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Lopez GH, Sarri ME, Flower RL, Hyland CA. Impact of transcription factors KLF1 and GATA1 on red blood cell antigen expression: a review. Immunohematology 2024; 40:1-9. [PMID: 38739025 DOI: 10.2478/immunohematology-2024-002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
KLF transcription factor 1 (KLF1) and GATA binding protein 1 (GATA1) are transcription factors (TFs) that initiate and regulate transcription of the genes involved in erythropoiesis. These TFs possess DNA-binding domains that recognize specific nucleotide sequences in genes, to which they bind and regulate transcription. Variants in the genes that encode either KLF1 or GATA1 can result in a range of hematologic phenotypes-from benign to severe forms of thrombocytopenia and anemia; they can also weaken the expression of blood group antigens. The Lutheran (LU) blood group system is susceptible to TF gene variations, particularly KLF1 variants. Individuals heterozygous for KLF1 gene variants show reduced Lutheran antigens on red blood cells that are not usually detected by routine hemagglutination methods. This reduced antigen expression is referred to as the In(Lu) phenotype. For accurate blood typing, it is important to distinguish between the In(Lu) phenotype, which has very weak antigen expression, and the true Lunull phenotype, which has no antigen expression. The International Society of Blood Transfusion blood group allele database registers KLF1 and GATA1 variants associated with modified Lutheran expression. Here, we review KLF1 and recent novel gene variants defined through investigating blood group phenotype and genotype discrepancies or, for one report, investigating cases with unexplained chronic anemia. In addition, we include a review of the GATA1 TF, including a case report describing the second GATA1 variant associated with a serologic Lu(a-b-) phenotype. Finally, we review both past and recent reports on variations in the DNA sequence motifs on the blood group genes that disrupt the binding of the GATA1 TF and either remove or reduce erythroid antigen expression. This review highlights the diversity and complexity of the transcription process itself and the need to consider these factors as an added component for accurate blood group phenotyping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genghis H Lopez
- 1Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
- 2School of Health, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mia E Sarri
- 1Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
| | - Robert L Flower
- 1Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
- 3Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
| | - Catherine A Hyland
- 1Research and Development, Australian Red Cross Lifeblood, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
- 3Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, Queensland, Australia
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2
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Nain M, Sharma A. Linkages between blood groups and malaria susceptibility. J Vector Borne Dis 2022; 59:193-197. [PMID: 36511034 DOI: 10.4103/0972-9062.345177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Blood typing has revolutionized the field of medical science since its discovery about a century ago. Besides its established role in life-saving blood transfusions, researchers have always been curious about the relationship between blood groups and human ailments. The effect of blood groups on disease outcomes, susceptibility, and mortality has been widely explored. According to a particular school of thought, the endemicity of diseases shapes the distribution of blood group frequency in human populations and exert selection pressure favoring one blood type over another. Here we discuss the scope and association of different blood groups in the context of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minu Nain
- ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi 110077, India
| | - Amit Sharma
- ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi 110077; Molecular Medicine Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi 110067, India
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3
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Flegel WA, Srivastava K. When recombinant proteins can replace rare red cells in immunohematology workups. Transfusion 2021; 61:2204-2212. [PMID: 34060094 DOI: 10.1111/trf.16507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Willy A Flegel
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, NIH Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Kshitij Srivastava
- Department of Transfusion Medicine, NIH Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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4
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Grueger D, Zeretzke A, Habicht CP, Skaik Y, Wagner FF, Scharberg EA, Costelloe A, Martens J, Verboom M, Bugert P, Schneeweiss C. Two novel antitheticalKNblood group antigens may contribute to more than a quarter of allKNantisera inEurope. Transfusion 2020; 60:2408-2418. [DOI: 10.1111/trf.16039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Grueger
- Imusyn GmbH & Co. KG Hanover Germany
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Transplant Engineering Hannover Medical School Hanover Germany
| | | | | | | | - Franz F. Wagner
- German Red Cross Blood Service NSTOB Springe Germany
- MVZ am Clementinenkrankenhaus Springe Germany
| | - Erwin A. Scharberg
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunohematology German Red Cross Blood Service Baden‐Württemberg ‐ Hessen Baden‐Baden Germany
| | - Aisling Costelloe
- RCI Laboratory, National Blood Center Irish Blood Transfusion Service Dublin Ireland
| | - Jörg Martens
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Transplant Engineering Hannover Medical School Hanover Germany
| | - Murielle Verboom
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Transplant Engineering Hannover Medical School Hanover Germany
| | - Peter Bugert
- Institute of Transfusion Medicine and Immunology, Medical Faculty Mannheim Heidelberg University, German Red Cross Blood Service Baden‐Württemberg – Hessen gGmbH Mannheim Germany
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Oliveira LC, Kretzschmar GC, Dos Santos ACM, Camargo CM, Nisihara RM, Farias TDJ, Franke A, Wittig M, Schmidt E, Busch H, Petzl-Erler ML, Boldt ABW. Complement Receptor 1 (CR1, CD35) Polymorphisms and Soluble CR1: A Proposed Anti-inflammatory Role to Quench the Fire of "Fogo Selvagem" Pemphigus Foliaceus. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2585. [PMID: 31824479 PMCID: PMC6883348 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Pemphigus foliaceus is an autoimmune disease that is sporadic around the world but endemic in Brazil, where it is known as fogo selvagem (FS). Characterized by autoantibodies against the desmosomal cadherin desmoglein 1, FS causes painful erosions, and crusts that may be widespread. The recognition of antigens, including exposed sugar moieties, activates the complement system. Complement receptor 1 (CR1, CD35), which is responsible for the Knops blood group on erythrocytes (York and McCoy antigens), is also expressed by antigen-presenting cells. This regulates the complement system by removing opsonized antigens, blocking the final steps of the complement cascade. Membrane-bound CR1 also fosters antigen presentation to B cells, whereas soluble CR1 has anti-inflammatory properties. CR1 gene polymorphisms have been associated with susceptibility to complex diseases. In order to investigate the association of CR1 polymorphisms with FS susceptibility, we developed a multiplex sequence-specific assay to haplotype eleven polymorphisms in up to 367 FS patients and 242 controls from an endemic area and 289 from a non-endemic area. We also measured soluble CR1 (sCR1) in the serum of 53 FS patients and 27 controls and mRNA levels in the peripheral blood mononuclear cells of 63 genotyped controls. The haplotypes CR1*3B2B (with the York antigen–encoded by p.1408Met) and CR1*3A2A (with p.1208Arg) were associated with protection against FS (OR = 0.57, P = 0.027, and OR = 0.46, P = 0.014, respectively). In contrast, the CR1*1 haplotype (with the McCoy antigen – encoded by p.1590Glu) was associated with FS susceptibility (OR = 4.97, P < 0.001). Heterozygote rs12034383*A/G individuals presented higher mRNA expression than homozygotes with the G allele (P = 0.04). The lowest sCR1 levels occurred in patients with active disease before treatment (P = 0.036). Patients in remission had higher levels of sCR1 than did healthy controls (P = 0.013). Among those under treatment, patients with localized lesions also presented higher sCR1 levels than those with generalized lesions (P = 0.0073). In conclusion, the Knops blood group seems to modulate susceptibility to the disease. Furthermore, corticosteroid treatment might increase sCR1 serum levels, and higher levels may play an anti-inflammatory role in patients with FS, limiting the distribution of lesions. Based on these results, we suggest CR1 as a potential new therapeutic target for the treatment of FS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luana Caroline Oliveira
- Laboratory of Human Molecular Genetics, Department of Genetics, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | | | | | - Carolina Maciel Camargo
- Laboratory of Human Molecular Genetics, Department of Genetics, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Renato Mitsunori Nisihara
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Department of Clinical Pathology, Clinical Hospital, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | | | - Andre Franke
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Michael Wittig
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Enno Schmidt
- Lübeck Institute of Experimental Dermatology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Hauke Busch
- Lübeck Institute of Experimental Dermatology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Maria Luiza Petzl-Erler
- Laboratory of Human Molecular Genetics, Department of Genetics, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Angelica Beate Winter Boldt
- Laboratory of Human Molecular Genetics, Department of Genetics, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
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6
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Gassner C, Degenhardt F, Meyer S, Vollmert C, Trost N, Neuenschwander K, Merki Y, Portmann C, Sigurdardottir S, Zorbas A, Engström C, Gottschalk J, Amar El Dusouqui S, Waldvogel-Abramovski S, Rigal E, Tissot JD, Tinguely C, Mauvais SM, Sarraj A, Bessero D, Stalder M, Infanti L, Buser A, Sigle J, Weingand T, Castelli D, Braisch MC, Thierbach J, Heer S, Schulzki T, Krawczak M, Franke A, Frey BM. Low-Frequency Blood Group Antigens in Switzerland. Transfus Med Hemother 2018; 45:239-250. [PMID: 30283273 DOI: 10.1159/000490714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background High-frequency blood group antigens (HFA) are present in >90% of the human population, according to some reports even in >99% of individuals. Therefore, patients lacking HFA may become challenging for transfusion support because compatible blood is hardly found, and if the patient carries alloantibodies, the cross-match will be positive with virtual every red cell unit tested. Methods In this study, we applied high-throughput blood group SNP genotyping on >37,000 Swiss blood donors, intending to identify homozygous carriers of low-frequency blood group antigens (LFA). Results 326 such individuals were identified and made available to transfusion specialists for future support of patients in need of rare blood products. Conclusion Thorough comparison of minor allele frequencies using population genetics revealed heterogeneity of allele distributions among Swiss blood donors which may be explained by the topographical and cultural peculiarities of Switzerland. Moreover, geographically localized donor subpopulations are described which contain above-average numbers of individuals carrying rare blood group genotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Gassner
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, Swiss Red Cross (SRC), Department of Molecular Diagnostics & Research (MOC), Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Frauke Degenhardt
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Stefan Meyer
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, Swiss Red Cross (SRC), Department of Molecular Diagnostics & Research (MOC), Schlieren, Switzerland
| | | | - Nadine Trost
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, Swiss Red Cross (SRC), Department of Molecular Diagnostics & Research (MOC), Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Kathrin Neuenschwander
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, Swiss Red Cross (SRC), Department of Molecular Diagnostics & Research (MOC), Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Yvonne Merki
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, Swiss Red Cross (SRC), Department of Molecular Diagnostics & Research (MOC), Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Portmann
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, Swiss Red Cross (SRC), Department of Molecular Diagnostics & Research (MOC), Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Sonja Sigurdardottir
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, Swiss Red Cross (SRC), Department of Molecular Diagnostics & Research (MOC), Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Antigoni Zorbas
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, SRC, Schlieren, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | - Emmanuel Rigal
- Blood Transfusion Service Genève, SRC, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Daniel Tissot
- Blood Transfusion Service Vaud, SRC (recently merged with Interregional Blood Transfusion, SRC, Ltd., Bern), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Simon M Mauvais
- Blood Transfusion Service Neuchâtel-Jura, SRC, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Amira Sarraj
- Blood Transfusion Service Neuchâtel-Jura, SRC, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Bessero
- Blood Transfusion Service Valais, SRC (recently merged with Interregional Blood Transfusion, SRC, Ltd., Bern), Sion, Switzerland
| | - Michele Stalder
- Blood Transfusion Service Valais, SRC (recently merged with Interregional Blood Transfusion, SRC, Ltd., Bern), Sion, Switzerland
| | - Laura Infanti
- Blood Transfusion Service beider Basel, SRC, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Buser
- Blood Transfusion Service beider Basel, SRC, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Sigle
- Blood Transfusion Service Aargau-Solothurn, SRC, Aarau, Switzerland
| | - Tina Weingand
- Blood Transfusion Service Zentralschweiz, SRC, Luzern, Switzerland
| | - Damiano Castelli
- Blood Transfusion Service Svizzera Italiana, SRC, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Monica C Braisch
- Blood Transfusion Service Ostschweiz, SRC, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Jutta Thierbach
- Blood Transfusion Service Ostschweiz, SRC, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Sonja Heer
- Blood Transfusion Service Graubünden, SRC, Chur, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Schulzki
- Blood Transfusion Service Graubünden, SRC, Chur, Switzerland
| | - Michael Krawczak
- Institute for Medical Informatics and Statistics, Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Andre Franke
- Institute of Clinical Molecular Biology, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Beat M Frey
- Blood Transfusion Service Zürich, SRC, Schlieren, Switzerland
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7
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Opi DH, Swann O, Macharia A, Uyoga S, Band G, Ndila CM, Harrison EM, Thera MA, Kone AK, Diallo DA, Doumbo OK, Lyke KE, Plowe CV, Moulds JM, Shebbe M, Mturi N, Peshu N, Maitland K, Raza A, Kwiatkowski DP, Rockett KA, Williams TN, Rowe JA. Two complement receptor one alleles have opposing associations with cerebral malaria and interact with α +thalassaemia. eLife 2018; 7:e31579. [PMID: 29690995 PMCID: PMC5953541 DOI: 10.7554/elife.31579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria has been a major driving force in the evolution of the human genome. In sub-Saharan African populations, two neighbouring polymorphisms in the Complement Receptor One (CR1) gene, named Sl2 and McCb, occur at high frequencies, consistent with selection by malaria. Previous studies have been inconclusive. Using a large case-control study of severe malaria in Kenyan children and statistical models adjusted for confounders, we estimate the relationship between Sl2 and McCb and malaria phenotypes, and find they have opposing associations. The Sl2 polymorphism is associated with markedly reduced odds of cerebral malaria and death, while the McCb polymorphism is associated with increased odds of cerebral malaria. We also identify an apparent interaction between Sl2 and α+thalassaemia, with the protective association of Sl2 greatest in children with normal α-globin. The complex relationship between these three mutations may explain previous conflicting findings, highlighting the importance of considering genetic interactions in disease-association studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Herbert Opi
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
| | - Olivia Swann
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
| | - Alexander Macharia
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
| | - Sophie Uyoga
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
| | - Gavin Band
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human GeneticsUniversity of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Carolyne M Ndila
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
| | - Ewen M Harrison
- Centre for Medical InfomaticsUsher Insitute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
| | - Mahamadou A Thera
- Malaria Research and Training Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy, and DentistryUniversity of BamakoBamakoMali
| | - Abdoulaye K Kone
- Malaria Research and Training Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy, and DentistryUniversity of BamakoBamakoMali
| | - Dapa A Diallo
- Malaria Research and Training Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy, and DentistryUniversity of BamakoBamakoMali
| | - Ogobara K Doumbo
- Malaria Research and Training Centre, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy, and DentistryUniversity of BamakoBamakoMali
| | - Kirsten E Lyke
- Division of Malaria Research, Institute for Global HealthUniversity of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | - Christopher V Plowe
- Division of Malaria Research, Institute for Global HealthUniversity of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimoreUnited States
| | | | - Mohammed Shebbe
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
| | - Neema Mturi
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
| | - Norbert Peshu
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
| | - Kathryn Maitland
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
- Department of MedicineImperial CollegeLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - Ahmed Raza
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
| | - Dominic P Kwiatkowski
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human GeneticsUniversity of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
- Wellcome Trust Sanger InstituteCambridgeUnited Kingdom
| | - Kirk A Rockett
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Human GeneticsUniversity of OxfordOxfordUnited Kingdom
| | - Thomas N Williams
- Kenya Medical Research Institute-Wellcome Trust Research ProgrammeKilifiKenya
- Department of MedicineImperial CollegeLondonUnited Kingdom
| | - J Alexandra Rowe
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of EdinburghEdinburghUnited Kingdom
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8
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Sandri TL, Lidani KCF, Andrade FA, Meyer CG, Kremsner PG, de Messias-Reason IJ, Velavan TP. Human complement receptor type 1 (CR1) protein levels and genetic variants in chronic Chagas Disease. Sci Rep 2018; 8:526. [PMID: 29323238 PMCID: PMC5765048 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18937-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement is an essential element in both innate and acquired immunity contributing to the immunopathogenesis of many disorders, including Chagas Disease (CD). Human complement receptor 1 (CR1) plays a role in the clearance of complement opsonized molecules and may facilitate the entry of pathogens into host cells. Distinct CR1 exon 29 variants have been found associated with CR1 expression levels, increased susceptibility and pathophysiology of several diseases. In this study, CR1 plasma levels were assessed by ELISA and CR1 variants in exon 29 by sequencing in a Brazilian cohort of 232 chronic CD patients and 104 healthy controls. CR1 levels were significantly decreased in CD patients compared to controls (p < 0.0001). The CR1 rs1704660G, rs17047661G and rs6691117G variants were significantly associated with CD and in high linkage disequilibrium. The CR1*AGAGTG haplotype was associated with T. cruzi infection (p = 0.035, OR 3.99, CI 1.1-14.15) whereas CR1*AGGGTG was related to the risk of chagasic cardiomyopathy (p = 0.028, OR 12.15, CI 1.13-113). This is the first study that provides insights on the role of CR1 in development and clinical presentation of chronic CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaisa Lucas Sandri
- Laboratory of Molecular Immunopathology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | | | - Christian G Meyer
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Faculty of Medicine, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam
- Vietnamese - German Center for Medical Research, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Peter G Kremsner
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Thirumalaisamy P Velavan
- Institute of Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Faculty of Medicine, Duy Tan University, Da Nang, Vietnam.
- Vietnamese - German Center for Medical Research, Hanoi, Vietnam.
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9
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Swann OV, Harrison EM, Opi DH, Nyatichi E, Macharia A, Uyoga S, Williams TN, Rowe JA. No Evidence that Knops Blood Group Polymorphisms Affect Complement Receptor 1 Clustering on Erythrocytes. Sci Rep 2017; 7:17825. [PMID: 29259218 PMCID: PMC5736761 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-17664-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Clustering of Complement Receptor 1 (CR1) in the erythrocyte membrane is important for immune-complex transfer and clearance. CR1 contains the Knops blood group antigens, including the antithetical pairs Swain-Langley 1 and 2 (Sl1 and Sl2) and McCoy a and b (McCa and McCb), whose functional effects are unknown. We tested the hypothesis that the Sl and McC polymorphisms might influence CR1 clustering on erythrocyte membranes. Blood samples from 125 healthy Kenyan children were analysed by immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy to determine CR1 cluster number and volume. In agreement with previous reports, CR1 cluster number and volume were positively associated with CR1 copy number (mean number of CR1 molecules per erythrocyte). Individuals with the McCb/McCb genotype had more clusters per cell than McCa/McCa individuals. However, this association was lost when the strong effect of CR1 copy number was included in the model. No association was observed between Sl genotype, sickle cell genotype, α+thalassaemia genotype, gender or age and CR1 cluster number or volume. Therefore, after correction for CR1 copy number, the Sl and McCoy polymorphisms did not influence erythrocyte CR1 clustering, and the effects of the Knops polymorphisms on CR1 function remains unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
- O V Swann
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - E M Harrison
- Clinical Surgery, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - D H Opi
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Wellcome Trust Research Laboratories/Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research, Kilifi, Kenya.,Burnet Institute for Medical Research and Public Health, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia
| | - E Nyatichi
- Wellcome Trust Research Laboratories/Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - A Macharia
- Wellcome Trust Research Laboratories/Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - S Uyoga
- Wellcome Trust Research Laboratories/Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - T N Williams
- Wellcome Trust Research Laboratories/Kenya Medical Research Institute, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research, Kilifi, Kenya.,Department of Medicine, Imperial College, London, UK
| | - J A Rowe
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution, Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
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10
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Geographical distribution of complement receptor type 1 variants and their associated disease risk. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0175973. [PMID: 28520715 PMCID: PMC5435133 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0175973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pathogens exert selective pressure which may lead to substantial changes in host immune responses. The human complement receptor type 1 (CR1) is an innate immune recognition glycoprotein that regulates the activation of the complement pathway and removes opsonized immune complexes. CR1 genetic variants in exon 29 have been associated with expression levels, C1q or C3b binding and increased susceptibility to several infectious diseases. Five distinct CR1 nucleotide substitutions determine the Knops blood group phenotypes, namely Kna/b, McCa/b, Sl1/Sl2, Sl4/Sl5 and KCAM+/-. Methods CR1 variants were genotyped by direct sequencing in a cohort of 441 healthy individuals from Brazil, Vietnam, India, Republic of Congo and Ghana. Results The distribution of the CR1 alleles, genotypes and haplotypes differed significantly among geographical settings (p≤0.001). CR1 variants rs17047660A/G (McCa/b) and rs17047661A/G (Sl1/Sl2) were exclusively observed to be polymorphic in African populations compared to the groups from Asia and South-America, strongly suggesting that these two SNPs may be subjected to selection. This is further substantiated by a high linkage disequilibrium between the two variants in the Congolese and Ghanaian populations. A total of nine CR1 haplotypes were observed. The CR1*AGAATA haplotype was found more frequently among the Brazilian and Vietnamese study groups; the CR1*AGAATG haplotype was frequent in the Indian and Vietnamese populations, while the CR1*AGAGTG haplotype was frequent among Congolese and Ghanaian individuals. Conclusion The African populations included in this study might have a selective advantage conferred to immune genes involved in pathogen recognition and signaling, possibly contributing to disease susceptibility or resistance.
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11
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Red blood cell complement receptor one level varies with Knops blood group, α(+)thalassaemia and age among Kenyan children. Genes Immun 2016; 17:171-8. [PMID: 26844958 PMCID: PMC4842007 DOI: 10.1038/gene.2016.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Both the invasion of red blood cells (RBCs) by Plasmodium falciparum parasites and the sequestration of parasite-infected RBCs in the microvasculature are mediated in part by complement receptor one (CR1). RBC surface CR1 level can vary between individuals by more than 20-fold and may be associated with the risk of severe malaria. The factors that influence RBC CR1 level variation are poorly understood, particularly in African populations. We studied 3535 child residents of a malaria-endemic region of coastal Kenya and report, for the first time, that the CR1 Knops blood group alleles Sl2 and McC(b), and homozygous HbSS are positively associated with RBC CR1 level. Sickle cell trait and ABO blood group did not influence RBC CR1 level. We also confirm the previous observation that α(+)thalassaemia is associated with reduced RBC CR1 level, possibly due to small RBC volume, and that age-related changes in RBC CR1 expression occur throughout childhood. RBC CR1 level in malaria-endemic African populations is a complex phenotype influenced by multiple factors that should be taken into account in the design and interpretation of future studies on CR1 and malaria susceptibility.
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Tettey R, Ayeh-Kumi P, Tettey P, Adjei GO, Asmah RH, Dodoo D. Severity of malaria in relation to a complement receptor 1 polymorphism: a case-control study. Pathog Glob Health 2015; 109:247-52. [PMID: 25916414 DOI: 10.1179/2047773215y.0000000011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies on the relationship between complement receptor 1 (CR1) polymorphisms in exon 29 encoding the Knops blood group antigens (Swain-Langley (Sl) and McCoy (McC)) and outcome of clinical malaria have produced inconsistent results. METHODS Blood samples from Ghanaian children (n = 150) aged 1-12 years with complicated and uncomplicated malaria were genotyped for the Sl and McC blood group alleles by polymerase chain reaction and restriction fragment length polymorphism. Effect of Sl and McC genotypes on the clinical outcome of malaria was evaluated using logistic regression. RESULTS McCa/b genotype was significantly associated with more than two-fold increased susceptibility for severe malaria (OR = 2.31; 95% CI: 1.03-5.20, P = 0.043). However, McCb/b was associated with an 88% reduced risk of severe malaria (OR = 0.12; 95% CI: 0.02-0.64, P = 0.013). In contrast, there was no significant association between severe malaria and Sl1/1, Sl1/2, Sl2/and McCa/a genotypes. There was a trend towards decreased susceptibility to both cerebral malaria (CM) (OR = 0.13; 95% CI: 0.02-1.15, P = 0.07) and severe malarial anaemia (SA) (OR = 0.14; 95% CI: 0.02-1.19, P = 0.07) for McCb/b genotype when compared with the McCa/a genotype. There were no significant associations between Sl1/2 or Sl2/2 genotype and CM or SA when compared with Sl1/1 genotype. CONCLUSIONS McCa/b was associated with increased susceptibility to severe malaria and McCb/b associated with reduced risk of severe malaria. Further studies with large sample size in other malaria endemic regions in Africa are warranted to confirm these findings.
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Schmidt CQ, Kennedy AT, Tham WH. More than just immune evasion: Hijacking complement by Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Immunol 2015; 67:71-84. [PMID: 25816986 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2015] [Revised: 03/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the world's deadliest diseases. Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for the most severe and lethal form of human malaria. P. falciparum's life cycle involves two obligate hosts: human and mosquito. From initial entry into these hosts, malaria parasites face the onslaught of the first line of host defence, the complement system. In this review, we discuss the complex interaction between complement and malaria infection in terms of hosts immune responses, parasite survival and pathogenesis of severe forms of malaria. We will focus on the role of complement receptor 1 and its associated polymorphisms in malaria immune complex clearance, as a mediator of parasite rosetting and as an entry receptor for P. falciparum invasion. Complement evasion strategies of P. falciparum parasites will also be highlighted. The sexual forms of the malaria parasites recruit the soluble human complement regulator Factor H to evade complement-mediated killing within the mosquito host. A novel evasion strategy is the deployment of parasite organelles to divert complement attack from infective blood stage parasites. Finally we outline the future challenge to understand the implications of these exploitation mechanisms in the interplay between successful infection of the host and pathogenesis observed in severe malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Q Schmidt
- Institute of Pharmacology of Natural Products and Clinical Pharmacology, Ulm University, Helmholtzstraße 20, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Alexander T Kennedy
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne and Division of Infection and Immunity, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia
| | - Wai-Hong Tham
- Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne and Division of Infection and Immunity, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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Hansson HH, Kurtzhals JA, Goka BQ, Rodriques OP, Nkrumah FN, Theander TG, Bygbjerg IC, Alifrangis M. Human genetic polymorphisms in the Knops blood group are not associated with a protective advantage against Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Southern Ghana. Malar J 2013; 12:400. [PMID: 24200236 PMCID: PMC4226212 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-12-400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The complex interactions between the human host and the Plasmodium falciparum parasite and the factors influencing severity of disease are still not fully understood. Human single nucleotide polymorphisms SNPs associated with Knops blood group system; carried by complement receptor 1 may be associated with the pathology of P. falciparum malaria, and susceptibility to disease. Methods The objective of this study was to determine the genotype and haplotype frequencies of the SNPs defining the Knops blood group antigens; Kna/b, McCoya/b, Swain-Langley1/2 and KCAM+/- in Ghanaian patients with malaria and determine possible associations between these polymorphisms and the severity of the disease. Study participants were patients (n = 267) admitted to the emergency room at the Department of Child Health, Korle-Bu Teaching Hospital, Accra, Ghana during the malaria season from June to August in 1995, 1996 and 1997, classified as uncomplicated malaria (n = 89), severe anaemia (n = 57) and cerebral malaria (n = 121) and controls who did not have a detectable Plasmodium infection or were symptomless carriers of the parasite (n = 275). The frequencies were determined using a post-PCR ligation detection reaction-fluorescent microsphere assay, developed to detect the SNPs defining the antigens. Chi-square/Fisher’s exact test and logistic regression models were used to analyse the data. Results As expected, high frequencies of the alleles Kna, McCb, Sl2 and KCAM- were found in the Ghanaian population. Apart from small significant differences between the groups at the Sl locus, no significant allelic or genotypic differences were found between the controls and the disease groups or between the disease groups. The polymorphisms define eight different haplotypes H1(2.4%), H2(9.4%), H3(59.8%), H4(0%), H5(25.2%), H6(0.33%), H7(2.8%) and H8(0%). Investigating these haplotypes, no significant differences between any of the groups were found. Conclusion The results confirm earlier findings of high frequencies of certain CR1 alleles in Africa; and shed more light on earlier conflicting findings; the alleles McCb, Sl2, Knb and KCAM- or combined haplotypes do not seem to confer any protective advantage against malaria infection or resulting disease severity. Based on these findings, in a very well-characterized population, malaria does not seem to be the selective force on these alleles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle H Hansson
- Centre for Medical Parasitology, Department of International Health, Immunology and Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Silvy M, Beley S, Granier T, Ba A, Chiaroni J, Bailly P. Heterogeneity of alleles encoding high- and low-prevalence red blood cell antigens across Africa: useful data to facilitate transfusion in African patients. Br J Haematol 2013; 163:528-36. [PMID: 24032660 DOI: 10.1111/bjh.12546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Accepted: 07/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Ethnic variations in red blood cell (RBC) antigens can be a source of alloimmunization, especially in migrant populations. To improve transfusion safety in continental Africa and countries with African migrants, we performed RBC genotyping to determine allele frequencies coding for high- and low-prevalence antigens. A total of 481 blood samples were collected in ethnic groups from West, Central and East Africa. Molecular typing was performed using a polymerase chain reaction - reverse sequence specific oligonucleotide method. Results demonstrated no DI*1, DI*3, YT*2, SC*2, LW*7, KN*2 alleles in any sample and the CO*2 allele was rare. The frequency of LU*1 was comparable to that of European-Caucasians (2%) except in Biaka pygmies (8%). The frequency of CROM*-1 was high in Mbuti pygmies (13%). High frequency of KN*7 and KN*6 may reflect selection pressure in the countries investigated. Analysis of Dombrock allele patterns confirmed uneven distribution of the DO*1 and DO*2 alleles with high frequencies of DO*-4 and DO*-5 in all groups. Altogether, findings demonstrated extensive allele-frequency heterogeneity across Africa and suggested that knowledge of patient ethnicity gives information about the high-prevalence antigens that may be lacking. These data are medically useful to support transfusion care of African migrants living in countries where the majority of the population is from a different ethnical background.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monique Silvy
- Etablissement Français du Sang Alpes Méditerranée, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille Université, EFS, ADES UMR, 7268, Marseille, France
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Abstract
Very important progress has been made over the last years in understanding the Duffy blood group system and its complexity. The Duffy blood group antigen serves not only as blood group antigen, but also as a receptor for a family of proinflammatory cytokines termed chemokines, and as a receptor for Plasmodium vivax malaria parasites. The Duffy antigen has been termed the "Duffy Antigen Receptor for Chemokines" (DARC) or the Duffy chemokine receptor. DARC might play a role as a scanvenger on the red blood cell surface to eliminate excess of toxic chemokines produced in some pathologic situations [48]. Plasmodium vivax (P. vivax) causes approximately between 70 and 80 million cases of malaria per year and is the most amply distributed human malaria in the world [51]. Individuals with the Duffy-negative phenotype are resistant to P. vivax invasion, and the molecular mechanism that gives rise to the phenotype Fy(a - b - ) in black individuals has been associated with a point mutation - 33TC expressed in homozigosity in the FYB allele [5]. Despite P. vivax be widespread throughout the tropical and subtropical world, it is absent from West Africa, where more than 95% of the population is Duffy negative. Recently, this point mutation has been described in heterozigosity in the FYA allele in others malaria endemic regions [7, 8], and until now we do not know if it confers a certain degree of protection against P. vivax infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dante M Langhi
- Department of Hematology and Transfusion Medicine, Santa Casa Medical School, São Paulo, Brazil
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Thomas BN, Diallo DA, Noumsi GT, Moulds JM. Circulating Immune Complex Levels are Associated with Disease Severity and Seasonality in Children with Malaria from Mali. Biomark Insights 2012; 7:81-6. [PMID: 22837639 PMCID: PMC3399413 DOI: 10.4137/bmi.s9624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement receptor one (CR1) is essential for removing circulating immune complexes (CIC), with malaria infection contributing to the formation of large amounts of CIC. We investigated CIC levels in children with malaria, of varying severity and seasonality. Two hundred age and sex-matched severe and mild malaria cases were studied during and after active disease. Pediatric controls had increased CIC levels (mean = 32 μg mEq/mL) compared to adult controls (mean = 26.9 μg mEq/mL). The highest levels of CIC were reported in severe malaria (mean = 39 μg mEq/mL). Higher levels of CIC were recorded in younger children and those with low E-CR1 copy numbers. Our data suggest that low levels of E-CR1 copy numbers, found in children with severe malaria, may adversely affect the ability to remove IC. Furthermore, the high background for circulating immune complex imply that Malian children are under constant assault by other pathogens that evoke a strong immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bolaji N Thomas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences and Technology, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester NY, USA
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Tetteh-Quarcoo PB, Schmidt CQ, Tham WH, Hauhart R, Mertens HDT, Rowe A, Atkinson JP, Cowman AF, Rowe JA, Barlow PN. Lack of evidence from studies of soluble protein fragments that Knops blood group polymorphisms in complement receptor-type 1 are driven by malaria. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34820. [PMID: 22506052 PMCID: PMC3323580 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement receptor-type 1 (CR1, CD35) is the immune-adherence receptor, a complement regulator, and an erythroid receptor for Plasmodium falciparum during merozoite invasion and subsequent rosette formation involving parasitized and non-infected erythrocytes. The non-uniform geographical distribution of Knops blood group CR1 alleles Sl1/2 and McCa/b may result from selective pressures exerted by differential exposure to infectious hazards. Here, four variant short recombinant versions of CR1 were produced and analyzed, focusing on complement control protein modules (CCPs) 15–25 of its ectodomain. These eleven modules encompass a region (CCPs 15–17) key to rosetting, opsonin recognition and complement regulation, as well as the Knops blood group polymorphisms in CCPs 24–25. All four CR1 15–25 variants were monomeric and had similar axial ratios. Modules 21 and 22, despite their double-length inter-modular linker, did not lie side-by-side so as to stabilize a bent-back architecture that would facilitate cooperation between key functional modules and Knops blood group antigens. Indeed, the four CR1 15–25 variants had virtually indistinguishable affinities for immobilized complement fragments C3b (KD = 0.8–1.1 µM) and C4b (KD = 5.0–5.3 µM). They were all equally good co-factors for factor I-catalysed cleavage of C3b and C4b, and they bound equally within a narrow affinity range, to immobilized C1q. No differences between the variants were observed in assays for inhibition of erythrocyte invasion by P. falciparum or for rosette disruption. Neither differences in complement-regulatory functionality, nor interactions with P. falciparum proteins tested here, appear to have driven the non-uniform geographic distribution of these alleles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christoph Q. Schmidt
- The Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Wai-Hong Tham
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Richard Hauhart
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | | | - Arthur Rowe
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Leicester, United Kingdom
| | - John P. Atkinson
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Alan F. Cowman
- Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - J. Alexandra Rowe
- Institute of Immunology and Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Paul N. Barlow
- The Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Gandhi M. Complement receptor 1 and the molecular pathogenesis of malaria. INDIAN JOURNAL OF HUMAN GENETICS 2011; 13:39-47. [PMID: 21957343 PMCID: PMC3168156 DOI: 10.4103/0971-6866.34704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a pathogenic infection caused by protozoa of the genus plasmodium. It is mainly confined to sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and South America. This disease claims the life of over 1.5 to 2.7 million people per year. Owing to such a high incidence of malarial infections, there is an urgent need for the development of suitable vaccines. For the development of ideal vaccines, it is essential to understand the molecular mechanisms of malarial pathogenesis and the factors that lead to malaria infection. Genetic factors have been proposed to play an important role in malarial pathogenesis. Complement receptor 1 (CR1) is an important host red blood cell protein involved in interaction with malarial parasite. Various polymorphic forms of CR1 have been found to be involved in conferring protection or increasing susceptibility to malaria infections. Low-density allele (L) of CR1 gave contradictory results in different set of studies. In addition, Knops polymorphic forms Sl (a+) and McC (a) have been found to contribute more towards the occurrence of cerebral malaria in malaria endemic regions compared to individuals with Sl (a-) / McC (a/b) genotype. This article reviews the research currently going on in this area and throws light on as yet unresolved mysteries of the role of CR1 in malarial pathogenesis
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Gandhi
- Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, University School of Biotechnology, Kashmere Gate, Delhi - 110 006, India
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Fontes AM, Kashima S, Bonfim-Silva R, Azevedo R, Abraham KJ, Albuquerque SRL, Bordin JO, Júnior DML, Covas DT. Association between Knops blood group polymorphisms and susceptibility to malaria in an endemic area of the Brazilian Amazon. Genet Mol Biol 2011; 34:539-45. [PMID: 22215954 PMCID: PMC3229105 DOI: 10.1590/s1415-47572011005000051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2011] [Accepted: 07/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Complement receptor 1 (CR1) gene polymorphisms that are associated with Knops blood group antigens may influence the binding of Plasmodium parasites to erythrocytes, thereby affecting susceptibility to malaria. The aim of this study was to evaluate the genotype and allele and haplotype frequencies of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of Knops blood group antigens and examine their association with susceptibility to malaria in an endemic area of Brazil. One hundred and twenty-six individuals from the Brazilian Amazon were studied. The CR1-genomic fragment was amplified by PCR and six SNPs and haplotypes were identified after DNA sequence analysis. Allele and haplotype frequencies revealed that the Kn(b) allele and H8 haplotype were possibly associated with susceptibility to Plasmodium falciparum. The odds ratios were reasonably high, suggesting a potentially important association between two Knops blood antigens (Kn(b) and KAM(+)) that confer susceptibility to P. falciparum in individuals from the Brazilian Amazon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparecida Maria Fontes
- Hemocentro de Ribeirão Preto, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Células Tronco e Terapia Celular, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Simone Kashima
- Hemocentro de Ribeirão Preto, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Células Tronco e Terapia Celular, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Bonfim-Silva
- Hemocentro de Ribeirão Preto, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Células Tronco e Terapia Celular, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Rochele Azevedo
- Hemocentro de Ribeirão Preto, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Células Tronco e Terapia Celular, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Dimas Tadeu Covas
- Hemocentro de Ribeirão Preto, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia em Células Tronco e Terapia Celular, Hospital das Clínicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Noumsi GT, Tounkara A, Diallo H, Billingsley K, Moulds JJ, Moulds JM. Knops blood group polymorphism and susceptibility to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Transfusion 2011; 51:2462-9. [PMID: 21569042 DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2011.03161.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Complement receptor 1 (CR1) protein carries the Knops blood group antigens and is the receptor for the major ligand involved in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) adhesion to macrophages. Erythrocyte CR1 binds immune complexes (ICs) formed during Mtb invasion, facilitating their clearance by the host immune system. The occurrence of specific Knops blood group genotypes among African populations was investigated to evaluate their impact on resistance or susceptibility to Mtb infection. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS The distribution of the Knops blood group genotypes (McC and Sl) was compared between tuberculosis (TB) patients with confirmed diagnosis of Mtb in isolates and negative controls. Conditional logistic regression was used to access the association between genotypes distribution and susceptibility to Mtb infection. RESULTS At the McC locus, individuals heterozygous (McC(a) /McC(b) ) were more resistant to Mtb infection (odds ratio [OR], 0.42; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.22-0.81; p = 0.007). Although less significant, a similar effect was conferred by Sl1/Sl2 genotype (OR, 0.05; 95% CI, 0.28-0.9; p = 0.02). This protective effect was maintained among individuals presenting the McC(b) /Sl2 haplotype (OR, 0.25; 95% CI, 0.08-0.74; p = 0.008). CONCLUSION Acquisition of McC(b) and Sl2 alleles among African population is correlated with resistance to Mtb infection, adding this bacterium to the list of mechanisms underlying the selection of the Knops blood group polymorphism among these populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghislain T Noumsi
- Scientific Support Services, LifeShare Blood Centers, Shreveport, Louisiana 71106, USA.
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Mönster A, Hiller O, Grüger D, Blasczyk R, Kasper C. Isolation and purification of blood group antigens using immuno-affinity chromatography on short monolithic columns. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:706-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2010.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Veldhuisen B, Ligthart PC, Vidarsson G, Roels I, Folman CC, van der Schoot CE, de Haas M. Molecular analysis of the York antigen of the Knops blood group system. Transfusion 2011; 51:1389-96. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2010.02999.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Li Q, Han SS, Guo ZH, Yang Y, Zhou J, Zhu ZY. The polymorphism of the Knops blood group system among five Chinese ethnic groups. Transfus Med 2010; 20:369-75. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3148.2010.01023.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Liu D, Niu ZX. The structure, genetic polymorphisms, expression and biological functions of complement receptor type 1 (CR1/CD35). Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2010; 31:524-35. [PMID: 19874218 DOI: 10.3109/08923970902845768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The complement system is comprised of soluble and cell surface associated proteins that recognize exogenous, altered, or potentially harmful endogenous ligands. In recent years, the complement system--particularly component C3 and its receptors--have been demonstrated to be a key link between innate and adaptive immunity. Complement receptor type 1 (CR1), the receptor for C3b/C4b complement peptides, has emerged as a molecule of immense interest in gaining insight to the susceptibility, pathophysiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapy of such diseases. In this review, we wish to briefly bring forth the structure, genetic polymorphisms, expression and biological functions of CR1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Liu
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agriculture University, Tai'an, People's Republic of China
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Abstract
The relative contribution of founder effects and natural selection to the observed distribution of human blood groups has been debated since blood group frequencies were shown to differ between populations almost a century ago. Advances in our understanding of the migration patterns of early humans from Africa to populate the rest of the world obtained through the use of Y chromosome and mtDNA markers do much to inform this debate. There are clear examples of protection against infectious diseases from inheritance of polymorphisms in genes encoding and regulating the expression of ABH and Lewis antigens in bodily secretions particularly in respect of Helicobacter pylori, norovirus, and cholera infections. However, available evidence suggests surviving malaria is the most significant selective force affecting the expression of blood groups. Red cells lacking or having altered forms of blood group-active molecules are commonly found in regions of the world in which malaria is endemic, notably the Fy(a-b-) phenotype and the S-s- phenotype in Africa and the Ge- and SAO phenotypes in South East Asia. Founder effects provide a more convincing explanation for the distribution of the D- phenotype and the occurrence of hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn in Europe and Central Asia.
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Pham BN, Kisserli A, Donvito B, Duret V, Reveil B, Tabary T, Le Pennec PY, Peyrard T, Rouger P, Cohen JH. Analysis of complement receptor Type 1 expression on red blood cells in negative phenotypes of the Knops blood group system, according to CR1 gene allotype polymorphisms. Transfusion 2010; 50:1435-43. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2010.02599.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Sleegers K, Lambert JC, Bertram L, Cruts M, Amouyel P, Van Broeckhoven C. The pursuit of susceptibility genes for Alzheimer's disease: progress and prospects. Trends Genet 2010; 26:84-93. [PMID: 20080314 DOI: 10.1016/j.tig.2009.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Revised: 12/10/2009] [Accepted: 12/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The recent discoveries in genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of novel susceptibility loci (CLU, CR1 and PICALM) for Alzheimer's disease (AD) have elicited considerable interest in the AD community. But what are the implications of these purely epidemiological findings for our understanding of disease etiology and patient care? In this review, we attempt to place these findings in the context of current and future AD genetics research. CLU, CR1 and PICALM support existing hypotheses about the amyloid, lipid, chaperone and chronic inflammatory pathways in AD pathogenesis. We discuss how these and future findings can be translated into efforts to ameliorate patient care by genetic profiling for risk prediction and pharmacogenetics and by guiding drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristel Sleegers
- Neurodegenerative Brain Diseases Group, VIB-Department of Molecular Genetics; Universiteitsplein 1, B-2610 Antwerp, Belgium
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Blood groups and malaria: fresh insights into pathogenesis and identification of targets for intervention. Curr Opin Hematol 2010; 16:480-7. [PMID: 19812491 DOI: 10.1097/moh.0b013e3283313de0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review summarizes recent advances in our understanding of the interaction between malaria parasites and blood group antigens and discusses how the knowledge gleaned can be used to target the development of new antimalarial treatments and vaccines. RECENT FINDINGS Studies of the interaction between Plasmodium vivax and the Duffy antigen provide the clearest example of the potential for basic research on blood groups and malaria to be translated into a vaccine that could have a major impact on global health. Progress is also being made in understanding the effects of other blood group antigens on malaria. After years of controversy, the effect of ABO blood groups on falciparum malaria has been clarified, with the non-O blood groups emerging as significant risk factors for life-threatening malaria, through the mechanism of enhanced rosette formation. The Knops blood group system may also influence malaria susceptibility, although conflicting results from different countries mean that further research is required. Unanswered questions remain about the interactions between malaria parasites and other blood group antigens, including the Gerbich, MNS and Rhesus systems. SUMMARY The interplay between malaria parasites and blood group antigens remains a fascinating subject with potential to contribute to the development of new interventions to reduce the global burden of malaria.
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Blanchong JA, Heisey DM, Scribner KT, Libants SV, Johnson C, Aiken JM, Langenberg JA, Samuel MD. Genetic susceptibility to chronic wasting disease in free-ranging white-tailed deer: Complement component C1q and Prnp polymorphisms. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2009; 9:1329-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2009] [Revised: 08/24/2009] [Accepted: 08/25/2009] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Adhesion of Plasmodium falciparum-infected erythrocytes to human cells: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Expert Rev Mol Med 2009; 11:e16. [PMID: 19467172 PMCID: PMC2878476 DOI: 10.1017/s1462399409001082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Severe malaria has a high mortality rate (15–20%) despite treatment with
effective antimalarial drugs. Adjunctive therapies for severe malaria that target the
underlying disease process are therefore urgently required. Adhesion of erythrocytes
infected with Plasmodium falciparum to human cells has a key role in the
pathogenesis of life-threatening malaria and could be targeted with antiadhesion therapy.
Parasite adhesion interactions include binding to endothelial cells (cytoadherence),
rosetting with uninfected erythrocytes and platelet-mediated clumping of infected
erythrocytes. Recent research has started to define the molecular mechanisms of parasite
adhesion, and antiadhesion therapies are being explored. However, many fundamental
questions regarding the role of parasite adhesion in severe malaria remain unanswered.
There is strong evidence that rosetting contributes to severe malaria in sub-Saharan
Africa; however, the identity of other parasite adhesion phenotypes that are implicated in
disease pathogenesis remains unclear. In addition, the possibility of geographic variation
in adhesion phenotypes causing severe malaria, linked to differences in malaria
transmission levels and host immunity, has been neglected. Further research is needed to
realise the untapped potential of antiadhesion adjunctive therapies, which could
revolutionise the treatment of severe malaria and reduce the high mortality rate of the
disease.
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Khera R, Das N. Complement Receptor 1: disease associations and therapeutic implications. Mol Immunol 2008; 46:761-72. [PMID: 19004497 PMCID: PMC7125513 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2008.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2008] [Revised: 09/15/2008] [Accepted: 09/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Exaggerated complement activation is a key event in the pathogenesis of a range of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. Complement Receptor 1 (CR1) has emerged as a molecule of immense interest in gaining insight to the susceptibility, pathophysiology, diagnosis, prognosis and therapy of such diseases. This review brings forth a composite view of the current understanding on the structure, functions, genetics, disease associations and therapeutic implications of CR1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan Khera
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi 110029, India
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Blood group O protects against severe Plasmodium falciparum malaria through the mechanism of reduced rosetting. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:17471-6. [PMID: 17959777 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0705390104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria has been a major selective force on the human population, and several erythrocyte polymorphisms have evolved that confer resistance to severe malaria. Plasmodium falciparum rosetting, a parasite virulence phenotype associated with severe malaria, is reduced in blood group O erythrocytes compared with groups A, B, and AB, but the contribution of the ABO blood group system to protection against severe malaria has received little attention. We hypothesized that blood group O may confer resistance to severe falciparum malaria through the mechanism of reduced rosetting. In a matched case-control study of 567 Malian children, we found that group O was present in only 21% of severe malaria cases compared with 44-45% of uncomplicated malaria controls and healthy controls. Group O was associated with a 66% reduction in the odds of developing severe malaria compared with the non-O blood groups (odds ratio 0.34, 95% confidence interval 0.19-0.61, P < 0.0005, severe cases versus uncomplicated malaria controls). In the same sample set, P. falciparum rosetting was reduced in parasite isolates from group O children compared with isolates from the non-O blood groups (P = 0.003, Kruskal-Wallis test). Statistical analysis indicated a significant interaction between host ABO blood group and parasite rosette frequency that supports the hypothesis that the protective effect of group O operates through the mechanism of reduced P. falciparum rosetting. This work provides insights into malaria pathogenesis and suggests that the selective pressure imposed by malaria may contribute to the variable global distribution of ABO blood groups in the human population.
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Covas DT, de Oliveira FS, Rodrigues ES, Abe-Sandes K, Silva WA, Fontes AM. Knops blood group haplotypes among distinct Brazilian populations. Transfusion 2007; 47:147-53. [PMID: 17207243 DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2007.01077.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The Knops blood group system consists of antigens encoded by exon 29 of complement receptor 1 (CR1) gene. To better elucidate the complexity of Knops group system, the frequency of six single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in three Brazilian populations is determined. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS A total of 118 individuals descendant from Europe, Asia, and Africa were studied. The genomic fragment of CR1 was amplified by polymerase chain reaction, and the SNPs and haplotypes were determined after DNA sequence analysis. RESULTS Among the six polymorphisms characterized, one of them was described for the first time. The analysis of allele frequency showed that these six SNPs did not differ between the European and Asian groups. The African group presented a higher frequency of alleles McC(b), Sl2, and KAM+. The six polymorphisms gave origin to 12 haplotypes that were defined for the first time. The haplotypes 1 (4646A, Kn(a), McC(a), Sl1, Sl4, KAM+), 2 (4646A, Kn(a), McC(a), Sl1, KAM-), and 3 (4646A, Kn(a), McC(a), Sl2, Sl4, KAM-) are the most frequent in all populations. The H2 presents similar frequency in all populations; however, whereas the H1 presented a higher prevalence in the European and Asian groups, in the African group H3 was present in a higher prevalence. CONCLUSIONS In this study, a new SNP substituting serine for asparagine at amino acid 1540 was identified. Moreover 12 haplotypes were identified. The differences in haplotype frequencies strongly suggest that the H1 and H2 might be the ancestral one while the H3 may have originated in Africa and may have fixed there by positive selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dimas Tadeu Covas
- Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
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McLure CA, Williamson JF, Smyth LA, Agrawal S, Lester S, Millman JA, Keating PJ, Stewart BJ, Dawkins RL. Extensive genomic and functional polymorphism of the complement control proteins. Immunogenetics 2005; 57:805-15. [PMID: 16283405 DOI: 10.1007/s00251-005-0049-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2005] [Accepted: 08/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Using combinations of genomic markers, we describe more than 20 distinct ancestral haplotypes (AH) of complement control proteins (CCPs), located within the regulators of complement activation (RCA) alpha block at 1q32. This extensive polymorphism, including functional sites, is important because CCPs are involved in the regulation of complement activation whilst also serving as self and viral receptors. To identify haplotypes, we used the genomic matching technique (GMT) based on the pragmatic observation that extreme nucleotide polymorphism is packaged with duplicated sequences as polymorphic frozen blocks (PFB). At each PFB, there are many alternative sequences (haplotypes) which are inherited faithfully from very remote ancestors. We have compared frequencies of RCA haplotypes and report differences in recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA) and psoriasis vulgaris (PV).
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A McLure
- CY O'Connor ERADE Village, Canning Vale, Western Australia
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Thathy V, Moulds JM, Guyah B, Otieno W, Stoute JA. Complement receptor 1 polymorphisms associated with resistance to severe malaria in Kenya. Malar J 2005; 4:54. [PMID: 16277654 PMCID: PMC1308855 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-4-54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2005] [Accepted: 11/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It has been hypothesized that the African alleles Sl2 and McCb of the Swain-Langley (Sl) and McCoy (McC) blood group antigens of the complement receptor 1 (CR1) may confer a survival advantage in the setting of Plasmodium falciparum malaria, but this has not been demonstrated. Methods To test this hypothesis, children in western Kenya with severe malaria-associated anaemia or cerebral malaria were matched to symptomatic uncomplicated malaria controls by age and gender. Swain-Langley and McCoy blood group alleles were determined by restriction fragment length polymorphism and conditional logistic regression was carried out. Results No significant association was found between the African alleles and severe malaria-associated anaemia. However, children with Sl2/2 genotype were less likely to have cerebral malaria (OR = 0.17, 95% CI 0.04 to 0.72, P = 0.02) than children with Sl1/1. In particular, individuals with Sl2/2 McCa/b genotype were less likely to have cerebral malaria (OR = 0.18, 95% CI 0.04 to 0.77, P = 0.02) than individuals with Sl1/1 McCa/a. Conclusion These results support the hypothesis that the Sl2 allele and, possibly, the McCb allele evolved in the context of malaria transmission and that in certain combinations probably confer a survival advantage on these populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vandana Thathy
- The US Army Medical Research Unit and the Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - JoAnn M Moulds
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- LifeShare Blood Centers, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - Bernard Guyah
- The US Army Medical Research Unit and the Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Walter Otieno
- The US Army Medical Research Unit and the Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - José A Stoute
- Department of Cellular Injury, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD and Department of Medicine, Uniformed Services University of Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Yazdanbakhsh K. Development of complement therapeutics for inhibition of immune-mediated red cell destruction. Transfusion 2005; 45:122S-9S. [PMID: 16086799 PMCID: PMC4797633 DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2005.00526.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A major objective of my National Blood Foundation (NBF)-funded proposal was to produce recombinant soluble forms of a complement regulatory protein called complement receptor 1 (CR1) that carries the Knops blood group system antigens to perform antibody neutralization studies. By generating these recombinant proteins, we were able to inhibit several Knops antibodies in patient serum samples, thereby demonstrating their usefulness for clinical use. Interestingly, the recombinant CR1 proteins generated through NBF funding were also found to strongly reduce complement-mediated red cell destruction in a mouse hemolytic transfusion model. In this review, I will outline our NBF-funded studies, give an overview of recent advances from our group and others in the development of complement therapeutics, and highlight their potential use in the transfusion medicine setting.
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Thomas BN, Donvito B, Cockburn I, Fandeur T, Rowe JA, Cohen JHM, Moulds JM. A complement receptor-1 polymorphism with high frequency in malaria endemic regions of Asia but not Africa. Genes Immun 2005; 6:31-6. [PMID: 15578041 PMCID: PMC2877660 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gene.6364150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Complement receptor-1 (CR1) is a ligand for rosette formation, a phenomenon associated with cerebral malaria (CM). Binding is dependent on erythrocyte CR1 copy number. In Caucasians, low CR1 expressors have two linked mutations. We determined the Q981H and HindIII RFLP distribution in differing population groups to ascertain a possible role in adaptive evolution. We examined 194 Caucasians, 180 Choctaw Indians, 93 Chinese-Taiwanese, 304 Cambodians, 89 Papua New Guineans (PNG) and 366 Africans. PCR/RFLP used HindIII for CR1 expression and BstNI for the Q981H mutation. DNA sequencing and pyrosequencing were performed to resolve inconclusive results. Gene frequencies for the L allele were 0.15 in Africans, 0.16 in Choctaws, 0.18 in Caucasians, 0.29 in Chinese-Taiwanese, 0.47 in Cambodians and 0.58 in PNG. Allelic frequency for 981H were 0.07 in Africans, 0.15 in Caucasians, 0.18 in Choctaws, 0.29 in Chinese-Taiwanese, 0.47 in Cambodians and 0.54 in PNG. The Q981H polymorphism correlates with the HindIII RFLP in most groups except West Africans and appears to be part of a low CR1 expression haplotype. The gene frequency for the haplotype is highest in the malaria-endemic areas of Asia, suggesting that this haplotype may have evolved because it protects from rosetting and CM.
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Affiliation(s)
- BN Thomas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - B Donvito
- PPDH, EA 3309, IFR 53, URCA, Reims, France
| | - I Cockburn
- ICAPB, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, UK
| | - T Fandeur
- Institut Pasteur du Cambodge (IPC), Monivong Bd, Phnom Penh, Cambodia
| | - JA Rowe
- ICAPB, University of Edinburgh, Ashworth Laboratories, Edinburgh, UK
| | - JHM Cohen
- PPDH, EA 3309, IFR 53, URCA, Reims, France
| | - JM Moulds
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Daniels GL, Fletcher A, Garratty G, Henry S, Jørgensen J, Judd WJ, Levene C, Lomas-Francis C, Moulds JJ, Moulds JM, Moulds M, Overbeeke M, Reid ME, Rouger P, Scott M, Sistonen P, Smart E, Tani Y, Wendel S, Zelinski T. Blood group terminology 2004: from the International Society of Blood Transfusion committee on terminology for red cell surface antigens. Vox Sang 2005; 87:304-16. [PMID: 15585029 DOI: 10.1111/j.1423-0410.2004.00564.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G L Daniels
- Bristol Institute for Transfusion Sciences, Bristol, UK.
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Wang FS, Chu FL, Jin L, Li YG, Zhang Z, Xu D, Shi M, Wu H, Moulds JM. Acquired but reversible loss of erythrocyte complement receptor 1 (CR1, CD35) and its longitudinal alteration in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome. Clin Exp Immunol 2005; 139:112-9. [PMID: 15606620 PMCID: PMC1809271 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2005.02681.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
This longitudinal study investigates the change of erythrocyte complement receptor (E-CR1) expression in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS). Circulating E-CR1 expression was semiquantified by flow cytometric analyses in 54 SARS patients and in 212 healthy individuals as a control. Since E-CR1 expression is influenced by the genetic polymorphisms in the CR1 gene, a major genetic polymorphism located within intron 27 of the CR1 gene was simultaneously analysed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). The results showed that the expression level of E-CR1 (referred to as net fluorescence intensity values, NFI) was statistically correlated with the relevant genetic genotypes among the Chinese population including the healthy individuals (NFI: 5·14 ± 0·82, 3·57 ± 0·66 and 2·67 ± 0·32 for HH, HL and LL genotypes, respectively) and SARS patients (NFI: 3·52 ± 0·91 and 2·63 ± 0·70 for HH and HL genotypes, respectively). Interestingly, the expression density of E-CR1 was found to fall significantly during the initiation and progressive phases (weeks 1 and 2 after the disease onset) and gradually returned close to normal through their whole convalescent phase (beginning from weeks 2 or 3 to weeks 7 or 8) in SARS patients irrespective CR1 genotype. In conclusion, our findings, at least, suggest that E-CR1 is likely involved in immune pathogenesis of SARS disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- F S Wang
- Research Centre of Biological Therapy, Beijing Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing 302 Hospital, Beijing, China
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Jiao XY, Lü MD, Huang JF, Liang LJ, Shi JS. Genomic determination of CR1 CD35 density polymorphism on erythrocytes of patients with gallbladder carcinoma. World J Gastroenterol 2004; 10:3480-4. [PMID: 15526369 PMCID: PMC4576231 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v10.i23.3480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2004] [Revised: 01/12/2004] [Accepted: 03/16/2004] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To study the changes of quantitative expression, adhering activity and genomic density polymorphism of complement types in erythrocytes (CR1) of patients with gallbladder carcinoma and the related clinical significance. METHODS Polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Hind III restriction enzyme digestion, quantitative assay of CR1 and adhering activity assay of CR1 in erythrocytes were used. RESULTS The number and adhering activity of CR1 in patients with gallbladder carcinoma (0.738+/-0.23, 45.9+/-5.7) were significantly lower than those in chronic cholecystitis and cholecystolithiasis (1.078+/-0.21, 55.1+/-5.9) and healthy controls (1.252+/-0.31, 64.2+/-7.4) (P<0.01). The number and adhering activity of CR1 in patients with chronic cholecystitis and cholecystolithiasis (1.078+/-0.21, 55.1+/-5.9) were significantly lower than those in healthy controls (1.252+/-0.31, 64.2+/-7.4) (P<0.05). There was a positive correlation between quantitative expression and adhering activity of CR1 (r = 0.79, P<0.01). Compared with those on preoperative day (0.738+/-0.23, 45.4+/-4.9), the number and adhering activity of CR1 in patients with gallbladder carcinoma decreased greatly on the third postoperative day (0.310+/-0.25, 31.8+/-5.1) (P<0.01), and on the first postoperative week (0.480+/-0.25, 38.9+/-5.2) (P<0.01), but they were increased slightly than those on the preoperative day (P>0.05). The number and adhering activity of CR1 recovered in the second postoperative week(0.740+/-0.24, 46.8+/-5.9) (P<0.01) and increased greatly in the third postoperative week (0.858+/-0.35, 52.7+/-5.8) (P<0.01) in comparison with those on the preoperative day and in the first postoperative week. The number and adhering activity of CR1 of gallbladder carcinoma patients with infiltrating, adjacent lymphogenous and distant organ metastases were significantly lower than those of gallbladder carcinoma patients without them (P<0.01). No difference was observed between the patients with gallbladder carcinoma and healthy individuals in the spot mutation rate of CR1 density gene (chi(2) = 0.521, P>0.05). The distribution of expression was 67.8% in high expression genomic type, 24.8% in moderate expression genomic type, and 7.4% in low expression genomic type. The number and adhering activity of CR1 high expression genomic type gallbladder carcinomas (0.749+/-0.22, 42.1+/-6.2) were significantly lower than those of healthy individuals (1.240+/-0.29, 63.9+/-7.2), and were also significantly lower than those of healthy individuals (0.921+/-0.23, 54.8+/-7.1), but no difference was observed between the number and adhering activity of CR1 lower expression genomic type gallbladder carcinomas (0.582+/-0.18, 44.3+/-5.5) and those of healthy individuals (0.610+/-0.20, 45.8+/-5.7) (P>0.05). CONCLUSION Defective expression of CR1 in gallbladder carcinoma is mostly acquired through central peripheral mechanisms. The changes in CR1 quantitative expression and adhering activity are consanguineously related to the development and metastasis in gallbladder carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Yuan Jiao
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510080, Guangdong Province, China.
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Moulds JM, Thomas BJ, Doumbo O, Diallo DA, Lyke KE, Plowe CV, Rowe JA, Birmingham DJ. Identification of the Kna/Knb polymorphism and a method for Knops genotyping. Transfusion 2004; 44:164-9. [PMID: 14962306 PMCID: PMC2877259 DOI: 10.1111/j.1537-2995.2004.00615.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND DNA mutations resulting in the McCoy and Swain-Langley polymorphisms have been identified on complement receptor 1 (CR1)-a ligand for rosetting of Plasmodium falciparum-infected RBCs. The molecular identification of the Kna/Knb polymorphism was sought to develop a genotyping method for use in the study of the Knops blood group and malaria. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS CR1 deletion constructs were used in inhibition studies of anti-Kna. PCR amplification of Exon 29 was followed by DNA sequencing. A PCR-RFLP was developed with NdeI, BsmI, and MfeI for the detection of Kna/Knb, McCa/McCb, and Sl1/Sl2, respectively. Knops phenotypes were determined with standard serologic techniques. RESULTS A total of 310 Malian persons were phenotyped for Kna with 200 (64%) Kn(a+) and 110 (36%) Kn(a-). Many of the Kn(a-) exhibited the Knops-null phenotype, that is, Helgeson. The Kna/b DNA polymorphism was identified as a V1561M mutation with allele frequencies of Kna (V1561) 0.9 and Knb (M1561) 0.1. CONCLUSION The high frequency (18%) of Knb in West African persons suggests that it is not solely a Caucasian trait. Furthermore, because of the high incidence of heterozygosity as well as amorphs, accurate Knops typing of donors of African descent is best accomplished by a combination of molecular and serologic techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Moulds
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19129, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Reid
- New York Blood Center, New York, New York 10021, USA.
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Noris M, Brioschi S, Caprioli J, Todeschini M, Bresin E, Porrati F, Gamba S, Remuzzi G. Familial haemolytic uraemic syndrome and an MCP mutation. Lancet 2003; 362:1542-7. [PMID: 14615110 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(03)14742-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mutations in factor H (HF1) have been reported in a consistent number of diarrhoea-negative, non-Shiga toxin-associated cases of haemolytic uraemic syndrome (D-HUS). However, most patients with D-HUS have no HF1 mutations, despite decreased serum concentrations of C3. Our aim, therefore, was to assess whether genetic abnormalities in other complement regulatory proteins are involved. METHODS We screened genes that encode the complement regulatory proteins-ie, factor H related 5, complement receptor 1, and membrane cofactor protein (MCP)-by PCR-single-strand conformation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) and by direct sequencing, in 25 consecutive patients with D-HUS, an abnormal complement profile, and no HF1 mutation, from our International Registry of Recurrent and Familial HUS/TTP (HUS/thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura). FINDINGS We identified a heterozygous mutation in MCP, a surface-bound complement regulator, in two patients with a familial history of HUS. The mutation causes a change in three aminoacids at position 233-35 and insertion of a premature stop-codon, which results in loss of the transmembrane domain of the protein and severely reduced cell-surface expression of MCP. INTERPRETATION Results of previous studies on HF1 indicate an association between HF1 deficiency and D-HUS. Our findings of an MCP mutation in two related patients suggest that impaired regulation of complement activation might be a factor in the pathogenesis of genetic forms of HUS. MCP could be a second putative candidate gene for D-HUS. The protein is highly expressed in the kidney and plays a major part in regulation of glomerular C3 activation. We propose, therefore, that reduced expression of MCP in response to complement-activating stimuli could prevent restriction of complement deposition on glomerular endothelial cells, leading to microvascular cell damage and tissue injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Noris
- Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Clinical Research Center for Rare Diseases, Aldo e Cele Daccò, Villa Camozzi-Ranica, Bergamo, Italy.
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Zimmerman PA, Fitness J, Moulds JM, McNamara DT, Kasehagen LJ, Rowe JA, Hill AVS. CR1 Knops blood group alleles are not associated with severe malaria in the Gambia. Genes Immun 2003; 4:368-73. [PMID: 12847553 PMCID: PMC2869444 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gene.6363980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The Knops blood group antigen erythrocyte polymorphisms have been associated with reduced falciparum malaria-based in vitro rosette formation (putative malaria virulence factor). Having previously identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the human complement receptor 1 (CR1/CD35) gene underlying the Knops antithetical antigens Sl1/Sl2 and McC(a)/McC(b), we have now performed genotype comparisons to test associations between these two molecular variants and severe malaria in West African children living in the Gambia. While SNPs associated with Sl:2 and McC(b+) were equally distributed among malaria-infected children with severe malaria and control children not infected with malaria parasites, high allele frequencies for Sl 2 (0.800, 1,365/1,706) and McC(b) (0.385, 658/1706) were observed. Further, when compared to the Sl 1/McC(a) allele observed in all populations, the African Sl 2/McC(b) allele appears to have evolved as a result of positive selection (modified Nei-Gojobori test Ka-Ks/s.e.=1.77, P-value <0.05). Given the role of CR1 in host defense, our findings suggest that Sl 2 and McC(b) have arisen to confer a selective advantage against infectious disease that, in view of these case-control study data, was not solely Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Factors underlying the lack of association between Sl 2 and McC(b) with severe malaria may involve variation in CR1 expression levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Zimmerman
- The Center for Global Health & Diseases, Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106-4983, USA.
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Sadallah S, Hess C, Trendelenburg M, Vedeler C, Lopez-Trascasa M, Schifferli JA. Autoantibodies against complement receptor 1 (CD35) in SLE, liver cirrhosis and HIV-infected patients. Clin Exp Immunol 2003; 131:174-81. [PMID: 12519402 PMCID: PMC1808602 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2003.02045.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The acquired loss of CR1 (CD35) on erythrocytes in specific autoimmune diseases and chronic infections may be due to autoAb against CR1. An ELISA using rCR1 was established to measure antiCR1 IgG autoAb. Plasma containing alloAb to polymorphism on CR1 (Knops blood group Ab) reacted strongly against rCR1 and were used as positive controls. AntiCR1 Ab was found in 3/90 (3.5%) plasma samples from healthy blood donors. The binding of these Ab was not inhibited by high salt concentrations. AntiCR1 Ab were present in the IgG fractions of plasma, and they bound to rCR1 on Western Blot. Affinity chromatography on rCR1-sepharose depleted the plasma of antiCR1, and the acid-eluted fractions contained the antiCR1 Ab. An increased frequency of antiCR1 autoAb was found in patients with SLE (36/78; 46%), liver cirrhosis (15/41; 36%), HIV infection (23/76; 30%) (all P < 0.0001), and in patients with anticardiolipin Ab (4/21; 19%, P < 0.01) multiple sclerosis (7/50; 14%, P < 0.02), and myeloma (autoAb (8/56; 14%, P < 0.02), but not in those with acute poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis (1:32; 3%). Because C1q binds to CR1, antiC1q Ab were analysed in the same patients. There was no correlation between levels of antiC1q and antiCR1 autoAb. In HIV patients, levels of antiCR1 did not correlate with low CR1 levels expressed on erythrocytes or soluble CR1 in plasma. The binding of antiCR1 autoAb to rCR1 fixed on ELISA plates was not inhibited by soluble rCR1 or by human erythrocyte CR1, in contrast to alloAb and one SLE serum, which induced partial blockade. Thus, antiCR1 autoAb recognize mostly CR1 epitope(s) not present on the native molecule, suggesting that they are not directly involved in the loss of CR1. Rather antiCR1 autoAb might indicate a specific immune response to denatured CR1.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sadallah
- Department of Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
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Krych-Goldberg M, Moulds JM, Atkinson JP. Human complement receptor type 1 (CR1) binds to a major malarial adhesin. Trends Mol Med 2002; 8:531-7. [PMID: 12421687 DOI: 10.1016/s1471-4914(02)02419-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1), a major adhesin molecule expressed on Plasmodium-falciparum-infected erythrocytes, interacts with several receptors on endothelial cells and uninfected erythrocytes. This 'stickiness', known as rosetting, is a strategy used by the parasite to remain sequestered in the microvasculature to avoid destruction in the spleen and liver. Erythrocyte rosetting causes obstruction of the blood flow in microcapillaries. Recent data suggest a direct interaction between PfEMP1 and a functional site of complement receptor type 1 (CR1; CD35) on uninfected erythrocytes. Consistent with the hypothesis that CR1 is important in malaria pathogenesis is a 40-70-fold increase in the frequency of two CR1 blood-group antigens (at least one of which might rosette less efficiently) in malaria-exposed African populations. Furthermore, structural differences in erythrocyte CR1 between human and non-human primates are probably explained by the selective pressure of malaria.
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49
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Abstract
The antibodies that once were referred to as "HTLAs" have now help to define an entire blood group system with a well characterized genetic basis. Although not "clinically significant" in transfusion medicine, the Knops blood group has gained importance in the field of infectious disease. Its further role in protein (CR1) function and autoimmune diseases remains unknown but may provide interesting work for years to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joann M Moulds
- MCP Hahnemann University School of Medicine, Dept. of Microbiology & Immunology, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Niebert M, Rogel-Gaillard C, Chardon P, Tönjes RR. Characterization of chromosomally assigned replication-competent gamma porcine endogenous retroviruses derived from a large white pig and expression in human cells. J Virol 2002; 76:2714-20. [PMID: 11861838 PMCID: PMC136001 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.6.2714-2720.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Vertically transmitted endogenous retroviruses pose an infectious risk in the course of pig-to-human transplantation of cells, tissues, and organs. Two classes of polytropic type C porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERV) productively infect human cells in vitro. The cloning and characterization of replication-competent PERV-B sequences from infected human cells (F. Czauderna, N. Fischer, K. Boller, R. Kurth, and R. R. Tönjes, J. Virol. 74:4028-4038, 2000) as well as the cloning of functional PERV-A and -B sequences from porcine cell line PK15 (U. Krach, N. Fischer, F. Czauderna, and R. R. Tönjes, J. Virol. 75:5465-5472, 2001) have been previously described. Here we report the isolation of four full-length proviral sequences from a porcine bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library that comprises chromosomally assigned PERV. Clones Bac-PERV-A(130A12) and Bac-PERV-A(151B10) map to pig chromosome 1 and demonstrate close homology to PK15-PERV-A(58) in env and to PERV-MSL in long terminal repeat (LTR), gag, and pro/pol sequences. Clone Bac-PERV-A(463H12) is located on pig chromosome 3 and demonstrates close homology to PK15-PERV-A(58) in env and to 293-PERV-B(43) in LTR, gag, and pro/pol (Czauderna et al.; R. R. Tönjes, F. Czauderna, N. Fischer, U. Krach, K. Boller, P. Chardon, C. Rogel-Gailard, M. Niebert, G. Scheef, A. Werner, and R. Kurth, Transplant Proc. 32:1158-1161, 2000). Clone Bac-PERV-B(192B9) is located on pig chromosome 7 in the swine leukocyte antigen region and is highly homologous with but distinct from the previously described functional clone 293-PERV-B(43) and bears the number of repeats initially observed in the LTRs of clone 293-PERV-A(42) (Czauderna et al.; Krach et al.). Clones Bac-PERV-A(130A12), Bac-PERV-A(151B10), and Bac-PERV-A(463H12) were replication competent upon transfection into susceptible 293 and HeLa cells. Bac-PERV-B(192B9), however, bears two stop codons in pro/pol preventing this clone from being replication competent in some individual pigs, but initial screenings indicate that this provirus might be intact in others. The data suggest that the porcine genome harbors a limited number of infectious PERV sequences, allowing for specific screening in different pig breeds.
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