathology or slow down the progression of disease. The present review establishes a strong correlation between Vitamin D and LRP-1 and their possible involvement in Aβ clearance and thereby emerging as new therapeutic target.

Effect of Probiotic Supplementation on Cognitive Function and Metabolic Status in Alzheimer's Disease: A Randomized, Double-Blind and Controlled Trial

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with severe cognitive impairments as well as some metabolic defects. Scant studies in animal models indicate a link between probiotics and cognitive function. This randomized, double-blind, and controlled clinical trial was conducted among 60 AD patients to assess the effects of probiotic supplementation on cognitive function and metabolic status. The patients were randomly divided into two groups (n = 30 in each group) treating with either milk (control group) or a mixture of probiotics (probiotic group). The probiotic supplemented group took 200 ml/day probiotic milk containing Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and Lactobacillus fermentum (2 × 10⁹ CFU/g for each) for 12 weeks. Mini-mental state examination (MMSE) score was recorded in all subjects before and after the treatment. Pre- and post-treatment fasting blood samples were obtained to determine the related markers. After 12 weeks intervention, compared with the control group (-5.03% ± 3.00), the probiotic treated (+27.90% ± 8.07) patients showed a significant improvement in the MMSE score (P <0.001). In addition, changes in plasma malondialdehyde (-22.01% ± 4.84 vs. +2.67% ± 3.86 μmol/L, P <0.001), serum high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (-17.61% ± 3.70 vs. +45.26% ± 3.50 μg/mL, P <0.001), homeostasis model of assessment-estimated insulin resistance (+28.84% ± 13.34 vs. +76.95% ± 24.60, P = 0.002), Beta cell function (+3.45% ± 10.91 vs. +75.62% ± 23.18, P = 0.001), serum triglycerides (-20.29% ± 4.49 vs. -0.16% ± 5.24 mg/dL, P = 0.003), and quantitative insulin sensitivity check index (-1.83 ± 1.26 vs. -4.66 ± 1.70, P = 0.006) in the probiotic group were significantly varied compared to the control group. We found that the probiotic treatment had no considerable effect on other biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation, fasting plasma glucose, and other lipid profiles. Overall, the current study demonstrated that probiotic consumption for 12 weeks positively affects cognitive function and some metabolic statuses in the AD patients.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

http://www.irct.ir/, IRCT201511305623N60.

Normalized vitamin D metabolite concentrations are better correlated to pharmacological effects than measured concentrations

Background:

Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with a multitude of diseases, ranging from fractures to cancer. Nearly 99% of vitamin D metabolites are bound to proteins, altering the relationship between concentration and activity.

Methods & results:

Normalized concentrations were calculated and validated using published data regarding the correlation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D with bone mineral density. In addition, healthy and kidney disease subjects were recruited for preliminary investigations. Use of the normalizing equations resulted in statistically significant improvements in the relationship between vitamin D metabolites and several markers of health status.

Conclusion:

Normalized concentrations are similar to clinically reported values and are easier to interpret than free or bioavailable concentrations, since their values match the range of measured total concentrations.

Lay abstract: Vitamin D deficiency has been associated with a multitude of diseases, ranging from fractures to cancer. Most vitamin D metabolites are bound to various body components, altering the relationship between reported concentration and biological effects. To compensate for differences in binding between individuals, normalized concentrations were calculated. Use of the normalizing equations resulted in significant improvements in the relationship between the concentration of vitamin D metabolites and health status. The newly developed normalized concentrations are therefore better indicators of vitamin D status and are easier to interpret than free or bioavailable concentrations, since their values match the range of measured total concentrations.

Slowing the progression of Alzheimer's disease; what works?

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related progressive dementia, which is increasing in prevalence world-wide. Typically affecting short-term memory at onset, this devastating illness advances to impair all aspects of cognition, as well as non-cognitive domains. Although much effort has been made in recent years to develop disease-modifying treatments, medications which provided promising results in pre-clinical research have so far faltered in human clinical trials. Attention has recently shifted into trying to identify preventative measures that may delay the onset of the illness. Preventative factors include physical activity, proper diet, cognitive stimulation and the management of conditions such as hypertension, diabetes and obesity. However, it remains imperative to identify approaches that may help patients already diagnosed with the illness. Alongside pharmacological research, much work has been done on uncovering strategies which may slow down the progression of AD. This review aims to summarize evidence supporting or refuting methods impacting on the progression of the disease. AD remains a chronic and serious condition, therefore any intervention delaying the onset of moderate/severe symptoms will have a significant impact on patients and their families.

Vitamin D deficiency is associated with increased risk of Alzheimer's disease and dementia: evidence from meta-analysis

Background

In recent years, the associations between vitamin D status and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and dementia have gained increasing interests. The present meta-analysis was designed to estimate the association between vitamin D deficiency and risk of developing AD and dementia.

Methods

A literature search conducted until February 2015 identified 10 study populations, which were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled risk ratios (RRs) and 95 % confidence interval (CI) were calculated with a random-effect model using Stata software package.

Results

Results of our meta-analysis showed that subjects with deficient vitamin D status (25(OH)D level < 50 nmol/L) were at increased risk of developing AD by 21 % compared with those possessing 25(OH)D level > 50 nmol/L. Similar analysis also found a significantly increased dementia risk in vitamin D deficient subjects. There is no evidence for significant heterogeneity among the included studies.

Conclusion

Available data indicates that lower vitamin D status may be associated with increased risk of developing AD and dementia. More studies are needed to further confirm the associations and to evaluate the beneficial effects of vitamin D supplementation in preventing AD and dementia.

Regulation of neurotropic signaling by the inducible, NF-kB-sensitive miRNA-125b in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and in primary human neuronal-glial (HNG) cells

Inducible microRNAs (miRNAs) perform critical regulatory roles in central nervous system (CNS) development, aging, health, and disease. Using miRNA arrays, RNA sequencing, enhanced Northern dot blot hybridization technologies, Western immunoblot, and bioinformatics analysis, we have studied miRNA abundance and complexity in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain tissues compared to age-matched controls. In both short post-mortem AD and in stressed primary human neuronal-glial (HNG) cells, we observe a consistent up-regulation of several brain-enriched miRNAs that are under transcriptional control by the pro-inflammatory transcription factor NF-kB. These include miRNA-9, miRNA-34a, miRNA-125b, miRNA-146a, and miRNA-155. Of the inducible miRNAs in this subfamily, miRNA-125b is among the most abundant and significantly induced miRNA species in human brain cells and tissues. Bioinformatics analysis indicated that an up-regulated miRNA-125b could potentially target the 3'untranslated region (3'-UTR) of the messenger RNA (mRNA) encoding (a) a 15-lipoxygenase (15-LOX; ALOX15; chr 17p13.3), utilized in the conversion of docosahexaneoic acid into neuroprotectin D1 (NPD1), and (b) the vitamin D3 receptor (VDR; VD3R; chr12q13.11) of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily. 15-LOX and VDR are key neuromolecular factors essential in lipid-mediated signaling, neurotrophic support, defense against reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (reactive oxygen and nitrogen species), and neuroprotection in the CNS. Pathogenic effects appear to be mediated via specific interaction of miRNA-125b with the 3'-UTR region of the 15-LOX and VDR messenger RNAs (mRNAs). In AD hippocampal CA1 and in stressed HNG cells, 15-LOX and VDR down-regulation and a deficiency in neurotrophic support may therefore be explained by the actions of a single inducible, pro-inflammatory miRNA-125b. We will review the recent data on the pathogenic actions of this up-regulated miRNA-125b in AD and discuss potential therapeutic approaches using either anti-NF-kB or anti-miRNA-125b strategies. These may be of clinical relevance in the restoration of 15-LOX and VDR expression back to control levels and the re-establishment of homeostatic neurotrophic signaling in the CNS.

1α,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 reduces cerebral amyloid-β accumulation and improves cognition in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease

We demonstrate a role of the vitamin D receptor (VDR) in reducing cerebral soluble and insoluble amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. Short-term treatment of two human amyloid precursor protein-expressing models, Tg2576 and TgCRND8 mice, with 1α,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH)2D3], the endogenous active ligand of VDR, resulted in higher brain P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and lower soluble Aβ levels, effects negated with coadministration of elacridar, a P-gp inhibitor. Long-term treatment of TgCRND8 mice with 1,25(OH)2D3 during the period of plaque formation reduced soluble and insoluble plaque-associated Aβ, particularly in the hippocampus in which the VDR is abundant and P-gp induction is greatest after 1,25(OH)2D3 treatment, and this led to improved conditioned fear memory. In mice fed a vitamin D-deficient diet, lower cerebral P-gp expression was observed, but levels were restored on replenishment with VDR ligands. The composite data suggest that the VDR is an important therapeutic target in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease.

Pharmacogenomics of Alzheimer's disease: novel therapeutic strategies for drug development

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a major problem of health and disability, with a relevant economic impact on our society. Despite important advances in pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment, its primary causes still remain elusive, accurate biomarkers are not well characterized, and the available pharmacological treatments are not cost-effective. As a complex disorder, AD is a polygenic and multifactorial clinical entity in which hundreds of defective genes distributed across the human genome may contribute to its pathogenesis. Diverse environmental factors, cerebrovascular dysfunction, and epigenetic phenomena, together with structural and functional genomic dysfunctions, lead to amyloid deposition, neurofibrillary tangle formation, and premature neuronal death, the major neuropathological hallmarks of AD. Future perspectives for the global management of AD predict that genomics and proteomics may help in the search for reliable biomarkers. In practical terms, the therapeutic response to conventional drugs (cholinesterase inhibitors, multifactorial strategies) is genotype-specific. Genomic factors potentially involved in AD pharmacogenomics include at least five categories of gene clusters: (1) genes associated with disease pathogenesis; (2) genes associated with the mechanism of action of drugs; (3) genes associated with drug metabolism (phase I and II reactions); (4) genes associated with drug transporters; and (5) pleiotropic genes involved in multifaceted cascades and metabolic reactions. The implementation of pharmacogenomic strategies will contribute to optimize drug development and therapeutics in AD and related disorders.