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Bieleninik Ł, Kvestad I, Gold C, Stordal AS, Assmus J, Arnon S, Elefant C, Ettenberger M, Gaden TS, Haar-Shamir D, Håvardstun T, Lichtensztejn M, Mangersnes J, Wiborg AMN, Vederhus BJ, Ghetti CM. Music Therapy in Infancy and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes in Preterm Children: A Secondary Analysis of the LongSTEP Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Netw Open 2024; 7:e2410721. [PMID: 38753331 PMCID: PMC11099691 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.10721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Importance Preterm children are at risk for neurodevelopment impairments. Objective To evaluate the effect of a music therapy (MT) intervention (parent-led, infant-directed singing) for premature children during the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) stay and/or after hospital discharge on language development at 24 months' corrected age (CA). Design, Setting, and Participants This predefined secondary analysis followed participants in the LongSTEP (Longitudinal Study of Music Therapy's Effectiveness for Premature Infants and Their Caregivers) randomized clinical trial, which was conducted from August 2018 to April 2022 in 8 NICUs across 5 countries (Argentina, Colombia, Israel, Norway, and Poland) and included clinic follow-up visits and extended interventions after hospital discharge. Intervention Participants were children born preterm (<35 weeks' gestation) and their parents. Participants were randomized at enrollment to MT with standard care (SC) or SC alone; they were randomized to MT or SC again at discharge. The MT was parent-led, infant-directed singing tailored to infant responses and supported by a music therapist and was provided 3 times weekly in the NICU and/or in 7 sessions across 6 months after discharge. The SC consisted of early intervention methods of medical, nursing, and social services, without MT. Main Outcome and Measures Primary outcome was language development, as measured by the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, Third Edition (BSID-III) language composite score, with the remaining BSID-III composite and subscale scores as the secondary outcomes. Group differences in treatment effects were assessed using linear mixed-effects models using all available data. Results Of 206 participants (103 female infants [50%]; mean [SD] GA, 30.5 [2.7] weeks), 51 were randomized to MT and 53 to SC at enrollment; at discharge, 52 were randomized to MT and 50 to SC. A total of 112 (54%) were retained at the 24 months' CA follow-up. Most participants (79 [70%] to 93 [83%]) had BSID-III scores in the normal range (≥85). Mean differences for the language composite score were -2.36 (95% CI, -12.60 to 7.88; P = .65) for the MT at NICU with postdischarge SC group, 2.65 (95% CI, -7.94 to 13.23; P = .62) for the SC at NICU and postdischarge MT group, and -3.77 (95% CI, -13.97 to 6.43; P = .47) for the MT group at both NICU and postdischarge. There were no significant effects for cognitive or motor development. Conclusions and Relevance This secondary analysis did not confirm an effect of parent-led, infant-directed singing on neurodevelopment in preterm children at 24 months' CA; wide CIs suggest, however, that potential effects cannot be excluded. Future research should determine the MT approaches, implementation time, and duration that are effective in targeting children at risk for neurodevelopmental impairments and introducing broader measurements for changes in brain development. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03564184.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łucja Bieleninik
- GAMUT—The Grieg Academy Music Therapy Research Centre, NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Ingrid Kvestad
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Bergen, Norway
| | - Christian Gold
- GAMUT—The Grieg Academy Music Therapy Research Centre, NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Andreas Størksen Stordal
- NORCE Energy, NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Bergen, Norway
- Department of Mathematics, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Jörg Assmus
- GAMUT—The Grieg Academy Music Therapy Research Centre, NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Bergen, Norway
| | - Shmuel Arnon
- Meir Medical Center, Kfar-Saba, Israel
- Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | | | - Mark Ettenberger
- Hospital Universitario Fundación Santa Fe de Bogotá, Bogotá, Colombia
- Clínica de la Mujer, Bogotá, Colombia
| | - Tora Söderström Gaden
- GAMUT—The Grieg Academy Music Therapy Research Centre, NORCE Norwegian Research Centre AS, Bergen, Norway
| | | | - Tonje Håvardstun
- Department of Children and Youth Clinic, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
| | - Marcela Lichtensztejn
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Ciencias Empresariales y Sociales, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | | | - Claire M. Ghetti
- GAMUT—The Grieg Academy, Department of Music, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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Jungewelter S, Taskinen H, Sallmén M, Lindbohm ML, Airo E, Remes J, Huotilainen M, Jansson-Verkasalo E. Maternal occupational noise exposure during pregnancy and children's early language acquisition. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0301144. [PMID: 38625962 PMCID: PMC11020523 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/18/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Noise exposure during pregnancy may affect a child's auditory system, which may disturb fetal learning and language development. We examined the impact of occupational noise exposure during pregnancy on children's language acquisition at the age of one. METHODS A cohort study was conducted among women working in the food industry, as kindergarten teachers, musicians, dental nurses, or pharmacists who had a child aged <1 year. The analyses covered 408 mother-child pairs. Language acquisition was measured using the Infant-Toddler Checklist. An occupational hygienist assessed noise exposure individually as no (N = 180), low (70-78 dB; N = 108) or moderate/high exposure (>79 dB; N = 120). RESULTS Among the boys, the adjusted mean differences in language acquisition scores were -0.4 (95% CI -2.5, 1.8) for low, and -0.7 (95% CI -2.9, 1.4) for moderate/high exposure compared to no exposure. Among the girls the respective scores were +0.1 (95% CI -2.2, 2.5) and -0.1 (95% CI -2.3, 2.2). Among the children of kindergarten teachers, who were mainly exposed to human noise, low or moderate exposure was associated with lower language acquisition scores. The adjusted mean differences were -3.8 (95% CI -7.2, -0.4) for low and -4.9 (95% CI -8.6, -1.2) for moderate exposure. CONCLUSIONS In general, we did not detect an association between maternal noise exposure and children's language acquisition among one-year-old children. However, the children of kindergarten teachers exposed to human noise had lower language acquisition scores than the children of the non-exposed participants. These suggestive findings merit further investigation by level and type of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soile Jungewelter
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
- University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Helena Taskinen
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
- University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Markku Sallmén
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Marja-Liisa Lindbohm
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
- University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland
| | - Erkko Airo
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jouko Remes
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Minna Huotilainen
- Institute for Behavioral Sciences, University of Helsinki, Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eira Jansson-Verkasalo
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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Segal O, Moyal D. Listening Preference for Child-Directed Speech Versus Time-Reversed Speech in Moderate-Preterm Infants Compared to Full-Term Infants. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2024; 67:900-916. [PMID: 38394254 DOI: 10.1044/2023_jslhr-23-00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of the present study was to examine whether there is a listening preference for child-directed speech (CDS) over backward speech in moderate-preterm infants (MPIs). METHOD Eighteen MPIs of gestational age of 32.0 weeks (range: 32-34.06 weeks), chronological age of 8.09 months, and maturation age of 6.48 months served as the experimental group. The two control groups consisted of a total of 36 infants-20 full-term infants matched for chronological age and 16 full-term infants matched for maturation age. The infants were tested using the central fixation procedure and were presented with 16 trials of CDS and backward speech. A follow-up was conducted 5 years after the initial experiment using a developmental and a five-item parent questionnaire. RESULTS MPIs did not demonstrate a preference for CDS over backward speech, whereas both control groups demonstrated a listening preference for CDS over backward speech. MPIs showed a delayed use of first words and word combinations and lower scores on the five-item questionnaire compared to term infants. Twelve MPIs (67%) did not demonstrate a preference for CDS over backward speech. Four of them (33%) were later diagnosed with neurodevelopmental disorders. CONCLUSIONS The lack of preference for CDS over backward speech in the MPIs group suggests delayed developmental pattern of speech processing compared to full-term peers. Delays in neurological maturation as well as listening experience in an unregulated environment outside the uterus during a sensitive period of brain development may affect the recognition of phonological and prosodic patterns that support listening preference for speech over backward speech.
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Csépe V, Honbolygó F. From psychophysiology to brain imaging: forty-five years MMN history of investigating acoustic change sensitivity. Biol Futur 2024; 75:117-128. [PMID: 38607546 DOI: 10.1007/s42977-024-00216-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
Forty-five years have passed since the first publication of the mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related brain potential (ERP) component. The first 10 years of research hardly gained any particular attention of the scientific community interested in acoustic perception. Debates on the nature of sensation versus perception were going on, and the technical possibilities to record ERPs, called in general evoked potentials, were very limited. Subtle changes in pure tone frequency or intensity giving rise to the MMN component were first investigated in humans. The background of the theoretical model developed by Risto Näätänen was the orientation reaction model of E.N. Sokolov published in 1963 so that the MMN was seen first as an electrophysiological correlate of auditory change detection. This fundamental ability of the auditory system seen as crucial for survival led to the development of the first animal model of the MMN (Csépe et al. in Clin Neurophysiol 66: 571-578, 1987). Indeed, it was confirmed that the MMN was the brain correlate of subtle changes detected that might alert to potential threats in the environment and direct the behavioral orientation. The investigations performed after 2000 introduced complex models and more sophisticated methods, both in animal and human studies, so that the MMN method was on the way to become a tool on the first place and not the main goal of research. This approach was further strengthened by the increasing number of studies on different clinical populations aiming at future applications. The aim of our review is to describe and redefine what the MMN may reflect in auditory perception and to show why and how this brain correlate of changes in the auditory scene can be used as a valuable tool in cognitive neuroscience research. We refer to publications selected to underly the argument the MMN cannot be classified anymore as a sign of simple change detection and not all the indicators used to confirm how genuine the MMN elicited by variations of tones are valid for those to speech contrasts. We provide a fresh view on the broadly used MMN models, provided by some influential publications as well as on the unwritten history of MMN research aiming to give revised picture on what the MMN may truly reflect. We show how the focus and terminology of the MMN research have changed and what kind of misunderstandings and seemingly contradictive results prevent the MMN community to accept a generally usable cognitive model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valéria Csépe
- Brain Imaging Centre, HUN-REN Research Centre of Natural Sciences, Magyar Tudósok Krt. 2, Budapest, 1117, Hungary.
- University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary.
| | - Ferenc Honbolygó
- Brain Imaging Centre, HUN-REN Research Centre of Natural Sciences, Magyar Tudósok Krt. 2, Budapest, 1117, Hungary
- Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
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Retsa C, Turpin H, Geiser E, Ansermet F, Müller-Nix C, Murray MM. Longstanding Auditory Sensory and Semantic Differences in Preterm Born Children. Brain Topogr 2023:10.1007/s10548-023-01022-2. [PMID: 38010487 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-023-01022-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
More than 10% of births are preterm, and the long-term consequences on sensory and semantic processing of non-linguistic information remain poorly understood. 17 very preterm-born children (born at < 33 weeks gestational age) and 15 full-term controls were tested at 10 years old with an auditory object recognition task, while 64-channel auditory evoked potentials (AEPs) were recorded. Sounds consisted of living (animal and human vocalizations) and manmade objects (e.g. household objects, instruments, and tools). Despite similar recognition behavior, AEPs strikingly differed between full-term and preterm children. Starting at 50ms post-stimulus onset, AEPs from preterm children differed topographically from their full-term counterparts. Over the 108-224ms post-stimulus period, full-term children showed stronger AEPs in response to living objects, whereas preterm born children showed the reverse pattern; i.e. stronger AEPs in response to manmade objects. Differential brain activity between semantic categories could reliably classify children according to their preterm status. Moreover, this opposing pattern of differential responses to semantic categories of sounds was also observed in source estimations within a network of occipital, temporal and frontal regions. This study highlights how early life experience in terms of preterm birth shapes sensory and object processing later on in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysa Retsa
- The Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- The Sense Innovation and Research Center, Lausanne and Sion, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- CIBM Center for Biomedical Imaging, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Hélène Turpin
- The Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- University Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Hospital of Lausanne and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eveline Geiser
- The Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - François Ansermet
- University Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Hospital of Lausanne and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Carole Müller-Nix
- University Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University Hospital of Lausanne and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Micah M Murray
- The Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- The Sense Innovation and Research Center, Lausanne and Sion, Lausanne, Switzerland
- CIBM Center for Biomedical Imaging, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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Themas L, Lippus P, Padrik M, Kask L, Kreegipuu K. Maturation of the mismatch response in pre-school children: Systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 153:105366. [PMID: 37633625 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023]
Abstract
Event-related potentials (ERPs), specifically the Mismatch Response (MMR), holds promise for investigating auditory maturation in children. It has the potential to predict language development and distinguish between language-impaired and typically developing groups. However, summarizing the MMR's developmental trajectory in typically developing children remains challenging despite numerous studies. This pioneering meta-analysis outlines changes in MMR amplitude among typically developing children, while offering methodological best-practices. Our search identified 51 articles for methodology analysis and 21 for meta-analysis, involving 0-8-year-old participants from 2000 to 2022. Risk of Bias assessment and methodology analysis revealed shortcomings in control condition usage and reporting of study confounders. The meta-analysis results were inconsistent, indicating large effect sizes in some conditions and no effect sizes in others. Subgroup analysis revealed the main effects of age and brain region, as well as an interaction of age and time-window of the MMR. Future research requires a specific protocol, larger samples, and replication studies to deepen the understanding of the auditory discrimination maturation process in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liis Themas
- University of Tartu, Institute of Estonian and General Linguistics, Jakobi 2, 51005 Tartu, Estonia; University of Tartu, Institute of Psychology, Näituse 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Pärtel Lippus
- University of Tartu, Institute of Estonian and General Linguistics, Jakobi 2, 51005 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Marika Padrik
- University of Tartu, Institute of Education, Jakobi 5, 51005 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Liis Kask
- University of Tartu, Institute of Psychology, Näituse 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Kairi Kreegipuu
- University of Tartu, Institute of Psychology, Näituse 2, 50409 Tartu, Estonia.
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Berdasco-Muñoz E, Biran V, Nazzi T. Probing the Impact of Prematurity on Segmentation Abilities in the Context of Bilingualism. Brain Sci 2023; 13:brainsci13040568. [PMID: 37190533 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13040568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Infants born prematurely are at a high risk of developing linguistic deficits. In the current study, we compare how full-term and healthy preterm infants without neuro-sensorial impairments segment words from fluent speech, an ability crucial for lexical acquisition. While early word segmentation abilities have been found in monolingual infants, we test here whether it is also the case for French-dominant bilingual infants with varying non-dominant languages. These bilingual infants were tested on their ability to segment monosyllabic French words from French sentences at 6 months of (postnatal) age, an age at which both full-term and preterm monolinguals are able to segment these words. Our results establish the existence of segmentation skills in these infants, with no significant difference in performance between the two maturation groups. Correlation analyses failed to find effects of gestational age in the preterm group, as well as effects of the language dominance within the bilingual groups. These findings indicate that monosyllabic word segmentation, which has been found to emerge by 4 months in monolingual French-learning infants, is a robust ability acquired at an early age even in the context of bilingualism and prematurity. Future studies should further probe segmentation abilities in more extreme conditions, such as in bilinguals tested in their non-dominant language, in preterm infants with medical issues, or testing the segmentation of more complex word structures.
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Mendez AI, Tokish H, McQueen E, Chawla S, Klin A, Maitre NL, Klaiman C. A Comparison of the Clinical Presentation of Preterm Birth and Autism Spectrum Disorder: Commonalities and Distinctions in Children Under 3. Clin Perinatol 2023; 50:81-101. [PMID: 36868715 PMCID: PMC10842306 DOI: 10.1016/j.clp.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Premature infants and infants later diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) share many commonalities in clinical presentations. However, prematurity and ASD also have differences in clinical presentation. These overlapping phenotypes can lead to misdiagnoses of ASD or missing a diagnosis of ASD in preterm infants. We document these commonalities and differences in various developmental domains with the hope of aiding in the accurate early detection of ASD and timely intervention implementation in children born premature. Given the degree of similarities in presentation, evidence-based interventions designed specifically for preterm toddlers or toddlers with ASD may ultimately aid both populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana I Mendez
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, 36 Eagle Row, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Hannah Tokish
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Emma McQueen
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Shivaang Chawla
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Ami Klin
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Nathalie L Maitre
- Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Cheryl Klaiman
- Marcus Autism Center, 1920 Briarcliff Road, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Emory University School of Medicine, 2015 Uppergate Drive, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, 1405 Clifton Road Northeast, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Muacevic A, Adler JR. Mismatch Negativity Responses to Different Auditory Attributes in Normally Developing Infants and Children. Cureus 2022; 14:e33163. [PMID: 36726907 PMCID: PMC9885516 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.33163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Mismatch negativity (MMN) is a change-specific component of the event-related potentials that is elicited by an irregularity in repetitive auditory stimulation. As it is developmentally stable and can be measured in the absence of the participant's attention, it can be a valuable method for assessing auditory discrimination in infants and young children. The classic MMN paradigm involves tone frequency as the mismatching attribute. Multi-feature MMN paradigms which involve different auditory attributes can assess discrimination abilities in a wider group of disorders. The study aimed to report standardised MMN values obtained with MMN paradigms including several auditory attributes to extend the clinical applicability of the test in infants and young children. Methods MMN responses were recorded in 42 normal infants and young children (2 months to 5 years) with multi-feature MMN paradigms. MMN variables in different trials were compared by one-way ANOVA. Pearson's correlation coefficient and independent sample t-test were performed for finding an association with the age and gender of the participants respectively. P<0.05 was considered as statistically significant. Results MMN amplitude exhibited statistically significant differences in different MMN paradigms (p<0.05). An increase in the degree of standard and deviant differences and double deviant responses also resulted in larger MMN. MMN latency variation in the trials was not statistically significant. The age and gender of the participants did not influence the MMN variables with statistical significance. Conclusion MMN paradigms with different auditory attributes report significant amplitude variations. Multi-feature MMN paradigms can optimize the clinical applicability of the test and can determine the profile of different auditory discrimination abilities.
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Impact of Differing Language Background Exposures on Bayley-III Language Assessment in a National Cohort of Children Born Less than 29 Weeks' Gestation. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 9:children9071048. [PMID: 35884032 PMCID: PMC9316512 DOI: 10.3390/children9071048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Preterm infants are at risk for adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes, especially language delay. Preterm infants < 29 weeks’ gestational age, cared for in Canadian Neonatal Follow-Up Network affiliated hospitals, were assessed between 18 to 21 months corrected age using the Bayley-III. Bayley-III Language Composite Scores were compared using univariate and multivariate analyses for children in three primary language groups: English, French and other. 6146 children were included. The primary language at home was English, French or another language for 3708 children (60%), 1312 children (21%) and 1126 children (18%), respectively, and overall, 44% were exposed to two or more languages at home. Univariate analysis showed that primary language was associated with lower Bayley-III Language scores; however, multivariate analyses demonstrated that neither primary language nor language of administration were significantly associated with lower language scores when adjusted for gestational age, other developmental delays and sociodemographic factors, but multiple language exposure was. Sociodemographic and other factors are more important in determining language development than primary language at home. Further studies are needed to examine the association between exposure to multiple languages and lower Bayley-III language scores in preterm infants.
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Ståhlberg-Forsén E, Latva R, Leppänen J, Lehtonen L, Stolt S. Eye tracking based assessment of lexical processing and early lexical development in very preterm children. Early Hum Dev 2022; 170:105603. [PMID: 35724569 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2022.105603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Associations between lexical processing and lexical development during the second year of life have been little studied in preterm children. AIMS To evaluate associations between lexical processing at 18 months and lexical development between 12 and 18 months in very preterm children. STUDY DESIGN Correlational study. SUBJECTS 25 Finnish-speaking children born <32 gestational weeks. OUTCOME MEASURES Lexical processing (reaction time RT; correct looking time CLT) was measured with an eye tracking technology-based task at 18 months' corrected age. Lexical development was measured longitudinally at 12-, 15- and 18-months' corrected age using the following screening instruments: the short form version of the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories and the Communication and Symbolic Behavior Scale: Infant-Toddler Checklist. RESULTS The longer the RT of the child, the weaker expressive skills the child had at 12 and 15 months (correlations coefficient values -0.45 to -0.51). The more the child looked at the target image compared to the distractor (CLT), the stronger expressive skills the child had at 18 months (r = 0.45-0.52). A linear regression model with RT and gender as independent variables explained 33 % of the variance in lexical skills at 18 months. A model with CLT explained 40 % of expressive skills at 18 months. CONCLUSIONS Lexical processing at 18 months was associated with expressive lexical development in very preterm children. The results suggest eye tracking technology based methods may have utility in the assessment of early lexical growth in preterm children, although further research is needed to assess psychometric properties and predictive value of the method.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Reija Latva
- Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland; Tampere University, Tampere, Finland.
| | | | - Liisa Lehtonen
- University of Turku, Turku, Finland; Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland.
| | - Suvi Stolt
- University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
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Gire C, Garbi A, Zahed M, Beltran Anzola A, Tosello B, Datin-Dorrière V. Neurobehavioral Phenotype and Dysexecutive Syndrome of Preterm Children: Comorbidity or Trigger? An Update. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 9:239. [PMID: 35204960 PMCID: PMC8870742 DOI: 10.3390/children9020239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Premature birth is a worldwide public health priority. One in ten children is born before 37 weeks of gestational age and, in developed countries, survival rates without major neonatal morbidity are increasing. Although severe sequelae associated with these births have decreased, their neurobehavioral difficulties, often associated in multiple fields, remain stable but still widespread. These neurobehavioral difficulties hamper the normal development of academic achievements and societal integration and intensify the children's needs for rehabilitation during their preschool and academic years. Severe sequelae increase when gestational age decreases. This is even truer if the socio-cultural background is impeded by low income, education and language skills as compared with defined averages. However, moderate and/or minor neurocognitive and/or behavioral difficulties are almost identical for a moderate or a late preterm birth. Obtaining a better clinical description of neurobehavioral characteristics of those pretermly born, once they reach preschool age, is essential to detect behavioral issues as well as early specific cognitive difficulties (working memory, planning, inhibition, language expression and reception, attention and fine motor skills, etc.). Such information would provide a better understanding of the executive functions' role in brain connectivity, neurodevelopment and neuroanatomical correlation with premature encephalopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Gire
- Department of Neonatology, North Hospital, University Hospital of Marseille, Chemin des Bourrelys, CEDEX 20, 13915 Marseille, France; (C.G.); (A.G.); (M.Z.); (A.B.A.)
- CEReSS—Health Service Research and Quality of Life Center, Faculty of Medicine, Aix-Marseille University, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Aurélie Garbi
- Department of Neonatology, North Hospital, University Hospital of Marseille, Chemin des Bourrelys, CEDEX 20, 13915 Marseille, France; (C.G.); (A.G.); (M.Z.); (A.B.A.)
| | - Meriem Zahed
- Department of Neonatology, North Hospital, University Hospital of Marseille, Chemin des Bourrelys, CEDEX 20, 13915 Marseille, France; (C.G.); (A.G.); (M.Z.); (A.B.A.)
| | - Any Beltran Anzola
- Department of Neonatology, North Hospital, University Hospital of Marseille, Chemin des Bourrelys, CEDEX 20, 13915 Marseille, France; (C.G.); (A.G.); (M.Z.); (A.B.A.)
- CEReSS—Health Service Research and Quality of Life Center, Faculty of Medicine, Aix-Marseille University, 27 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
| | - Barthélémy Tosello
- Department of Neonatology, North Hospital, University Hospital of Marseille, Chemin des Bourrelys, CEDEX 20, 13915 Marseille, France; (C.G.); (A.G.); (M.Z.); (A.B.A.)
- CNRS, EFS, ADES, Aix Marseille Universite, 13915 Marseille, France
| | - Valérie Datin-Dorrière
- Department of Neonatal Medicine, Caen University Hospital, Avenue Cote De Nacre, 14000 Caen, France;
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13
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Martin KC, Ketchabaw WT, Turkeltaub PE. Plasticity of the language system in children and adults. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2022; 184:397-414. [PMID: 35034751 PMCID: PMC10149040 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-819410-2.00021-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The language system is perhaps the most unique feature of the human brain's cognitive architecture. It has long been a quest of cognitive neuroscience to understand the neural components that contribute to the hierarchical pattern processing and advanced rule learning required for language. The most important goal of this research is to understand how language becomes impaired when these neural components malfunction or are lost to stroke, and ultimately how we might recover language abilities under these circumstances. Additionally, understanding how the language system develops and how it can reorganize in the face of brain injury or dysfunction could help us to understand brain plasticity in cognitive networks more broadly. In this chapter we will discuss the earliest features of language organization in infants, and how deviations in typical development can-but in some cases, do not-lead to disordered language. We will then survey findings from adult stroke and aphasia research on the potential for recovering language processing in both the remaining left hemisphere tissue and in the non-dominant right hemisphere. Altogether, we hope to present a clear picture of what is known about the capacity for plastic change in the neurobiology of the human language system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly C Martin
- Department of Neurology, Center for Brain Plasticity and Recovery, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States
| | - W Tyler Ketchabaw
- Department of Neurology, Center for Brain Plasticity and Recovery, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Peter E Turkeltaub
- Department of Neurology, Center for Brain Plasticity and Recovery, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States; Research Division, MedStar National Rehabilitation Hospital, Washington, DC, United States.
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14
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Neri E, De Pascalis L, Agostini F, Genova F, Biasini A, Stella M, Trombini E. Parental Book-Reading to Preterm Born Infants in NICU: The Effects on Language Development in the First Two Years. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182111361. [PMID: 34769878 PMCID: PMC8582730 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background: After preterm birth, infants are at high risk for delays in language development. A promising intervention to reduce this risk is represented by the exposure to parental voices through book-reading in Neonatal Intensive Care Units (NICU). This study investigated the possible advantages of book-reading to preterm neonates during their NICU stay on their subsequent language development. Methods: 100 families of preterm infants were recruited. The parents of 55 preterm infants (Reading Group) received a colored picture-book on NICU admission and were supported to read to their neonate as often as possible and to continue after hospital discharge. Forty-five infants (Control Group) were recruited before the beginning of the intervention. Infant language development was assessed with the Hearing and Language quotients of the Griffith Mental Development Scale at the corrected ages of 3, 6, 9, 12, 18 and 24 months. Results: Regardless of group membership, Hearing and Language mean quotients decreased between 9 and 18 months; nevertheless, this decrease was considerably reduced in the Reading group, compared to the Control Group. Conclusions: Reading in NICUs represents a suitable intervention that could positively influence language development and parent-infant relationships in preterm children. The study findings support its implementation as a preventive measure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Neri
- Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (L.D.P.); (F.G.); (E.T.)
- Correspondence: (E.N.); (F.A.)
| | - Leonardo De Pascalis
- Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (L.D.P.); (F.G.); (E.T.)
| | - Francesca Agostini
- Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (L.D.P.); (F.G.); (E.T.)
- Correspondence: (E.N.); (F.A.)
| | - Federica Genova
- Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (L.D.P.); (F.G.); (E.T.)
| | - Augusto Biasini
- Donor Human Milk Bank Italian Association (AIBLUD), 20126 Milan, Italy;
| | - Marcello Stella
- Pediatric and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Maurizio Bufalini Hospital, 47521 Cesena, Italy;
| | - Elena Trombini
- Department of Psychology “Renzo Canestrari”, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy; (L.D.P.); (F.G.); (E.T.)
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15
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Kostilainen K, Partanen E, Mikkola K, Wikström V, Pakarinen S, Fellman V, Huotilainen M. Repeated Parental Singing During Kangaroo Care Improved Neural Processing of Speech Sound Changes in Preterm Infants at Term Age. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:686027. [PMID: 34539329 PMCID: PMC8446605 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.686027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Preterm birth carries a risk for adverse neurodevelopment. Cognitive dysfunctions, such as language disorders may manifest as atypical sound discrimination already in early infancy. As infant-directed singing has been shown to enhance language acquisition in infants, we examined whether parental singing during skin-to-skin care (kangaroo care) improves speech sound discrimination in preterm infants. Forty-five preterm infants born between 26 and 33 gestational weeks (GW) and their parents participated in this cluster-randomized controlled trial (ClinicalTrials ID IRB00003181SK). In both groups, parents conducted kangaroo care during 33-40 GW. In the singing intervention group (n = 24), a certified music therapist guided parents to sing or hum during daily kangaroo care. In the control group (n = 21), parents conducted standard kangaroo care and were not instructed to use their voices. Parents in both groups reported the duration of daily intervention. Auditory event-related potentials were recorded with electroencephalogram at term age using a multi-feature paradigm consisting of phonetic and emotional speech sound changes and a one-deviant oddball paradigm with pure tones. In the multi-feature paradigm, prominent mismatch responses (MMR) were elicited to the emotional sounds and many of the phonetic deviants in the singing intervention group and in the control group to some of the emotional and phonetic deviants. A group difference was found as the MMRs were larger in the singing intervention group, mainly due to larger MMRs being elicited to the emotional sounds, especially in females. The overall duration of the singing intervention (range 15-63 days) was positively associated with the MMR amplitudes for both phonetic and emotional stimuli in both sexes, unlike the daily singing time (range 8-120 min/day). In the oddball paradigm, MMRs for the non-speech sounds were elicited in both groups and no group differences nor connections between the singing time and the response amplitudes were found. These results imply that repeated parental singing during kangaroo care improved auditory discrimination of phonetic and emotional speech sounds in preterm infants at term age. Regular singing routines can be recommended for parents to promote the development of the auditory system and auditory processing of speech sounds in preterm infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaisamari Kostilainen
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eino Partanen
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kaija Mikkola
- New Children's Hospital, Pediatric Research Center, Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Valtteri Wikström
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Satu Pakarinen
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Vineta Fellman
- Pediatrics, Department of Clinical Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.,Children's Hospital, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Minna Huotilainen
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Department of Psychology and Logopedics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,CICERO Learning Network, Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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16
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Phillips JP, Pirrung CJ, Weerasinghe I, Kanishka GK, Satharasinghe Y, Lalitharatne TD, Cavanagh JF, Kodituwakku P, Wanigasinghe J. Portable Acquisition of Auditory ERPs: A Pilot Study of Premature Infants. Pediatr Neurol 2021; 122:84-88. [PMID: 34312029 DOI: 10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2021.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prior work suggests that event-related potential (ERP) studies in infancy may help predict developmental outcome. METHODS As part of a longitudinal study of early child development, we used the auditory oddball stimulus paradigm with a portable electroencephalography system to obtain ERP data from two-month-old infants (32 term, six preterm) in Sri Lanka. The mismatch negativity was calculated between 200 and 350 milliseconds after stimulus presentation. RESULTS We found a significant correlation between birth weight and mismatch negativity (P = 0.046), and our time-frequency analysis indicated power differences between standard and oddball tones at approximately 5 and 18 Hz. There was no significant difference between mismatch negativity in children undergoing ERP studies in a hospital setting (30) versus in the child's home (eight). CONCLUSIONS Although our modest sample size precludes drawing definitive conclusions, these preliminary results show that it is possible to acquire ERP datasets using currently available portable technology in a hospital or home setting, even in a developing nation such as Sri Lanka. Follow-up of this cohort will include developmental assessments, which will add to the growing literature relating early electrophysiology to developmental outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Phillips
- The Mind Research Network, Albuquerque, New Mexico; Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
| | | | - Isuru Weerasinghe
- Research Assistant, Department of Paediatrics, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka
| | | | - Yashika Satharasinghe
- Research Assistant, Department of Paediatrics, University of Colombo, Colombo, Sri Lanka
| | | | - James F Cavanagh
- Department of Psychology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
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17
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Neurologic Characterization of Craniosynostosis: Can Direct Brain Recordings Predict Language Development? J Craniofac Surg 2020; 32:78-82. [PMID: 32941205 DOI: 10.1097/scs.0000000000007004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Nonsyndromic craniosynostosis (NSC) is associated with language deficits. Conventional tests, such as the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID), may not reflect accurate long-term cognition. Alternatively, mismatch negativity (MMN) waves recorded via electroencephalogram (EEG) measure neural responses to speech and may objectively predict language development. This study aimed to (1) correlate infant MMN to future language achievement and (2) compare MMN among subtypes of NSC. METHODS Pre and postoperatively (mean operative age 9.5 months), NSC participants received the BSID and EEG phoneme-discrimination paradigm(80 dB,250 Hz). The MMN was the largest negative amplitude in the difference wave 80 to 300 ms after stimuli. To measure cognitive outcome, patients completed a neurodevelopmental battery (Wechsler-Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence and Wechsler-Fundamentals) at >6 years of age. RESULTS Eleven NSC patients with EEG testing in infancy were neurocognitively tested (average age 8.0 years; 27% female; 55% sagittal, 27% metopic, 9% unicoronal, 9% sagittal/metopic). The left frontal cluster MMN strongly correlated with word-reading (r = 0.713, P = 0.031), reading-comprehension (r = 0.745, P = 0.021), and language-composites (r = 0.0771, P = 0.015). Conversely, BSID scores did not yield significant predictive value (r < 0.5, P > 0.05). Follow-up event related potentials (ERP) comparison included 39 normal control, 18 sagittal, 17 metopic, 6 unilateral-coronal infants. Preoperatively, sagittal (P = 0.003) and metopic (P = 0.003) patients had attenuated left frontal MMN compared to controls. Postoperatively, the sagittal cohort was normalized to controls while metopic patients retained attenuations (P = 0.041). CONCLUSION ERP assessment in NSC had significantly better predictive value for future neurocognition than the BSID. Preoperatively, sagittal and metopic patients had attenuated neural response to language; postoperatively, sagittal patients had improved responses in comparison to metopic patients. Use of ERP assessment may help tailor treatment for language deficits earlier in development.
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18
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Gonzalez-Gomez N, O'Brien F, Harris M. The effects of prematurity and socioeconomic deprivation on early speech perception: A story of two different delays. Dev Sci 2020; 24:e13020. [PMID: 32687657 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
There is evidence showing that both maturational and environmental factors can impact on later language development. On the one hand, preterm birth has been found to increase the risk of deficits in the preschool and school years. Preterm children show poorer auditory discrimination, reading difficulties, poor vocabulary, less complex expressive language and lower receptive understanding than their matched controls. On the other hand, socioeconomic status (SES) indicators (i.e., income, education and occupation) have been found to be strongly related to linguistic abilities during the preschool and school years. However, there is very little information about how these factors result in lower linguistic abilities. The present study addresses this issue. To do so, we investigated early speech perception in full and preterm infants from families classed as high or low SES. Seventy-six infants were followed longitudinally at 7.5, 9, 10.5 and 12 months of age. At each test point, three studies explored infants' phonetic, prosodic and phonotactic development respectively. Results showed no significant differences between the phonetic or the phonotactic development of the preterm and the full-term infants. However, a time-lag between preterm and full-term developmental timing for prosody was found. Socioeconomic status did not have a significant effect on prosodic development. Nonetheless, phonetic and phonotactic development was affected by SES, infants from lower SES showed phonetic discrimination of non-native contrast and a preference for high-probability sequences later than their more advantaged peers. Overall these results suggest that different constraints apply to the acquisition of different phonological subcomponents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Frances O'Brien
- Oxford University Hospitals, NHS, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Margaret Harris
- Department of Psychology, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
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19
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François C, Rodriguez‐Fornells A, Teixidó M, Agut T, Bosch L. Attenuated brain responses to speech sounds in moderate preterm infants at term age. Dev Sci 2020; 24:e12990. [DOI: 10.1111/desc.12990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2019] [Revised: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Clément François
- Laboratoire Parole et Langage Aix‐Marseille UniversityCNRS Aix‐en‐Provence France
| | - Antoni Rodriguez‐Fornells
- Cognition and Brain Plasticity Group Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute‐] IDIBELL, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat Barcelona Spain
- Department of Cognition, Development and Educational Psychology University of Barcelona Barcelona Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies ICREA Barcelona Spain
| | - Maria Teixidó
- Department of Cognition, Development and Educational Psychology University of Barcelona Barcelona Spain
| | - Thaïs Agut
- Department of Neonatology Hospital Sant Joan de Déu Barcelona Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu Barcelona Spain
| | - Laura Bosch
- Department of Cognition, Development and Educational Psychology University of Barcelona Barcelona Spain
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu Barcelona Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences (UBNeuro) University of Barcelona Barcelona Spain
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20
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Burr S, Harding S, Wren Y, Deave T. The Relationship between Feeding and Non-Nutritive Sucking Behaviours and Speech Sound Development: A Systematic Review. Folia Phoniatr Logop 2020; 73:75-88. [DOI: 10.1159/000505266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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21
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Wilkinson CL, Gabard-Durnam LJ, Kapur K, Tager-Flusberg H, Levin AR, Nelson CA. Use of longitudinal EEG measures in estimating language development in infants with and without familial risk for autism spectrum disorder. NEUROBIOLOGY OF LANGUAGE (CAMBRIDGE, MASS.) 2020; 1:33-53. [PMID: 32656537 PMCID: PMC7351149 DOI: 10.1162/nol_a_00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
Language development in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) varies greatly among affected individuals and is a strong predictor of later outcomes. Younger siblings of children with ASD have increased risk of ASD, but also language delay. Identifying neural markers of language outcomes in infant siblings could facilitate earlier intervention and improved outcomes. This study aimed to determine whether EEG measures from the first 2-years of life can explain heterogeneity in language development in children at low- and high-risk for ASD, and to determine whether associations between EEG measures and language development are different depending on ASD risk status or later ASD diagnosis. In this prospective longitudinal study EEG measures collected between 3-24 months were used in a multivariate linear regression model to estimate participants' 24-month language development. Individual baseline longitudinal EEG measures included (1) the slope of EEG power across 3-12 months or 3-24 months of life for 6 canonical frequency bands, (2) estimated EEG power at age 6-months for the same frequency bands, and (3) terms representing the interaction between ASD risk status and EEG power measures. Modeled 24-month language scores using EEG data from either the first 2-years (Pearson R = 0.70, 95% CI 0.595-0.783, P=1x10-18) or the first year of life (Pearson R=0.66, 95% CI 0.540-0.761, P=2.5x10-14) were highly correlated with observed scores. All models included significant interaction effects of risk on EEG measures, suggesting that EEG-language associations are different depending on risk status, and that different brain mechanisms effect language development in low-versus high-risk infants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kush Kapur
- Department of Neurology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
| | | | - April R. Levin
- Department of Neurology, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
| | - Charles A. Nelson
- Division of Developmental Medicine, Boston Children’s Hospital, Boston, MA
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22
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Wallois F, Routier L, Bourel-Ponchel E. Impact of prematurity on neurodevelopment. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 173:341-375. [PMID: 32958184 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64150-2.00026-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The consequences of prematurity on brain functional development are numerous and diverse, and impact all brain functions at different levels. Prematurity occurs between 22 and 36 weeks of gestation. This period is marked by extreme dynamics in the physiologic maturation, structural, and functional processes. These different processes appear sequentially or simultaneously. They are dependent on genetic and/or environmental factors. Disturbance of these processes or of the fine-tuning between them, when caring for premature children, is likely to induce disturbances in the structural and functional development of the immature neural networks. These will appear as impairments in learning skills progress and are likely to have a lasting impact on the development of children born prematurely. The level of severity depends on the initial alteration, whether structural or functional. In this chapter, after having briefly reviewed the neurodevelopmental, structural, and functional processes, we describe, in a nonexhaustive manner, the impact of prematurity on the different brain, motor, sensory, and cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice Wallois
- Research Group on Multimodal Analysis of Brain Function, Jules Verne Picardie University, Amiens, France; Department of Pediatric Functional Exploration of the Nervous System, University Hospital, Picardie, Amiens, France.
| | - Laura Routier
- Research Group on Multimodal Analysis of Brain Function, Jules Verne Picardie University, Amiens, France; Department of Pediatric Functional Exploration of the Nervous System, University Hospital, Picardie, Amiens, France
| | - Emilie Bourel-Ponchel
- Research Group on Multimodal Analysis of Brain Function, Jules Verne Picardie University, Amiens, France; Department of Pediatric Functional Exploration of the Nervous System, University Hospital, Picardie, Amiens, France
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23
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De Stefano P, Marchignoli M, Pisani F, Cossu G. Uneven Linguistic Outcome in Extremely Preterm Children. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLINGUISTIC RESEARCH 2019; 48:1363-1375. [PMID: 31407217 DOI: 10.1007/s10936-019-09662-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
One primary problem in extremely preterm children is the occurrence of atypical language development. The aim of this study was to explore the components of language (articulatory phonetics, lexicon and syntax) in comprehension and production in extremely preterm children between the 4th and 5th year of age. The language section of the Preschool Neuropsychological Test was administered to 20 extremely preterm monolingual Italian children (GA < 28 weeks) and to a control sample of 40 full term children (GA > 37 weeks), matched for age and non-verbal IQ. Language comprehension was fully efficient in all of the components that we assessed. In the tasks of language production the clinical sample fared much worse than their age and IQ matched controls and the differences were highly significant (p < .001). Language acquisition in extremely preterm children may follow uneven developmental trajectories: language comprehension can be spared in the face of a selective impairment of language production at the level of articulatory phonetics and syntax.
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Affiliation(s)
- P De Stefano
- Physiology Unit, Department of Neuroscience, University of Parma, Parma, Italy.
- Neurology Unit, University Hospitals of Geneva (HUG), Geneva, Switzerland.
| | - M Marchignoli
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Medicine and Surgery Department, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, AUSL Parma, Sud-East District, Fidenza, Italy
| | - F Pisani
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Medicine and Surgery Department, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - G Cossu
- Physiology Unit, Department of Neuroscience, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Medicine and Surgery Department, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Unit of Cognitive Neurorehabilitation for Children, Phoniatric Medical Center, Padua, Italy
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24
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Language in Preterm Born Children: Atypical Development and Effects of Early Interventions on Neuroplasticity. Neural Plast 2019; 2019:6873270. [PMID: 30930944 PMCID: PMC6410465 DOI: 10.1155/2019/6873270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Predicting language performances after preterm birth is challenging. It is described in the literature that early exposure to the extrauterine environment can be either detrimental or advantageous for neurodevelopment. However, the emphasis mostly lies on the fact that preterm birth may have an unfavorable effect on numerous aspects of development such as cognition, language, and behavior. Various studies reported atypical language development in preterm born children in the preschool years but also in school-aged children and adolescents. This review gives an overview of the course of language development and examines how prematurity can lead to atypical linguistic performances. In this paper, we mainly focus on environmental and neurophysiological factors influencing preterm infant neuroplasticity with potential short- and long-term effects on language development. Further research, however, should focus on examining the possible benefits that early exposure might entail.
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25
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Nylund A, Toivonen L, Korpilahti P, Kaljonen A, Peltola V, Rautakoski P. Recurrent respiratory tract infections or acute otitis media were not a risk factor for vocabulary development in children at 13 and 24 months of age. Acta Paediatr 2019; 108:288-294. [PMID: 30126046 DOI: 10.1111/apa.14546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIM This study examined associations between recurrent respiratory tract infections (RTI) and acute otitis media (AOM) during the first one and two years of life and vocabulary size at 13 and 24 months of age. METHODS We studied 646 children born between January 2008 and April 2010 and followed up from birth to two years of age with daily diary and study clinic visits during RTIs and AOM. The families were recruited from maternity health care clinics or delivery wards in south-west Finland. Parents completed the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory at 13 and 24 months, and the vocabularies of children with high rates of RTIs or AOM were compared to children without recurrent issues. RESULTS Of the 646 children, 9.6% had recurrent RTIs and 9.9% had recurrent AOM from 0 to 24 months. Children with high rates of RTIs or AOM did not have smaller vocabularies than children without recurrent RTIs or AOM. Girls had larger vocabularies and higher parental socioeconomic status was associated with a larger expressive vocabulary at 24 months. CONCLUSION The child's gender and parental socioeconomic status played a more critical role in vocabulary development in the first two years than a high burden of RTIs or AOM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Nylund
- Department of Logopedics; Abo Akademi University; Turku Finland
- Turku Institute for Child and Youth Research; University of Turku; Turku Finland
| | - Laura Toivonen
- Turku Institute for Child and Youth Research; University of Turku; Turku Finland
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine; Turku University Hospital and University of Turku; Turku Finland
| | - Pirjo Korpilahti
- Department of Speech and Language Pathology; University of Turku; Turku Finland
| | - Anne Kaljonen
- Biostatistics; Department of Clinical Medicine; University of Turku; Turku Finland
| | - Ville Peltola
- Turku Institute for Child and Youth Research; University of Turku; Turku Finland
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine; Turku University Hospital and University of Turku; Turku Finland
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Depoorter A, Früh J, Herrmann K, Zanchi D, Weber P. Predicting neurodevelopmental outcome in preterm born infants using auditory event-related potentials: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 89:99-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 02/13/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Perszyk DR, Ferguson B, Waxman SR. Maturation constrains the effect of exposure in linking language and thought: evidence from healthy preterm infants. Dev Sci 2018; 21:10.1111/desc.12522. [PMID: 28032433 PMCID: PMC5519447 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The power of human language rests upon its intricate links to human cognition. By 3 months of age, listening to language supports infants' ability to form object categories, a building block of cognition. Moreover, infants display a systematic shift between 3 and 4 months - a shift from familiarity to novelty preferences - in their expression of this link between language and core cognitive processes. Here, we capitalize on this tightly-timed developmental shift in fullterm infants to assess (a) whether it also appears in preterm infants and (b) whether it reflects infants' maturational status or the duration of their postnatal experience. Healthy late preterm infants (N = 22) participated in an object categorization task while listening to language. Their performance, coupled with that of fullterm infants, reveals that this developmental shift is evident in preterm infants and unfolds on the same maturational timetable as in their fullterm counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brock Ferguson
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
| | - Sandra R Waxman
- Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
- Institue for Policy Research, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
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Ross G, Demaria R, Yap V. The Relationship Between Motor Delays and Language Development in Very Low Birthweight Premature Children at 18 Months Corrected Age. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2018; 61:114-119. [PMID: 29255850 DOI: 10.1044/2017_jslhr-l-17-0056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study is to determine if there is a specific association between motor delays and receptive and expressive language function, respectively, in prematurely born children. METHOD Retrospective data review: 126 premature children ≤ 1,250-g birthweight from English-speaking families were evaluated on motor development (normal, mild delay, and moderate-severe delay) and the cognitive and language scales of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-Third Edition (Bayley, 2006) at 18 months corrected age. Cognitive scores were categorized as normal, suspect, and abnormal. Gender, demographic, and perinatal variables were recorded and analyzed with respect to motor category. RESULTS Lower birthweight, chronic need for oxygen, severe intraventricular hemorrhage, and intestinal infection/inflammation were related to poorer motor development. On receptive language, the normal motor group attained significantly higher scores than the moderate-severe motor group but did not differ significantly from the mild delay motor group. On expressive language, the normal motor group had significantly higher scores than both the mild and moderate-severe groups. Girls performed better than boys on receptive and expressive language, but there was no significant interaction between gender and motor category on any of the Bayley scores. Cognitive, but not motor, category significantly contributed to variance of receptive language scores; cognitive and motor category each independently contributed to the variance in expressive language. CONCLUSION Findings suggest that motor control areas of the brain may be implicated in expressive language development of premature children. Further research is needed to determine the underlying factors for the association between motor and expressive language function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gail Ross
- Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Rebecca Demaria
- Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
| | - Vivien Yap
- Department of Pediatrics, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY
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Félix J, Santos ME, Benítez-Burraco A. Spontaneous language of preterm children aged 4 and 5 years. REVISTA CEFAC 2017. [DOI: 10.1590/1982-021620171968017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Purposes: to evaluate spontaneous language development through the Mean Length of Utterance in words (MLU-w) of children with gestational age between 28 and 36 weeks. This research also aims to study if the gestational age, birth weight, gender, and parents’ level of formal education can influence that measurement. Methods: nineteen premature children (9 males, 10 females), in the age range 4-5 years old, enrolled on Lisbon area kindergartens, and considered as having typical development, participated in this research. Spontaneous speech of each child was recorded for 30 minutes and transcribed afterwards. Results: mean values of MLU-w of Portuguese premature children were significantly lower than those with typical development. A positive and significant correlation between the gestational age and the birth weight with the MLU-w was also found. The gender of the children and the parents’ level of formal education showed no influence on the results. Conclusion: these results reinforce the need to identify, on these children, possible deficits, in order to prevent negative impacts in school education, and stimulate their psychosocial development.
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Berdasco-Muñoz E, Nishibayashi LL, Baud O, Biran V, Nazzi T. Early Segmentation Abilities in Preterm Infants. INFANCY 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/infa.12217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Berdasco-Muñoz
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception (UMR 8242) Université Paris Descartes and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
| | - Léo-Lyuki Nishibayashi
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception (UMR 8242) Université Paris Descartes and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
| | | | | | - Thierry Nazzi
- Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception (UMR 8242) Université Paris Descartes and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique
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Niemitalo-Haapola E, Haapala S, Kujala T, Raappana A, Kujala T, Jansson-Verkasalo E. Noise Equally Degrades Central Auditory Processing in 2- and 4-Year-Old Children. JOURNAL OF SPEECH, LANGUAGE, AND HEARING RESEARCH : JSLHR 2017; 60:2297-2309. [PMID: 28763806 DOI: 10.1044/2017_jslhr-h-16-0267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 02/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to investigate developmental and noise-induced changes in central auditory processing indexed by event-related potentials in typically developing children. METHOD P1, N2, and N4 responses as well as mismatch negativities (MMNs) were recorded for standard syllables and consonants, frequency, intensity, vowel, and vowel duration changes in silent and noisy conditions in the same 14 children at the ages of 2 and 4 years. RESULTS The P1 and N2 latencies decreased and the N2, N4, and MMN amplitudes increased with development of the children. The amplitude changes were strongest at frontal electrodes. At both ages, background noise decreased the P1 amplitude, increased the N2 amplitude, and shortened the N4 latency. The noise-induced amplitude changes of P1, N2, and N4 were strongest frontally. Furthermore, background noise degraded the MMN. At both ages, MMN was significantly elicited only by the consonant change, and at the age of 4 years, also by the vowel duration change during noise. CONCLUSIONS Developmental changes indexing maturation of central auditory processing were found from every response studied. Noise degraded sound encoding and echoic memory and impaired auditory discrimination at both ages. The older children were as vulnerable to the impact of noise as the younger children. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.5233939.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elina Niemitalo-Haapola
- Child Language Research Center, Faculty of Humanities, University of Oulu, Finland
- Clinical Neurophysiology, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
| | - Sini Haapala
- Clinical Neurophysiology, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Finland
| | - Teija Kujala
- Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Antti Raappana
- PEDEGO Research Unit, University of Oulu, Finland
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Oulu University Hospital, Finland
| | - Tiia Kujala
- PEDEGO Research Unit, University of Oulu, Finland
- Medical Research Center Oulu, Finland
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Korpilahti P, Valkama M, Jansson-Verkasalo E. Event-Related Potentials Reflect Deficits in Lexical Access: The N200 in Prematurely Born School-Aged Children. Folia Phoniatr Logop 2017; 68:189-198. [PMID: 28253505 DOI: 10.1159/000450886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Children born preterm have a high prevalence of neurocognitive deficits early in life. We examined whether the neural correlates of lexical access are atypical in 9-year-old children born preterm, and whether the findings of acoustic mapping correlate with language- and attention-related skills. PATIENTS AND METHODS The subjects were fourteen 9-year-old children born preterm and 14 full-term, typically developing controls. Two auditory event-related potential (ERP) components, the N200 and the N400, were used to assess discrimination response and word recognition. A set of behavioral tests (naming ability, auditory attention, phonological processing, pseudoword repetition, and comprehension of instructions) was performed, and the results were compared with the amplitudes, latencies, and scalp distribution of the ERP results. RESULTS In prematurely born children, neurophysiological deficits were associated with difficulties in auditory discrimination. The N200 amplitude correlated significantly with auditory attention and pseudoword repetition. The scalp distribution of both the N200 and the N400 was broader in children born preterm than in the controls. Low scores in the neuropsychological tasks referred to difficulties in auditory processing and memory. CONCLUSIONS Children born preterm have difficulties in lexical access together with memory- and attention-related processes, which may have a longstanding impact on their school outcomes and academic skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pirjo Korpilahti
- Department of Psychology and Speech-Language Pathology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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Carniel CZ, Furtado MCDC, Vicente JB, Abreu RZD, Tarozzo RM, Cardia SETR, Massei MCI, Cerveira RCGF. Influência de fatores de risco sobre o desenvolvimento da linguagem e contribuições da estimulação precoce: revisão integrativa da literatura. REVISTA CEFAC 2017. [DOI: 10.1590/1982-0216201719115616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
RESUMO O objetivo do estudo foi identificar evidências na literatura a respeito da influência dos fatores de risco sobre o desenvolvimento da linguagem da criança e as contribuições da estimulação precoce. Trata-se de uma revisão integrativa, que utilizou as bases de dados Lilacs, PubMed e SciELO e os descritores: linguagem infantil, fatores de risco, prematuro, criança pós-termo, índice de Apgar, estimulação precoce. A partir dos achados, extraíram-se os seguintes dados: autores, ano de publicação, objetivo, desenho do estudo, participantes e critérios, variáveis estudadas, principais achados. Para a organização e análise foi utilizada a técnica de Análise de Conteúdo do tipo temática. Foram identificados 1.421 artigos, 29 atenderam os critérios de inclusão. Os estudos foram categorizados por resultados afins; A maioria dos artigos selecionados trata do efeito da prematuridade sobre o desenvolvimento da linguagem. Quatro estudos investigaram a associação entre fatores de risco e problemas no desenvolvimento da linguagem. Um dos estudos avaliou crianças em idade escolar e associou valores de Apgar com DEL. Foi unanime a recomendação acerca do acompanhamento e intervenção precoce. Conclui-se que os fatores de risco elencados influenciam negativamente no desenvolvimento da linguagem. Reforça-se a recomendação do atendimento precoce e qualificado dessas crianças, evitando e/ou minimizando alterações futuras.
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Oscillatory Dynamics Underlying Perceptual Narrowing of Native Phoneme Mapping from 6 to 12 Months of Age. J Neurosci 2016; 36:12095-12105. [PMID: 27903720 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1162-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 09/08/2016] [Accepted: 10/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
During the first months of life, human infants process phonemic elements from all languages similarly. However, by 12 months of age, as language-specific phonemic maps are established, infants respond preferentially to their native language. This process, known as perceptual narrowing, supports neural representation and thus efficient processing of the distinctive phonemes within the sound environment. Although oscillatory mechanisms underlying processing of native and non-native phonemic contrasts were recently delineated in 6-month-old infants, the maturational trajectory of these mechanisms remained unclear. A group of typically developing infants born into monolingual English families, were followed from 6 to 12 months and presented with English and Spanish syllable contrasts varying in voice-onset time. Brain responses were recorded with high-density electroencephalogram, and sources of event-related potential generators identified at right and left auditory cortices at 6 and 12 months and also at frontal cortex at 6 months. Time-frequency analyses conducted at source level found variations in both θ and γ ranges across age. Compared with 6-month-olds, 12-month-olds' responses to native phonemes showed smaller and faster phase synchronization and less spectral power in the θ range, and increases in left phase synchrony as well as induced high-γ activity in both frontal and left auditory sources. These results demonstrate that infants become more automatized and efficient in processing their native language as they approach 12 months of age via the interplay between θ and γ oscillations. We suggest that, while θ oscillations support syllable processing, γ oscillations underlie phonemic perceptual narrowing, progressively favoring mapping of native over non-native language across the first year of life. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT During early language acquisition, typically developing infants gradually construct phonemic maps of their native language in auditory cortex. It is well known that, by 12 months of age, human infants move from universal discrimination of most linguistic phonemic contrasts to phonemic expertise in their native language. This perceptual narrowing occurs at the expense of the ability to process non-native phonemes. However, the neural mechanisms underlying this process are still poorly understood. Here we demonstrate that perceptual narrowing is, at least in part, accomplished by decreasing power and phase coherence in the θ range while increasing activity in high-γ in left auditory cortex. Understanding the normative neural mechanisms that support early language acquisition is crucial to understanding and perhaps ameliorating developmental language disorders.
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Abstract
Resilience and adaptation in the face of early genetic or environmental risk has become a major interest in child psychiatry over recent years. However, we still remain far from an understanding of how developing human brains as a whole adapt to the diffuse and widespread atypical synaptic function that may be characteristic of some common developmental disorders. The first part of this paper discusses four types of whole-brain adaptation in the face of early risk: redundancy, reorganization, niche construction, and adjustment of developmental rate. The second part of the paper applies these adaptation processes specifically to autism. We speculate that key features of autism may be the end result of processes of early brain adaptation, rather than the direct consequences of ongoing neural pathology.
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Monteiro-Luperi TI, Befi-Lopes DM, Diniz EMA, Krebs VL, Carvalho WBD. Desempenho linguístico de prematuros de 2 anos, considerando idade cronológica e idade corrigida. Codas 2016; 28:118-22. [DOI: 10.1590/2317-1782/20162015075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
RESUMO Introdução O nascimento prematuro acarreta problemas que não se restringem à mortalidade perinatal. Alguns prematuros, mesmo na ausência de lesões cerebrais, apresentam consequências negativas em diversos aspectos do desenvolvimento, como dificuldades em adquirir linguagem. Objetivo O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar o desempenho linguístico de prematuros, na faixa etária de 2 anos, considerando a idade cronológica e a idade corrigida. Métodos Participaram do estudo 23 sujeitos prematuros e para verificar as habilidades linguísticas foi aplicado o Test of Early Language Development – TELD-3. Resultados Os sujeitos prematuros apresentaram desempenho total alterado no TELD-3 em 39,13% dos casos. Os prematuros também foram analisados considerando o atraso para a idade cronológica e a corrigida e não houve diferença no desempenho para os subtestes receptivo (p = 0,250) e expressivo (p = 1,000). Conclusão O grupo de prematuros aos 2 anos de idade constitui população de risco para alterações de linguagem que não podem ser compensadas com a correção da idade.
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Ross GS, Foran LM, Barbot B, Sossin KM, Perlman JM. Using cluster analysis to provide new insights into development of very low birthweight (VLBW) premature infants. Early Hum Dev 2016; 92:45-9. [PMID: 26651085 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2015.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Very low birthweight (VLBW) premature infant follow-up studies report on single developmental outcome variables but do not assess profiles of development. AIMS To identify developmental profiles of VLBW premature infants based on cognitive and language development and their association with demographic, perinatal, and behavior variables. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective chart review. SUBJECTS 117 children<1250 g BW seen at 18 months post-term on the Bayley Scales-III and Child Behavior Checklist 1 ½-5 (CBCL 1 ½-5), a behavior problem questionnaire. Demographic and perinatal variables were obtained from medical records. OUTCOME MEASURES Bayley Cognitive, Expressive Language, and Receptive Language scores were used to cluster the subjects into developmental profiles. Demographic, perinatal, and CBCL variables were analyzed as they related to clusters. RESULTS Children were clustered into 4 groups based on their Bayley Cognitive, Expressive Language, and Receptive Language scores: Consistently High, Consistently Average, Average with Delayed Expressive Language, and Consistently Low. Socioeconomic status, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, Grades III-IV intraventricular hemorrhage, and summary Behavior Problems and Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity (ADHD) Problems scores were significantly related to clusters. CONCLUSION Cluster analysis defined distinct outcome groups in VLBW premature children and provides an informative means of identifying factors related to developmental outcome. This approach may be useful in predicting later outcome and determining which groups of children will require early intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gail S Ross
- Newborn Medicine, Weill-Cornell Medical College, Box 106, 525 East 68 Street, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - L M Foran
- Newborn Medicine, Weill-Cornell Medical College, Box 106, 525 East 68 Street, New York, NY 10021, USA.
| | - Baptiste Barbot
- Psychology Department, Pace University, 41 Park Row, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10038, USA.
| | - K Mark Sossin
- Psychology Department, Pace University, 41 Park Row, 13th Floor, New York, NY 10038, USA.
| | - Jeffrey M Perlman
- Newborn Medicine, Weill-Cornell Medical College, Box 106, 525 East 68 Street, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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Paquette N, Vannasing P, Tremblay J, Lefebvre F, Roy MS, McKerral M, Lepore F, Lassonde M, Gallagher A. Early electrophysiological markers of atypical language processing in prematurely born infants. Neuropsychologia 2015; 79:21-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Attenuated auditory event-related potentials and associations with atypical sensory response patterns in children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord 2015; 45:506-23. [PMID: 24072639 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-013-1948-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Neurobiological underpinnings of unusual sensory features in individuals with autism are unknown. Event-related potentials elicited by task-irrelevant sounds were used to elucidate neural correlates of auditory processing and associations with three common sensory response patterns (hyperresponsiveness; hyporesponsiveness; sensory seeking). Twenty-eight children with autism and 39 typically developing children (4-12 year-olds) completed an auditory oddball paradigm. Results revealed marginally attenuated P1 and N2 to standard tones and attenuated P3a to novel sounds in autism versus controls. Exploratory analyses suggested that within the autism group, attenuated N2 and P3a amplitudes were associated with greater sensory seeking behaviors for specific ranges of P1 responses. Findings suggest that attenuated early sensory as well as later attention-orienting neural responses to stimuli may underlie selective sensory features via complex mechanisms.
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Auditory event-related potentials are related to cognition at preschool age after very preterm birth. Pediatr Res 2015; 77:570-8. [PMID: 25642663 DOI: 10.1038/pr.2015.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Auditory event-related potentials (AERP) are neurophysiological correlates of sound perception and cognitive processes. Our aim was to study in very preterm born children at preschool age if AERP correlate with cognitive outcome. METHODS Seventy children (mean ± SD gestational age 27.4 ± 1.9 wk, birth weight 996 ± 288 g) were investigated at age 4.3-5.3 y with psychological testing (WPPSI-R, four subtests of NEPSY). Electroencephalogram was recorded while they listened to a repeated standard tone, randomly replaced by one of three deviants. Latencies and amplitudes for AERP components and mean amplitudes in successive 50-ms AERP time windows were measured. RESULTS Better cognitive test results and higher gestational age correlated with shorter P1 latencies and more positive mean amplitudes 150-500 ms after stimulus change onset. Neonatal brain damage was associated with a negative displacement of AERP curves. Neonatal morbidity had an impact on earlier time windows while gestational age and brain damage on both early and later time windows. CONCLUSION AERP measures were associated with cognitive outcome. Neonatal morbidity mainly affects early cortical auditory encoding, while immaturity and brain damage additionally influence higher cortical functions of auditory perception and distraction. Perinatal auditory environment might play a role in development of auditory processing.
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Jansson-Verkasalo E, Eggers K, Järvenpää A, Suominen K, Van den Bergh B, De Nil L, Kujala T. Atypical central auditory speech-sound discrimination in children who stutter as indexed by the mismatch negativity. JOURNAL OF FLUENCY DISORDERS 2014; 41:1-11. [PMID: 25066139 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfludis.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 07/07/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Recent theoretical conceptualizations suggest that disfluencies in stuttering may arise from several factors, one of them being atypical auditory processing. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate whether speech sound encoding and central auditory discrimination, are affected in children who stutter (CWS). METHODS Participants were 10 CWS, and 12 typically developing children with fluent speech (TDC). Event-related potentials (ERPs) for syllables and syllable changes [consonant, vowel, vowel-duration, frequency (F0), and intensity changes], critical in speech perception and language development of CWS were compared to those of TDC. RESULTS There were no significant group differences in the amplitudes or latencies of the P1 or N2 responses elicited by the standard stimuli. However, the Mismatch Negativity (MMN) amplitude was significantly smaller in CWS than in TDC. For TDC all deviants of the linguistic multifeature paradigm elicited significant MMN amplitudes, comparable with the results found earlier with the same paradigm in 6-year-old children. In contrast, only the duration change elicited a significant MMN in CWS. CONCLUSIONS The results showed that central auditory speech-sound processing was typical at the level of sound encoding in CWS. In contrast, central speech-sound discrimination, as indexed by the MMN for multiple sound features (both phonetic and prosodic), was atypical in the group of CWS. Findings were linked to existing conceptualizations on stuttering etiology. EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES The reader will be able (a) to describe recent findings on central auditory speech-sound processing in individuals who stutter, (b) to describe the measurement of auditory reception and central auditory speech-sound discrimination, (c) to describe the findings of central auditory speech-sound discrimination, as indexed by the mismatch negativity (MMN), in children who stutter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eira Jansson-Verkasalo
- Department of Behavioural Sciences and Philosophy, Logopedics, University of Turku, Finland; Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Oulu University Hospital, Finland.
| | - Kurt Eggers
- Department of Speech-Language Therapy and Audiology, Thomas More University College Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Anu Järvenpää
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Oulu University Hospital, Finland.
| | - Kalervo Suominen
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Oulu University Hospital, Finland.
| | - Bea Van den Bergh
- Department of Psychology, Tilburg University, The Netherlands; Department of Psychology, University of Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Luc De Nil
- School of Graduate Studies, University of Toronto, Canada; Experimental Otorinolaryngology, Department of Neurosciences, University of Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Teija Kujala
- Cicero Learning, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; Cognitive Brain Research Unit, Institute of Behavioural Sciences, University of Helsinki, Finland.
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42
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Guzzetta F. Behavioral assessment of language brain processing in the first year of life. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 2014; 18:551-7. [PMID: 25022340 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2014.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2013] [Revised: 04/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
An up-to-date review of the behavioral assessments of language development in the first year of life is reported. After recalling the anatomical bases of the early development of the auditory system, the different stages of language development during the first year of life are considered: discrimination, transition and perception. The different kinds of behavioral assessment during the course of the first year are then described by stressing their indications and limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Guzzetta
- Unit of Child Neurology and Psychiatry, Catholic University, Rome, Italy.
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43
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Hövel H, Partanen E, Huotilainen M, Lindgren M, Rosén I, Fellman V. Auditory event-related potentials at preschool age in children born very preterm. Clin Neurophysiol 2014; 125:449-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2013.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2012] [Revised: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 07/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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44
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Rand K, Lahav A. Impact of the NICU environment on language deprivation in preterm infants. Acta Paediatr 2014; 103:243-8. [PMID: 24164604 DOI: 10.1111/apa.12481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2013] [Revised: 10/03/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED It is unclear whether the atypical language development commonly seen in preterm infants is a consequence of language deficiency experienced during their prolonged NICU stay. This review provides a novel viewpoint, which highlights the potential impact of the NICU design on the developmental origin of language disabilities in preterm infants. CONCLUSION Further research is needed to identify evidence-based design solutions for providing preterm infants with a healthier linguistic hospital environment that aids growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Rand
- Department of Newborn Medicine; Brigham and Women's Hospital; Harvard Medical School; Boston MA USA
| | - Amir Lahav
- Department of Newborn Medicine; Brigham and Women's Hospital; Harvard Medical School; Boston MA USA
- Department of Pediatrics; MassGeneral Hospital for Children; Boston MA USA
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45
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Jones EJH, Gliga T, Bedford R, Charman T, Johnson MH. Developmental pathways to autism: a review of prospective studies of infants at risk. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2014; 39:1-33. [PMID: 24361967 PMCID: PMC3969297 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 336] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/02/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, and the presence of restrictive and repetitive behaviors. Symptoms of ASD likely emerge from a complex interaction between pre-existing neurodevelopmental vulnerabilities and the child's environment, modified by compensatory skills and protective factors. Prospective studies of infants at high familial risk for ASD (who have an older sibling with a diagnosis) are beginning to characterize these developmental pathways to the emergence of clinical symptoms. Here, we review the range of behavioral and neurocognitive markers for later ASD that have been identified in high-risk infants in the first years of life. We discuss theoretical implications of emerging patterns, and identify key directions for future work, including potential resolutions to several methodological challenges for the field. Mapping how ASD unfolds from birth is critical to our understanding of the developmental mechanisms underlying this disorder. A more nuanced understanding of developmental pathways to ASD will help us not only to identify children who need early intervention, but also to improve the range of interventions available to them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J H Jones
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK.
| | - Teodora Gliga
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
| | - Rachael Bedford
- King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Biostatistics, UK
| | - Tony Charman
- King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Psychology, UK
| | - Mark H Johnson
- Centre for Brain and Cognitive Development, Birkbeck College, University of London, UK
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46
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Cristia A, Seidl A, Junge C, Soderstrom M, Hagoort P. Predicting Individual Variation in Language From Infant Speech Perception Measures. Child Dev 2013; 85:1330-45. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandrina Cristia
- Laboratoire de Sciences Cognitives et Psycholinguistique
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
| | | | | | | | - Peter Hagoort
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics
- Radboud University Nijmegen
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47
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Ullal-Gupta S, Vanden Bosch der Nederlanden CM, Tichko P, Lahav A, Hannon EE. Linking prenatal experience to the emerging musical mind. Front Syst Neurosci 2013; 7:48. [PMID: 24027502 PMCID: PMC3759965 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2013.00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2013] [Accepted: 08/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The musical brain is built over time through experience with a multitude of sounds in the auditory environment. However, learning the melodies, timbres, and rhythms unique to the music and language of one’s culture begins already within the mother’s womb during the third trimester of human development. We review evidence that the intrauterine auditory environment plays a key role in shaping later auditory development and musical preferences. We describe evidence that externally and internally generated sounds influence the developing fetus, and argue that such prenatal auditory experience may set the trajectory for the development of the musical mind.
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48
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Abstract
Learning, the foundation of adaptive and intelligent behavior, is based on plastic changes in neural assemblies, reflected by the modulation of electric brain responses. In infancy, auditory learning implicates the formation and strengthening of neural long-term memory traces, improving discrimination skills, in particular those forming the prerequisites for speech perception and understanding. Although previous behavioral observations show that newborns react differentially to unfamiliar sounds vs. familiar sound material that they were exposed to as fetuses, the neural basis of fetal learning has not thus far been investigated. Here we demonstrate direct neural correlates of human fetal learning of speech-like auditory stimuli. We presented variants of words to fetuses; unlike infants with no exposure to these stimuli, the exposed fetuses showed enhanced brain activity (mismatch responses) in response to pitch changes for the trained variants after birth. Furthermore, a significant correlation existed between the amount of prenatal exposure and brain activity, with greater activity being associated with a higher amount of prenatal speech exposure. Moreover, the learning effect was generalized to other types of similar speech sounds not included in the training material. Consequently, our results indicate neural commitment specifically tuned to the speech features heard before birth and their memory representations.
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49
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Niemitalo-Haapola E, Lapinlampi S, Kujala T, Alku P, Kujala T, Suominen K, Jansson-Verkasalo E. Linguistic multi-feature paradigm as an eligible measure of central auditory processing and novelty detection in 2-year-old children. Cogn Neurosci 2013; 4:99-106. [DOI: 10.1080/17588928.2013.781146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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50
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Sansavini A, Guarini A, Caselli MC. Preterm birth: neuropsychological profiles and atypical developmental pathways. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 17:102-13. [PMID: 23362030 DOI: 10.1002/ddrr.1105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Accepted: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Preterm birth is characterized by multiple interacting atypical constraints affecting different aspects of neuropsychological development. In the first years of life, perceptual, motor, and communicative-linguistic abilities, as well as attention, processing speed, and memory are affected by preterm birth resulting in cascading effects on later development. From school age to adolescence, a catch-up of simpler competencies (i.e., receptive lexicon) along with a more selective effect on more complex competencies (i.e., complex linguistic functions, math, motor, and executive functions) are observed, as well as a relevant incidence of behavioral outcomes. A wide heterogeneity in preterm children's neuropsychological profiles is described depending on the interaction among the degree of neonatal immaturity, medical complications, neurological damages/alterations, environmental and social factors. Severe neuromotor and sensory damages are not frequent, while low severity impairments are common among preterm children. It is argued that developmental pathways of preterm children are atypical, and not merely delayed, and are characterized by different developmental patterns and relationships among competencies.
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