Community mobilization, empowerment and HIV prevention among female sex workers in south India

Differential Burden of HIV Among Adolescent Girls and Young Women by Places Associated With Sex Work: An Observational Study in Mombasa, Kenya

BACKGROUND

The design of HIV prevention programs for adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) are informed by data on who is at highest risk and where they can be reached. Places (hotspots) associated with selling sex are an established outreach strategy for sex work (SW) programs but could be used to reach other AGYW at high risk.

SETTING

This study took place in Mombasa, Kenya.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional, bio-behavioural survey among (N = 1193) sexually active AGYW aged 14-24 years recruited at hotspots. We compared HIV prevalence by subgroup (SW; transactional sex, TS; and non-transactional sex), stratified by hotspot type (venues and nonvenues). We examined whether associations between HIV prevalence and hotspot/subgroup remained after adjustment for individual-level risk factors, and estimated HIV prevalence ratio with and without adjustment for these individual-level factors.

RESULTS

Overall HIV prevalence was 5.6%, 5.3% in venues and 7.3% in nonvenues. Overall SW HIV prevalence was 2-fold higher than among participants engaged in nontransactional sex. After adjusting for age and individual-level risk factors, HIV prevalence was 2.72 times higher among venue-based SWs (95% confidence interval: 1.56 to 4.85) and 2.11 times higher among nonvenue AGYW not engaged in SW (95% confidence interval: 0.97 to 4.30) compared with venue-based AGYW not engaged in SW.

CONCLUSION

AGYW who sell sex remain at high risk of HIV across types of hotspots. The residual pattern of elevated HIV burden by AGWY subgroup and hotspot type suggests that unmeasured, network-level factors underscore differential risks. As such, hotspots constitute a "place" to reach AGYW at high risk of HIV.

Correlates of Client-Perpetrated Violence Against Female Sex Workers in Bogotá

This paper aims to estimate the prevalence of client-perpetrated violence against female sex workers (FSWs) in Bogotá and to understand what structural and environmental factors are associated with such victimization. The project used secondary data from interviews with 2,684 FSWs. Multivariable binary logistic regression was used to test for associations with client-perpetrated violence. Findings reveal that factors such as experiencing police harassment and social stigma were positively associated with client-perpetrated violence. Situational factors such as providing services in motels, hotels, on the street, and in cars were also associated with increased odds of becoming a victim of violence.

Individual and Collective Forms of Stigma Resistance: Pathways Between HIV and Sex Work Stigma and Viral Suppression Among Female Sex Workers in the Dominican Republic

Intersecting forms of stigma including both HIV and sex work stigma have been known to impede HIV prevention and optimal treatment outcomes among FSW. Recent research has indicated that intersectional stigma can be resisted at the community and individual level. We assessed pathways between HIV stigma, sex work stigma, social cohesion and viral suppression among a cohort of 210 FSW living with HIV in the Dominican Republic. Through Poisson regression we explored the relationship between HIV outcomes and internalized, anticipated and enacted HIV and sex work stigma, and resisted sex work stigma. We employed structural equation modeling to explore the direct effect of various forms of stigma on HIV outcomes, and the mediating effects of multi-level stigma resistance including social cohesion at the community level and occupational dignity at the individual level. 76.2% of FSW were virally suppressed and 28.1% had stopped ART at least once in the last 6 months. ART interruption had a significant negative direct effect on viral suppression (OR = 0.26, p < 0.001, 95% CI: 0.13-0.51). Social cohesion had a significant positive direct effect on viral suppression (OR = 2.07, p = 0.046, 95% CI: 1.01-4.25). Anticipated HIV stigma had a significant negative effect on viral suppression (OR = 0.34, p = 0.055, 95% CI: 0.11-1.02). This effect was mediated by the interaction between cohesion and dignity which rendered the impact of HIV stigma on viral suppression not significant. Findings demonstrate that while HIV stigma has a negative impact on viral suppression among FSW, it can be resisted through individual and collective means. Results reinforce the importance of community-driven, multi-level interventions.

Experiences of Sex Workers in Chicago during COVID-19: A Qualitative Study

COVID-19 exacerbated health disparities, financial insecurity, and occupational safety for many within marginalized populations. This study, which took place between 2019 and 2022, aimed to explore the way in which sex workers (n = 36) in Chicago were impacted by COVID-19. We analyzed the transcripts of 36 individual interviews with a diverse group of sex workers using thematic analysis. Five general themes emerged regarding the detrimental impact of COVID-19 on sex workers: (1) the impact of COVID-19 on physical health; (2) the economic impact of COVID-19; (3) the impact of COVID-19 on safety; (4) the impact of COVID-19 on mental health; and (5) adaptive strategies for working during COVID-19. Participants reported that their physical and mental health, economic stability, and safety worsened due to COVID-19 and that adaptive strategies did not serve to improve working conditions. Findings highlight the ways in which sex workers are particularly vulnerable during a public health crisis, such as COVID-19. In response to these findings, targeted resources, an increased access to funding, community-empowered interventions and policy changes are needed to protect the health and safety of sex workers in Chicago.

Evidence and gap map report: Social and Behavior Change Communication (SBCC) interventions for strengthening HIV prevention and research among adolescent girls and young women (AGYW) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)

BACKGROUND

Adolescent girls and young women (AGYW), aged 15-24 years, are disproportionately affected by HIV and other sexual and reproductive health (SRH) risks due to varying social, cultural, and economic factors that affect their choices and shape their knowledge, understanding, and practices with regard to their health. Socio-Behavioral Change Communication (SBCC) interventions targeted at strengthening the capabilities of individuals and their networks have supported the demand and uptake of prevention services and participation in biomedical research. However, despite growing global recognition of the domain, high-quality evidence on the effectiveness of SBCC remains scattered. This evidence and gap map (EGM) report characterizes the evidence base on SBCC interventions for strengthening HIV Prevention and Research among AGYW in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), identifying evidence gaps and outlining the scope of future research and program design.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of the proposed EGM are to: (a) identify and map existing EGMs in the use of diverse SBCC strategies to strengthen the adoption of HIV prevention measures and participation in research among AGYW in LMICs and (b) identify areas where more interventions and evidence are needed to inform the design of future SBCC strategies and programs for AGYW engagement in HIV prevention and research.

METHODS

This EGM is based on a comprehensive search of systematic reviews and impact evaluations corresponding to a range of interventions and outcomes-aimed at engaging AGYW in HIV prevention and research - that were published in LMICs from January 2000 to April 2021. Based on guidance for producing a Campbell Collaboration EGM, the intervention and outcome framework was designed in consultation with a group of experts. These interventions were categorized across four broad intervention themes: mass-media, community-based, interpersonal, and Information Communication and Technology (ICT)/Digital Media-based interventions. They were further sub-categorized into 15 intervention categories. Included studies looked at 23 unique behavioral and health outcomes such as knowledge attitude and skills, relationship dynamics, household dynamics, health care services, and health outcomes and research engagement. The EGM is presented as a matrix in which the rows are intervention categories/sub-categories, and the columns are outcome domains/subdomains. Each cell is mapped to an intervention targeted at outcomes. Additional filters like region, country, study design, age group, funding agency, influencers, population group, publication status, study confidence, setting, and year of publication have been added.

SELECTION CRITERIA

To be eligible, studies must have tested the effectiveness of SBCC interventions at engaging AGYW in LMICs in HIV prevention and research. The study sample must have consisted of AGYW between the ages of 15-24, as defined by UNAIDS. Both experimental (random assignment) and quasi-experimental studies that included a comparison group were eligible. Relevant outcomes included those at the individual, influencer, and institutional levels, along with those targeting research engagement and prevention-related outcomes.

RESULTS

This EGM comprises 415 impact evaluations and 43 systematic reviews. Interventions like peer-led interactions, counseling, and community dialogues were the most dominant intervention sub-types. Despite increased digital penetration use of media and technology-driven interventions are relatively less studied. Most of the interventions were delivered by peers, health care providers, and educators, largely in school-based settings, and in many cases are part of sex-education curricula. Evidence across geographies was mostly concentrated in Sub-Saharan Africa (70%). Most measured outcomes focused on disease-related knowledge dissemination and enhancing awareness of available prevention options/strategies. These included messaging around consistent condom use, limiting sexual partners, routine testing, and awareness. Very few studies were able to include psychographic, social, and contextual factors influencing AGYW health behaviors and decisions, especially those measuring the impact of social and gender norms, relationship dynamics, and household dynamics-related outcomes. Outcomes related to engagement in the research were least studied.

CONCLUSION

This EGM highlights that evidence is heavily concentrated within the awareness-intent spectrum of behavior change and gets lean for outcomes situated within the intent-action and the action-habit formation spectrum of the behavior change continuum. Most of the evidence was concentrated on increasing awareness, knowledge, and building risk perception around SRH domains, however, fewer studies focused on strengthening the agency and self-efficacy of individuals. Similarly, evidence on extrinsic factors-such as strengthening social and community norms, relationships, and household dynamics-that determine individual thought and action such as negotiation and life skills were also found to be less populated. Few studies explore the effectiveness of these interventions across diverse AGYW identities, like pregnant women and new mothers, sex workers, and people living with HIV, leading to limited understanding of the use of these interventions across multiple user segments including key influencers such as young men, partners, families, religious leaders, and community elders was relatively low. There is a need for better quality evidence that accounts for the diversity of experiences within these populations to understand what interventions work, for whom, and toward what outcome. Further, the evidence for use of digital and mass-media tools remains poorly populated. Given the increasing penetration of these tools and growing media literacy on one end, with widening gender-based gaps on the other, it is imperative to gather more high-quality evidence on their effectiveness. Timely evidence generation can help leverage these platforms appropriately and enable intervention designs that are responsive to changing communication ecologies of AGYW. SBCC can play a critical role in helping researchers meaningfully engage and collaborate with communities as equal stakeholders, however, this remains poorly evidenced and calls for investigation and investment. A full list of abbreviations and acronyms are available in Supporting Information: Appendix F.

Barriers and facilitators for access and utilization of reproductive and sexual health services among Female Sex Workers in urban and rural Maharashtra, India

Background

The public health interventions among Female Sex Workers (FSWs) have mainly addressed HIV/ STI prevention. The focus of the HIV prevention program on FSWs' Reproductive and Sexual Health (RSH) has been limited, thus, rendering them at a higher risk of unintended pregnancies, delayed pregnancy detection, and utilizing unsafe abortion methods.

Methods

A multistakeholder analysis was performed to study access and use of RSH services among FSWs in urban and rural India. Between January 2016 and June 2019, a qualitative grounded theory approach was used to explore the FSWs' perspectives and experiences about services pertaining to HIV prevention, Antenatal Care (ANC), child delivery, abortion, and pregnancy prevention. Using purposive and convenience sampling, 29 In-Depth Interviews (IDIs), 2 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and 22 Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) were conducted with consenting FSWs and indirect stakeholders, respectively. Verbatim translated data was entered in NVivo12 Software and analyzed inductively.

Results

The following themes emerged: (1) Condomless sex, unintended pregnancy, vertical transmission, (2) Signs/ indication used for pregnancy detection causing delay (3) Pregnancy prevention methods used, (4) Pregnancy prevention or AIDS prevention, (5) Legal formalities as a barrier to access RSH, (6) Differential facility preference.

Conclusion

Pregnancy prevention is a greater motivation for condom use than HIV prevention among FSWs. Therefore, there is an emerging need to reallocate public health resources and redesign policies to meet the RSH needs of FSWs, especially for the prevention of unintended pregnancies. FSW-focused Information Education Communication (IEC) strategies for RSH service utilization are essential to reduce the burden of unintended pregnancies. The National HIV Targeted Intervention (TI) program needs to include pregnancy testing services and information to non-barrier contraceptive methods. An ambient policy environment calls for examining the need for male involvement in pregnancy, family planning and abortion decisions.

Community Mobilization is Associated with HIV Testing Behaviors and Their Psychosocial Antecedents Among Zambian Adults: Results from a Population-Based Study

Community mobilization (CM) is a vital yet under-explored avenue for increasing HIV testing in generalized HIV epidemic settings. Using multi-stage cluster sampling, a population-based sample of 3535 Zambian adults (mean age: 28 years, 50% women) were recruited from 14 districts to complete a household survey. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was used to re-validate a 23-item, 5-factor CM scale. Multivariable logistic and Poisson regression were then used to identify associations of CM with HIV testing behaviors and their psychosocial antecedents. A 21-item, 3-factor ("Leadership", "Collective Action Capacity", and "Social Cohesion") CM solution emerged from EFA (Cronbach's α 0.88). Among men and in rural settings, higher CM was significantly (p < 0.05) associated with elevated odds of HIV testing and more past-year HIV testing discussion sources, controlling for socio-demographics and sexual behaviors. Results underscore the importance of prioritizing CM to cultivate more favorable environments for HIV testing uptake, especially for men and rural residents.

Is empowerment in sexual health measurable? A scoping review of definitions and measurement indicators

The concept of empowerment in sexual health is widely used in health promotion. This scoping review aims to identify how it is defined and measured. PubMed, Sage Journals, PsycInfo and the Web of Science are data sources. The inclusion criteria for studies were as follows: (1) an analysis of empowerment in sexual health, (2) quantitative evaluation and (3) publication in a peer-reviewed journal in French or English since January 1996. Data were extracted using a summary table of the definitions and indicators of empowerment in sexual health. Of the 2181 articles found, 29 met the inclusion criteria. Only 4 studies on 29 clearly defined empowerment in sexual health. Five dimensions emerged from the indicators used in the 29 studies in relation to sexual empowerment (social participation, participation in decision making, power to act, sexual health knowledge and gender norms), with two types of indicators: indicators unspecific to sexual health, which can be viewed as empowerment basic skills, and indicators specific to sexual health. Most studies concerned women and focused on individual empowerment, with a lack of measure of collective and structural levels of empowerment. Despite great heterogeneity in the definitions and indicators used, a set of core indicators emerged: participation in decision making, sexual negotiation power and sexual communication skills, knowledge and use of contraceptive methods, and HIV and sexually transmitted infections risk perception. This set could be systematically used in each study based on sexual empowerment concept, completed by supplementary indicators considering the specific context.

External resilience in the context of drug use and socio-structural vulnerabilities: a qualitative exploration among women who use drugs and sell sex in Baltimore, Maryland

Background

Resilience is a commonly used construct in substance use and mental health research. Yet it is often narrowly defined by only its internal qualities (e.g., adaptability, hardiness) and overlooks its external qualities (e.g., supportive relationships, navigating one’s environment). Further, substance use is often viewed as antithetical to resilience despite populations like women who use drugs and sell sex (WWUD-SS) surviving significant hardships. This study aims to fill a gap in the literature by characterizing external resilience among WWUD-SS and understanding the ways that socio-structural vulnerabilities (e.g., poverty, stigma) and substance use shape external resilience.

Methods

WWUD-SS (N = 18) enrolled in an ongoing cohort study were purposively sampled for age, race, and recruitment location and participated in semi-structured, in-depth interviews aimed to elucidate external resilience (i.e., social support and resource utilization). WWUD-SS were queried about recent difficult experiences with a focus on how they did or did not use social support or formal resources (e.g., clinic, crisis hotline) in response.

Results

Participants were a median age of 37 years, 50% identified as Black, and 50% reported currently injecting drugs. Participants described reluctance to ask for support and often felt resigned to address problems alone. Participants also distinguished between transactional relationships (help is contingent upon receiving something in return) versus genuine (non-transactional or altruistic) support, including the role of family members who do and do not use drugs. Resource utilization was rare, and “self-medication” through substance use was common absent other perceived options for help.

Conclusions

External resilience appears limited among WWUD-SS and shaped by the social and economic contexts of a street-involved life. WWUD-SS’ ability to exercise external resilience may be undercut by experiencing structural vulnerabilities and competition for material resources that create transactional relationships and diminish the perceived value of social support. Internalized stigma, reflecting the larger society’s stigmatized views of drug use, sex work, and poverty, left WWUD-SS eschewing help from outside sources. Focus on internal resilience alone offers an incomplete picture of the construct in drug-using populations. Improving connections to community resources may be a targeted way to strengthen external resilience, as are policies addressing structural vulnerabilities for marginalized communities.

Acceptability of multiple modalities of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among female sex workers in Tanzania: a mixed-methods study

OBJECTIVES

Modalities of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV prevention offer options to women at high risk including female sex workers (FSW). This study aimed to explore FSW's acceptability and preferences for oral pills, long-acting (LA) injectable and vaginal ring PrEP.

DESIGN

Sequential, explanatory, mixed methods.

SETTING

Iringa, Tanzania.

PARTICIPANTS

FSW aged above 18 were recruited from sex work venues using time-location sampling (n=496); HIV-uninfected (n=293) were included in this analysis. Subsequently, survey participants were recruited for in-depth interviews (n=10) and two focus group discussions (n=20).

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

(1) Acceptability of PrEP (Do you personally think it would be worth it to you to take ART if it could prevent HIV?: yes/no) and (2) preference for LA injectable versus oral pills (If you personally were going to take ART to prevent HIV infection, would you prefer to take it in the form of a daily pill or an injection once every 3 months? Injection/pill).

RESULTS

Participants were (92%) unaware of PrEP but 58% thought it would be worth it to personally take PrEP. Acceptability of PrEP was significantly associated with higher social cohesion (aOR 2.12; 95% CI 1.29 to 3.50) and STI symptoms in the past 6 months (aOR 2.52; 95% CI 1.38 to 4.62). Most (88%) preferred LA vs oral PrEP. Qualitative findings revealed generally positive reactions to all types of PrEP, and they were viewed as a welcome backup to condoms. Participants had concerns about pills (burden of daily use, stigma from clients), and the vaginal ring (fear of client noticing and becoming suspicious, fear of infertility) and overall preferred LA-PrEP (less frequent use, easy to hide, belief in higher efficacy).

CONCLUSIONS

Offering multiple formulations of PrEP within the context of community-driven HIV prevention interventions among FSW may facilitate increased uptake and adherence. LA injectable PrEP may be a particularly preferred formulation among FSW.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02281578.

Sexual Violence and Low Rates of HIV Post-exposure Prophylaxis Access Among Female Sex Workers in Brazil

Female sex workers (FSW) are disproportionately affected by sexual violence (SV) and HIV. Social and structural barriers limit their access to post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). Respondent-driven sampling survey in 12 Brazilian cities among 4188 FSW aimed to estimate the rates of SV and factors associated with access to PEP use among FSW who experienced SV. The prevalence of SV was 26.3% (1199). Of the 1199, 7.5% sought out healthcare and used PEP, 19% sought out healthcare, but did not use PEP, and 73.5% did not seek out healthcare after SV. Factors associated with PEP use included PEP awareness, participation in HIV/STI prevention workshops, and disclosure of FSW status in healthcare services. Although Brazil has a PEP program free of charge, it is not readily accessible, even for FSW who seek out healthcare. The development of effective strategies to link FSW to HIV preventive services is urgently needed.

Traumatic Associations amongst Men and Women Selling Sex in the Philippines

Background: The present study explores trauma-related factors (human trafficking or physical or sexual violence during transactional sex) associated with interest in future community mobilization around health and human rights. Community mobilization among persons selling sex aims to help participants overcome trauma and increase self-reliance through peer advocacy and collective action for improved human conditions. However, how violence and human trafficking impact community mobilization participation among men and women selling sex is less known. Methods: The current study uses data (n = 96) from the baseline survey of participants in the pilot Kapihan community mobilization intervention, which recruited 37 men and 59 women from Metro Manila, Philippines. Multiple logistic regression was used to analyze factors (violence, human trafficking) independently associated with the desire to participate in community mobilization, adjusting for socio-demographic variables. Results: An increased interest in participating in community mobilization around health and human rights was significantly associated with having experienced physical or sexual abuse in the sex trade (AOR = 10.86; CI 1.48–79.69) and less history of trafficking (AOR = 0.14; 95% CI 0.02–0.97), adjusting for age, gender, income, number of children, and whether they considered group goals or had previously participated in community mobilization. Conclusion: Understanding the impact of experiences with physical and sexual violence and human trafficking on health and human rights mobilization participation can inform the design and recruitment for future community-based interventions. Further investigation needs to explore why experiences with human trafficking, having more children, or being a woman lessened the desire to mobilize in this Philippines context. Findings imply that trauma may be more complex. More work is needed to better identify interventions for those with a history of being trafficked or victimized by physical or sexual violence during transactional sex exchanges.

Co-occurring Threats to Agency Among Female Sex Workers in Baltimore, Maryland

Driven largely by the unequal distribution of power, female sex workers (FSW) globally bear a disproportionately high burden of HIV, sexually transmitted infections, and interpersonal violence. Prior literature has identified a number of multi-level factors that may serve to constrain FSWs' agency, or their ability to define and take action to realize goals. Among these are work-based violence and substance use, which are potentiated by the criminalization of sex work and structural vulnerability. Quantitative research related to U.S.-based FSWs' own sense of agency, as well as the barriers that may impede it, is sparse. We sought to identify patterns of various threats to agency and explore to what extent they were associated with perceived agency among a cohort of 381 FSW in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, using latent class analysis. Latent class indictors were past-six-month experience of client-perpetrated sexual violence, client-perpetrated physical violence, homelessness, food insecurity, arrest, daily crack-cocaine use, and daily heroin use. Perceived agency was measured using the short form of the Pearlin Mastery Scale. We identified three typologies of threatened agency among women in our sample: a "threatened by structural factors, drug use, and violence" class, a "threatened by structural factors and drug use" class, and a "less threatened" class. Mean perceived agency score was significantly lower for the class characterized by client-perpetrated violence than for either of the other classes. This suggests violence, in the context of deeper, structural power imbalances embedded in hunger, homelessness, and drug use, may dramatically reduce one's sense of agency and operate as a critical barrier to empowerment. Our study adds important insights to the broader FSW community empowerment literature and supports the need for interventions to bolster both individual and collective agency among U.S.-based FSW, including interventions to prevent sex work-related violence.

Beaten but not down! Exploring resilience among female sex workers (FSWs) in Nairobi, Kenya

BACKGROUND

In Kenya sex work is illegal and those engaged in the trade are stigmatized and marginalized. We explored how female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya, utilize different resources to navigate the negative consequences of the work they do.

METHODS

Qualitative data were collected in October 2019 from 40 FSWs who were randomly sampled from 1003 women enrolled in the Maisha Fiti study, a 3-year longitudinal mixed-methods study exploring the relationship between HIV risk and violence and mental health. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and translated. Data were thematically coded and analyzed using Nvivo 12.

RESULTS

Participants' age range was 18-45 years. Before entry into sex work, all but one had at least one child. Providing for the children was expressed as the main reason the women joined sex work. All the women grew up in adverse circumstances such as poor financial backgrounds and some reported sexual and physical abuse as children. They also continued to experience adversity in their adulthood including intimate partner violence as well as violence at the workplace. All the participants were noted to have utilised the resources they have to build resilience and cope with these adversities while remaining hopeful for the future. Motherhood was mentioned by most as the reason they have remained resilient. Coming together in groups and engaging with HIV prevention and treatment services were noted as important factors too in building resilience.

CONCLUSION

Despite the adverse experiences throughout the lives of FSWs, resilience was a key theme that emerged from this study. A holistic approach is needed in addressing the health needs of female sex workers. Encouraging FSWs to come together and advocating together for their needs is a key resource from which resilience and forbearance can grow. Upstream prevention through strengthening of education systems and supporting girls to stay in school and complete their secondary and/or tertiary education would help them gain training and skills, providing them with options for income generation during their adult lives.

Whose role is it anyways: Knowledge generation within the scope of sex work

Research within the context of sex work is challenging. The nature of the subject matter and stigma that surrounds sex work has often privileged a homogenous, academic practice of generating knowledge. Based on the lessons and experiences of an existing sex work programme and a recently completed national public health study with female sex workers (FSWs) in South Africa, we aim to highlight the significance and successes of privileging a bottom-up, community centric approach to the design, data collection, and knowledge generation. A FSW programme provided extensive peer educator skills training and learning opportunities. Lessons were applied to the implementation of a national study on FSW across South Africa. Planning workshops with community members and sites and pre- implementation training of all site staff was undertaken. 3005 FSWs were successfully enrolled and surveyed by their peers, over 6-months. Researchers have a lot to learn from community members and should remain vigilant to the power dynamics that their privilege creates throughout the research process. Those seeking to generate knowledge should practice meaningfully engagement and include population members on the study team in roles that allow them to proactively contribute to the process and create knowledge.

Community Mobilization Approaches for Large-Scale Public Health Surveys: Experiences from the Population-based HIV Impact Assessment (PHIA) Project

Community mobilization is an integral process of raising awareness and increasing participation in a specific program. Communities with long-standing mistrust of health research may otherwise be reluctant to participate in surveys originating outside of their locality, particularly when asked to share personal information, provide blood samples, or undergo medical examinations. Here we discuss the community mobilization approaches undertaken by the Population-based HIV Impact Assessment (PHIA) project to optimize participation in surveys across 13 countries of sub-Saharan Africa. The PHIA Project developed a community mobilization strategy to address anticipated community concerns. In each country, a trained cadre of Community Mobilization Coordinators (CMCs) facilitated (1) ongoing communication with leadership and stakeholders at national, provincial/district and local levels; (2) door-to-door visits and group meetings; (3) promotional material dissemination through radio and television jingles and mass social/community media; and (4) the use of public address systems to enhance survey awareness and promote participation. Response rates (RR) were recorded from each survey. The PHIA surveys' mobilization efforts cultivated a receptive environment for data collection. The average household response rate for 13 PHIA surveys was 90.4% and interview RR were consistently over 80%, with women more likely to conduct an interview in all countries except Cote d'Ivoire. 89% of eligible women consented to a blood draw and 81.1% of eligible men consented. The robust and contextualized community mobilization approaches in PHIA were critical for engaging communities in large-scale public health surveys and contributed to high RR in participant interviews and blood draw.

Community Mobilization Challenging Gender Power Imbalances: Women Sex Workers' Capacity to Engage in Health-Enhancing Practices in Southern India

Research on women sex workers' condom use with non-paying intimate partners suggests social norms of gender power in these relationships constrain women's health-enhancing sexual practice. Theorizing gender relations and sexual practice as structural informs our analysis of elements of community mobilization interventions (CMI) that link to sex workers' capacity to engage consistently in health-enhancing practices, in this case, condom use. We use data from a survey of women (who exchanged sex for money in the preceding 12 months) conducted in the context of an HIV-prevention intervention in southern India. Results of multinomial logistic regression indicate: higher odds of health-enhancing sexual practice with intimate partners and paying clients among women sex workers expressing collective efficacy; lower odds of health-diminishing sexual practice with clients among women sex workers empowered through peer interactions; lower odds of health-diminishing sexual practice with clients and lower odds of health-enhancing sexual practice with partners among women sex worker living in households structured by normative gender power relations. We suggest future research on how CMI promoting health-enabling social environments with women in sex work contribute to their capacity to engage in health-enhancing practices.

Differentiated prevention and care to reduce the risk of HIV acquisition and transmission among female sex workers in Zimbabwe: study protocol for the ‘AMETHIST’ cluster randomised trial

Background

Female sex workers (FSW) in sub-Saharan Africa are disproportionately affected by HIV and are critical to engage in HIV prevention, testing and care services. We describe the design of our evaluation of the ‘AMETHIST’ intervention, nested within a nationally-scaled programme for FSW in Zimbabwe. We hypothesise that the implementation of this intervention will result in a reduction in the risk of HIV transmission within sex work.

Methods

The AMETHIST intervention (Adapted Microplanning to Eliminate Transmission of HIV in Sex Transactions) is a risk-differentiated intervention for FSW, centred around the implementation of microplanning and self-help groups. It is designed to support uptake of, and adherence to, HIV prevention, testing and treatment behaviours among FSW. Twenty-two towns in Zimbabwe were randomised to receive either the Sisters programme (usual care) or the Sisters programme plus AMETHIST. The composite primary outcome is defined as the proportion of all FSW who are at risk of either HIV acquisition (HIV-negative and not fully protected by prevention interventions) or of HIV transmission (HIV-positive, not virally suppressed and not practicing consistent condom use). The outcome will be assessed after 2 years of intervention delivery in a respondent-driven sampling survey (total n = 4400; n = 200 FSW recruited at each site). Primary analysis will use the ‘RDS-II’ method to estimate cluster summaries and will adapt Hayes and Moulton’s ‘2-step’ method produce adjusted effect estimates. An in-depth process evaluation guided by our project trajectory will be undertaken.

Discussion

Innovative pragmatic trials are needed to generate evidence on effectiveness of combination interventions in HIV prevention and treatment in different contexts. We describe the design and analysis of such a study.

Trial registration

Pan African Clinical Trials Registry PACTR202007818077777. Registered on 2 July 2020.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13063-022-06119-w.

HIV Vulnerability Among Survival Sex Workers Through Sexual Violence and Drug Taking in a Qualitative Study From Victoria, Canada, With Additional Implications for Pre-exposure Prophylaxis for Sex Workers

Objective: This qualitative study investigates how social and structural forces mediate vulnerability to HIV infection and transmission among survival sex workers, their clients, and their non-commercial, intimate partners-with especial focus on sexual violence and drug taking. Method: I employed an adapted grounded theory approach to conducting and analyzing (n = 9) open-ended, in-depth interviews with a convenience sample of currently working (and recently exited) survival sex workers from a community setting in Victoria, Canada. Findings: Participants revealed important contexts and conditions under which they were vulnerable to HIV infection. At the behavioural level, participants were aware of how HIV could be transmitted (condomless sex and sharing drug equipment), yet participants voiced strongly how structural and systemic features (for instance, client violence, the need for drugs, and "bad date" referrals) could squeeze and constrain their agency to take up safer practices, mediating their optimal HIV health and safety. Some participants reported strained relationships with police because of previous drug involvement. Conclusion: Survival sex workers constitute a health population vulnerable to HIV infection, and ensuring there could be a supportive (outreach) community replete with HIV resources is paramount. The availability of safer sex and drug equipment play important roles in HIV behavioural prevention efforts. However, uptake of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) at no cost in the Canadian province of British Columbia could be an important and beneficial structural intervention for non-injection drug taking cis-female sex workers in this study who are presently ineligible for no cost PrEP.

Assessment tools measuring health-related empowerment in psychosocially vulnerable populations: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Many programs are undertaken to facilitate the empowerment of vulnerable populations across the world. However, an overview of appropriate empowerment measurements to evaluate such initiatives remains incomplete to date. This systematic review aims to describe and summarise psychometric properties, feasibility and clinical utility of the available tools for measuring empowerment in psychosocially vulnerable populations.

METHODS

A systematic literature review following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines was completed. A descriptive approach was used for data analysis. Papers were eligible if they explored the development, validation, cross-cultural translation or the utility of an empowerment measurement tool in the context of psychosocially vulnerable populations.

RESULTS

Twenty-six included articles described twenty-six separate studies in which 16 empowerment measurement tools were developed, validated/translated, or used. There was heterogeneity in empowerment constructs, samples targeted, and psychometric properties measured. The measurement of reliability of the included instruments was satisfactory in most cases. However, the validity, responsiveness, interpretability, feasibility and clinical utility of the identified measurement tools were often not adequately described or measured.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review provides a useful snapshot of the strengths as well as limitations of existing health related empowerment measurement tools used with psychosocially vulnerable populations in terms of their measurement properties, and constructs captured. It highlights significant gaps in empowerment tool measurement, development and evaluation processes. In particular, the results suggest that in addition to systematic assessments of psychometric properties, the inclusion of feasibility and clinical utility as outcome measures are important to assess relevance to clinical practice.

'This is what is going to help me': Developing a co-designed and theoretically informed harm reduction intervention for mobile youth in South Africa and Uganda

ABSTRACTYoung migrants in sub-Saharan Africa are particularly vulnerable to HIV-acquisition. Despite this, they are consistently under-served by services, with low uptake and engagement. We adopted a community-based participatory research approach to conduct longitudinal qualitative research among 78 young migrants in South Africa and Uganda. Using repeat in-depth interviews and participatory workshops we sought to identify their specific support needs, and to collaboratively design an intervention appropriate for delivery in their local contexts. Applying a protection-risk conceptual framework, we developed a harm reduction intervention which aims to foster protective factors, and thereby nurture resilience, for youth 'on the move' within high-risk settings. Specifically, by establishing peer supporter networks, offering a 'drop-in' resource centre, and by identifying local adult champions to enable a supportive local environment. Creating this supportive edifice, through an accessible and cohesive peer support network underpinned by effective training, supervision and remuneration, was considered pivotal to nurture solidarity and potentially resilience. This practical example offers insights into how researchers may facilitate the co-design of acceptable, sustainable interventions.

Community participation and empowerment approaches to Aedes mosquito management in high-income countries: a scoping review

High-income countries (HICs) in sub-tropical and tropical regions are at an increasing risk of Aedes mosquito-borne disease (MBD) outbreaks such as dengue fever. As the Aedes mosquito predominately lives and breeds in and around people's homes, community participation in MBD management is an important part of preventing MBD outbreaks. Historically, government-led strategies have dominated community participation efforts as opposed to strategies co-designed or led by the community. A scoping review was conducted to describe the community participation and empowering approaches used in Aedes mosquito management specifically in HICs, and to identify any reported outcomes of these methods. A systematic search of peer-reviewed literature using electronic databases Medline (OVID), Web of Science, Scopus and ProQuest-Science and Technology as well as grey literature, found 19 studies that matched the review criteria. The review findings highlight a lack of empirical evidence to inform participatory and empowering approaches to mosquito management in HICs. Moreover, the rationale for using predominantly government-led approaches is not clear. Further research is required to better understand best approaches and barriers to employing empowering approaches in mosquito management in HICs.

Reductions in HIV incidence are likely to increase the importance of key population programmes for HIV control in sub-Saharan Africa

INTRODUCTION

An efficient HIV response requires that resources be focussed on effective interventions for those most at risk of acquiring and transmitting infection. As HIV epidemics evolve the distribution of HIV across key and other populations will change. Here, the epidemiological concepts underpinning these changes are described and the importance of appropriate allocation of effective interventions is discussed.

DISCUSSION

In many sub-Saharan African countries HIV epidemics have been categorized as "generalized," and HIV testing, treatment and prevention interventions have focussed on the "general" population. As HIV epidemics are better controlled the relative importance of "key" populations will increase, dominating the ongoing burden of disease and providing the potential for repeated outbreaks of HIV if interventions are relaxed. The basic reproductive number (R0 ) describes the potential for an infectious disease to spread at the boundary of invasion or elimination, whereas the effective reproduction number (Rt ) describes the current potential for spread. Heterogeneity in risk means that while Rt is temporarily below one and prevalence declining, the R0 can remain above one, preventing eventual elimination. Patterns of HIV acquisition are often used to guide interventions but inadequately capture the transmission dynamics of the virus and the most efficient approach to controlling HIV. Risks for HIV acquisition are not identical to risks for HIV transmission and will change depending on the epidemiological context. In addition to the challenges in measuring HIV transmission dynamics, there is a tension between using epidemiology to drive the HIV response and the social and political realities constraining how programmes and providers can practically and appropriately focus on key populations and maintain political support. In addition to being well focussed, interventions need to be effective and cost-effective, which requires a better understanding of packages of interventions rather than specific tools.

CONCLUSIONS

Continued control of HIV will increasingly rely on resources, programmes and interventions supporting key populations. Current epidemiological and programmatic approaches for key populations in sub-Saharan Africa are insufficient with a need for an improved understanding of local epidemiology and the effectiveness of interventions.

Perceived enablers and barriers of community engagement for vaccination in India: Using socioecological analysis

BACKGROUND

There is high level policy consensus in India that community engagement (CE) improves vaccination uptake and reduces burden of vaccine preventable diseases. However, to date, vaccination studies in the country have not explicitly focused on CE as an outcome in and of itself. Therefore, this study sought to examine the barriers and enablers of community engagement for vaccination in India.

METHODS

Employing qualitative methods, twenty-five semi-structured elite interviews among vaccine decisionmakers' were triangulated with twenty-four national-level vaccine policy documents and researcher field notes (December 2017 to February 2018). Data collected for this study included perceptions and examples of enablers of and barriers to CE for vaccination uptake. Concepts, such as the absence of formal procedures or data collection approaches related to CE, were confirmed during document review, and a final convening to review study results was conducted with study respondents in December 2018 and January 2019 to affirm the general set of findings from this study. The Social Ecological Model (SEM) was used to organize and interpret the study findings.

RESULTS

Although decisionmakers and policy documents generally supported CE, there were more CE barriers than facilitators in the context of vaccination, which were identified at all social-ecological levels. Interviews with vaccine decisionmakers in India revealed complex systemic and structural factors which affect CE for vaccination and are present across each of the SEM levels, from individual to policy. Policy-level enablers included decisionmakers' political will for CE and policy documents and interviews highlighted social mobilization, whereas barriers were lack of a CE strategy document and a broad understanding of CE by decisionmakers. At the community level, dissemination of Social-behavioral Change Communication (SBCC) materials from the national-level to the states was considered a CE facilitator, while class, and caste-based power relations in the community, lack of family-centric CE strategies, and paternalistic attitude of decisionmakers toward communities (the latter reported by some NGO heads) were considered CE barriers. At the organizational level, partnerships with local organizations were considered CE enablers, while lack of institutionalized support to formalize and incentivize these partnerships highlighted by several decisionmakers, were barriers. At the interpersonal level, SBCC training for healthcare workers, sensitive messaging to communities with low vaccine confidence, and social media messaging were considered CE facilitators. The lack of strategies to manage vaccine related rumors or replicate successful CE interventions during the during the introduction and rollout of new vaccines were perceived as CE barriers by several decisionmakers.

CONCLUSION

Data obtained for this study highlighted national-level perceptions of the complexities and challenges of CE across the entire SEM, from individual to systemic levels. Future studies should attempt to associate these enablers and barriers with actual CE outcomes, such as participation or community support in vaccine policy-making, CE implementation for specific vaccines and situations (such as disease outbreaks), or frequency of sub-population-based incidents of community resistance and community facilitation to vaccination uptake. There would likely be value in developing a population-based operational definition of CE, with a step-by-step manual on 'how to do CE.' The data from this study also indicate the importance of including CE indicators in national datasets and developing a compendium documenting CE best-practices. Doing so would allow more rigorous analysis of the evidence-base for CE for vaccination in India and other countries with similar immunization programs.

Community interventions with women's groups to improve women's and children's health in India: a mixed-methods systematic review of effects, enablers and barriers

INTRODUCTION

India is home to over 6 million women's groups, including self-help groups. There has been no evidence synthesis on whether and how such groups improve women's and children's health.

METHODS

We did a mixed-methods systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies on women's groups in India to examine effects on women and children's health and to identify enablers and barriers to achieving outcomes. We searched 10 databases and included studies published in English from 2000 to 2019 measuring health knowledge, behaviours or outcomes. Our study population included adult women and children under 5 years. We appraised studies using standard risk of bias assessments. We compared intervention effects by level of community participation, scope of capability strengthening (individual, group or community), type of women's group and social and behaviour change techniques employed. We synthesised quantitative and qualitative studies to identify barriers and enablers related to context, intervention design and implementation, and outcome characteristics.

FINDINGS

We screened 21 380 studies and included 99: 19 randomised controlled trial reports, 25 quasi-experimental study reports and 55 non-experimental studies (27 quantitative and 28 qualitative). Experimental studies provided moderate-quality evidence that health interventions with women's groups can improve perinatal practices, neonatal survival, immunisation rates and women's and children's dietary diversity, and help control vector-borne diseases. Evidence of positive effects was strongest for community mobilisation interventions that built communities' capabilities and went beyond sharing information. Key enablers were inclusion of vulnerable community members, outcomes that could be reasonably expected to change through community interventions and intensity proportionate to ambition. Barriers included limited time or focus on health, outcomes not relevant to group members and health system constraints.

CONCLUSION

Interventions with women's groups can improve women's and children's health in India. The most effective interventions go beyond using groups to disseminate health information and seek to build communities' capabilities.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

The review was registered with PROSPERO: CRD42019130633.

"You need money to get high, and that's the easiest and fastest way:" A typology of sex work and health behaviours among people who inject drugs

BACKGROUND

In the United States, the criminalization and stigmatization of drug use and sex work contribute to infectious disease transmission and healthcare disengagement. People who inject drugs (PWID) and engage in sex work experience exacerbated HIV risk. In the context of the ongoing HIV and overdose epidemics little research describes why PWID engage in sex work and its relative HIV risk. To inform intervention needs, we aimed to create a typology of sex work among PWID with a focus on HIV risk and healthcare utilization behaviours.

METHODS

We drew from in-depth interviews conducted across Massachusetts and Rhode Island from 2016-2019. Participants were ≥18 years old and self-reported past-month injection drug use and HIV-negative status. Using data from individuals reporting sex work experience (n=33/78), we utilized the framework method to develop a typology of perspectives on sex work engagement and attributes pertaining to HIV risk and healthcare utilization behaviours.

RESULTS

We uncovered varying perspectives on sex work and associated HIV risks and prevention needs. A typology included three groups who viewed their sex work engagement as a (1) consistent job, (2) income supplement, or (3) survival method to abate withdrawal symptoms. The first group described more consistent sexual and injection behaviours to mitigate HIV risk than the second group. The third group appeared particularly vulnerable to HIV, describing inconsistent condom use and frequent sharing of injection equipment, low healthcare utilization, and limited disclosure of sex work and injection drug use to healthcare providers.

CONCLUSION

Findings highlight distinct perspectives on sex work among PWID involved in it and corresponding perceptions of HIV risk and healthcare utilization behaviours. Understanding the nuances in sex work engagement among PWID can inform interventions to prevent infectious disease transmission, including efforts to further connect this marginalized population to harm reduction, health, and low barrier opioid treatment services.

Mujeres Unidas: Addressing Substance Use, Violence, and HIV Risk through Asset-Based Community Development for Women in the Sex Trade

This paper examines the prevalence of and potential for community mobilization (CM) and its association with HIV/STI risk, substance use, and violence victimization among women, particularly those using substances, in the sex trade in Tijuana, Mexico.

METHODS

195 women participated in Mujeres Unidas (K01DA036439 Urada) under a longitudinal survey study, "Proyecto Mapa de Salud" (R01DA028692, PI: Brouwer). Local health/social service providers (N = 16) were also interviewed.

RESULTS

39% of women who participated in community mobilization activities used substances. In adjusted analyses (n = 135), participation in CM activities (n = 26) was more likely among women who did not report substance use (AOR: 4.36, CI: 1.11-17.16), perceived a right to a life free from violence (AOR: 9.28, CI: 2.03-59.26), talked/worked with peers in the sex trade to change a situation (AOR: 7.87, CI: 2.03-30.57), witnessed violence where they worked (AOR: 4.45, CI: 1.24-15.96), and accessed free condoms (AOR: 1.54, CI: 1.01-2.35). Forty-five of the women using substances demonstrated their potential for engaging in asset-based community development (ABCD) with service providers in Mujeres Unidas meetings.

CONCLUSION

Women using substances, vs. those who did not, demonstrated their potential to engage in ABCD strategies. Women's empowerment, safety, and health could be enhanced by communities engaging in ABCD strategies that build and bridge social capital for marginalized women who otherwise have few exit and recovery options.

Pre and Post-exposure Prophylaxis Awareness and Acceptability Among Sex Workers in Jamaica: A Cross-Sectional Study

The HIV prevention cascade is understudied among sex workers in Jamaica, where sex work and same sex practices are criminalized. We implemented a cross-sectional survey with cisgender women, transgender women, and cisgender men sex workers in Jamaica. We conducted multivariable logistic regression analyses to identify factors associated with PrEP and PEP awareness and acceptability. Participants (n = 340) included cisgender men (n = 124), transgender women (n = 101), and cisgender women (n = 115). PEP awareness was low (33.2%), yet acceptability was high (70.8%). In multivariable analyses, recent sexual violence, recent client violence, and sex work social cohesion were associated with PEP awareness and acceptability. One-third (32.7%) reported PrEP awareness, with high acceptability (80.2%). Relationship status and recent physical violence were associated with PrEP awareness and acceptability. In multivariable analyses, gender identity was not associated with differences in PEP/PrEP awareness/acceptability. Findings highlight the need to increase PEP and PrEP awareness and access among sex workers in Jamaica.

Predictors of preventive behaviors of AIDS/HIV based on Health Belief Model constructs in women with high-risk sexual behaviors: A cross-sectional survey

BACKGROUND

Worldwide, AIDS is an acute problem. Health Belief Model (HBM) is a model for prevention and control of diseases. This study examined the predictors of preventive behaviors of HIV/AIDS based on HBM constructs in participants.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study was performed on 200 women who were referred to vulnerable women's centers across Tabriz city between November and December 2018. Participants were selected by census sampling. Inclusion criteria were having a health record, multiple sexual partners, reading and writing skills, and willingness to participate in the study. To collect data, questionnaires of sociodemographic characteristics, HIV knowledge, self-efficacy for negotiating safe sex, perceived sensitivity, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, and behavioral prevention (BP) were used. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS version 19 through Pearson's correlation coefficient, one-way ANOVA, and multiple linear regression analyses. The significant level was set at α = 0.05.

RESULTS

Pearson's correlation test showed a statistically significant correlation between BP and perceived sensitivity (r = 0.25), perceived benefits (r = 0.32), self-efficacy (r = 0.33), and HIV knowledge (r = 0.25) constructs (P < 0.001). According to the multiple linear regression, perceived sensitivity (P = 0.020), perceived benefits (P = 0.036), and some of the sociodemographic characteristics were found to be predictors of preventive behaviors that explained in total 50% of variance of BP (P < 0.05 and R ² = 0.504).

CONCLUSION

It seems that the HBM is useful to predict HIV preventive behaviors among this vulnerable group. Training programs should be aimed on improving the health belief of HIV preventive behaviors.

Women Trading Sex in a U.S.-Mexico Border City: A Qualitative Study of the Barriers and Facilitators to Finding Community and Voice

Poverty and income inequality can increase a woman's decision to engage in risky transactional sex, and may lead to unimaginable harms, such as violence, substance use, and human trafficking. This study examines the facilitators and barriers to finding community and voice among women trading sex in Tijuana, Mexico, and what factors, such as socio-structural support, violence, and substance use, may impact their potential to engage with others, including human service providers. Sixty qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted with women trading sex in Tijuana, Mexico. Researchers met with participants for in-depth-face-to-face structured interviews. Data were coded using ATLAS.ti. Participants were aged 19-73 (mean: 37), 98% were of Mexican nationality, 90% reported trading sex independent of the control of others, with 58% identified as independent and street-based. Thirty percent of women trading sex reported substance use (excluding marijuana) and 20% reported injection drug use within 30 days. The majority reported no involvement in mobilization activities, but 85% expressed interest. However, barriers included stigma, cultural gender norms, partner violence, and privacy in regards to disclosure of sex trade involvement, moral conflict (revealing one's involvement in sex trade), involvement in substance use, human trafficking, and feeling powerless. Facilitators were having a safe space to meet, peer support, self-esteem, feeling heard, knowledge of rights, economic need to support families, and staying healthy. Findings imply the potential to go beyond mobilizing limited groups of women in the sex trade and instead involve whole community mobilization; that is, to reach and include the more vulnerable women (substance use, trafficked) in supportive services (social services, exit strategies, better healthcare opportunities, and/or education for healthcare providers to help break societal stigmas regarding women in the sex trade) and to change the status of women in society in general.

Understanding the capacity of community-based groups to mobilise and engage in social action for health: Results from Avahan

Community mobilisation improves outcomes from HIV to maternal and child health. Yet, little health research has explored why some community groups are better able to mobilise than others. We address this gap by considering the case of Avahan, the India AIDS Initiative, which sought to foster community mobilisation, including the creation of community-based groups serving men who have sex with men (MSM), female sex workers (FSWs), and injection drug users (IDUs). Using quantitative and qualitative data collected from 58 community-based groups from 2009-2012 across six Indian states, we analyse variation in groups' action on behalf of their members. Based on a mixed effects logistic regression, we find that older groups and those with bank accounts, crisis committees, or strategic relationships were most likely to take action on behalf of members by demanding rights or confronting gatekeepers and opinion leaders. Analysis of qualitative data reveals the types of action organisations took on behalf of members (mediation, removal of community members from harm, and advocacy), but also that sometimes organisations refused to take action, or community members declined their assistance. These findings indicate that organisations formalising, creating structures for social action, and building networks are important strategies to foster community mobilisation.

Does Capacity Development Increase Demand for Health Services and Rights Among Key Populations Affected by HIV? A Systematic Review of Evidence from Low and Middle-Income Countries

Capacity development is a process by which individuals, organizations and societies develop abilities to perform functions, solve problems and achieve objectives. This systematic review sought to document capacity development interventions, the associated outcomes and its effectiveness in increasing demand for rights and health services among key populations (KP) in low and middle-income countries. Twenty papers met our review's selection criteria. Significant improvements in health service utilization were achieved in most community mobilization and peer-led interventions. Whilst we found ample evidence linking capacity development to uptake of services, there was a striking dearth of research examining the impact of capacity development on demand for rights among KP. There was inadequate contextual data to explain variations in intervention effectiveness across different projects. More evidence is needed on the impact of capacity development on demand for health services and rights among KP. Consensus on parameters of capacity development and priority outcomes is required.

Strategies to promote the meaningful involvement of sex workers in HIV prevention and care

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

We review the recent evidence regarding strategies for engaging sex workers in HIV prevention and care programs. We searched Pub Med on 19 March 2019 using terms 'Sex Work' And 'HIV infections'. Our search was limited to articles published since 2017.

RECENT FINDINGS

Community empowerment approaches where sex workers work collaboratively to address their specific priorities and concerns, including those beyond HIV, are those most likely to meaningfully engage sex workers. Community-driven programs that combine structural, behavioral and biomedical approaches can facilitate improved HIV outcomes by tackling barriers to uptake and retention of services along all steps in the prevention and care cascades. Microplanning, network-based recruitment and mobile-phone interventions can also help reach and support sex workers to mobilize and to engage with a range of services. Sex worker-led groups and initiatives including economic strengthening and community drug refill groups can both build social cohesion and address structural barriers to HIV outcomes including financial insecurity. Interventions which focus narrowly on increasing uptake of specific steps in prevention and care cascades outside the context of broader community empowerment responses are likely to be less effective.

SUMMARY

Comprehensive, community-driven approaches where sex workers mobilize to address their structural, behavioral and biomedical priorities work across HIV prevention and treatment cascades to increase uptake of and engagement with prevention and care technologies and promote broader health and human rights. These interventions need to be adequately supported and taken to scale.

Sustaining consistent condom use among female sex workers by addressing their vulnerabilities and strengthening community-led organizations in India

Introduction

Between 2014 and 2017, a program aimed at reducing HIV risk and promoting safe sex through consistent use of condoms sought to work through addressing social and economic vulnerabilities and strengthening community-led organizations (COs) of female sex workers (FSWs). This study examines if the program was effective by studying relationship between strengthening of COs, vulnerability reduction, and sustaining of consistent condom use behavior among FSWs.

Methods

We used a longitudinal study design to assess the change in outcomes. A three-stage sampling design was used to select FSWs for the study. Panel data of 2085 FSWs selected from 38 COs across five states of India was used to examine the change in various outcomes from 2015 (Survey Round 1) to 2017 (Survey Round 2). The CO level program pillar measuring institutional development assessed performance of COs in six domains critical for any organization’s functionality and sustainability: governance, project management, financial management, program monitoring, advocacy and networking, and resource mobilization. Overall, 32 indicators from all these domains were used to compute the CO strength score. A score was computed by taking mean of average dimension scores. The overall score was divided into two groups based on the median cutoff; COs which scored below the median were considered to have low CO strength, while COs which scored above or equal to median were considered to have high CO strength. Multivariable regression modeling techniques were used to examine the effect of program pillars on outcome measures.

Results

Analyses showed a significant improvement in the strength of the COs over time; percentage of COs having high strength improved from 50% in 2015 to 87% in Round 2. The improvement in CO’s strength increased financial security (Adjusted Odds Ratio [AOR]: 2.18, p<0.01), social welfare security (AOR: 1.71, p<0.01), and socio-legal security (AOR: 2.20, p<0.01) among FSWs. Further, improvement in financial security led to significant increase in consistent condom use with client among FSWs (AOR: 1.69, p<0.01) who were members of COs having high strength. Sustained consistent condom use was positively associated with young age (<30 years), ability to negotiate with clients for condom use, membership in self-help groups, high self-efficacy, self-confidence, and client solicitation in streets and brothels.

Conclusions

Improving financial security and strengthening FSW led CO can improve sustained and consistent condom use. In addition, the program should focus on enhancing ability of FSWs to negotiate with clients for condom use, promote membership in self-help groups and target FSWs who are 30 years or older, and soliciting from homes to sustain consistent condom use across all FSWs.

Mobilising community networks for early identification of tuberculosis and treatment initiation in Cambodia: an evaluation of a seed-and-recruit model

Background and objectives

The effects of active case finding (ACF) models that mobilise community networks for early identification and treatment of tuberculosis (TB) remain unknown. We investigated and compared the effect of community-based ACF using a seed-and-recruit model with one-off roving ACF and passive case finding (PCF) on the time to treatment initiation and identification of bacteriologically confirmed TB.

Methods

In this retrospective cohort study conducted in 12 operational districts in Cambodia, we assessed relationships between ACF models and: 1) the time to treatment initiation using Cox proportional hazards regression; and 2) the identification of bacteriologically confirmed TB using modified Poisson regression with robust sandwich variance.

Results

We included 728 adults with TB, of whom 36% were identified via the community-based ACF using a seed-and-recruit model. We found community-based ACF using a seed-and-recruit model was associated with shorter delay to treatment initiation compared to one-off roving ACF (hazard ratio 0.81, 95% CI 0.68-0.96). Compared to one-off roving ACF and PCF, community-based ACF using a seed-and-recruit model was 45% (prevalence ratio (PR) 1.45, 95% CI 1.19-1.78) and 39% (PR 1.39, 95% CI 0.99-1.94) more likely to find and detect bacteriologically confirmed TB, respectively.

Conclusion

Mobilising community networks to find TB cases was associated with early initiation of TB treatment in Cambodia. This approach was more likely to find bacteriologically confirmed TB cases, contributing to the reduction of risk of transmission within the community.

The impact of end-demand legislation on sex workers' access to health and sex worker-led services: A community-based prospective cohort study in Canada

BACKGROUND

Following a global wave of end-demand criminalization of sex work, the Protection of Communities and Exploited Persons Act (PCEPA) was implemented in Canada, which has implications for the health and safety of sex workers. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of the PCEPA on sex workers' access to health, violence, and sex worker-led services.

METHODS

Longitudinal data were drawn from a community-based cohort of ~900 cis and trans women sex workers in Vancouver, Canada. Multivariable logistic regression examined the independent effect of the post-PCEPA period (2015-2017) versus the pre-PCEPA period (2010-2013) on time-updated measures of sex workers' access to health, violence supports, and sex worker/community-led services.

RESULTS

The PCEPA was independently correlated with reduced odds of having access to health services when needed (AOR 0.59; 95%CI: 0.45-0.78) and community-led services (AOR 0.77; 95%CI: 0.62-0.95). Among sex workers who experienced physical violence/sexual violence or trauma, there was no significant difference in access to counseling supports post-PCEPA (AOR 1.24; 95%CI: 0.93-1.64).

CONCLUSION

Sex workers experienced significantly reduced access to critical health and sex worker/community-led services following implementation of the new laws. Findings suggest end-demand laws may exacerbate and reproduce harms of previous criminalized approaches to sex work in Canada. This study is one of the first globally to evaluate the impact of end-demand approaches to sex work. There is a critical evidence-based need to move away from criminalization of sex work worldwide to ensure full labor and human rights for sex workers. Findings warn against adopting end-demand approaches in other cities or jurisdictions.

Essential elements of a community empowerment approach to HIV prevention among female sex workers engaged in project Shikamana in Iringa, Tanzania

Globally, female sex workers bear a disproportionate burden of HIV, with those in sub-Saharan Africa being among the most affected. Community empowerment approaches have proven successful at preventing HIV among this population. These approaches facilitate a process whereby sex workers take collective ownership over programmes to address the barriers they face in accessing their health and human rights. Limited applications of such approaches have been documented in Africa. We describe the community empowerment process among female sex workers in Iringa, Tanzania, in the context of a randomised controlled trial of a community empowerment-based model of combination HIV prevention. We conducted 24 in-depth interviews with participants from the intervention community and 12 key informant interviews with HIV care providers, police, venue managers, community advisory board members and research staff. Content analysis was employed, and salient themes were extracted. Findings reveal that the community empowerment process was facilitated by the meaningful engagement of sex workers in programme development, encouraging sex worker ownership over the programme, providing opportunities for solidarity and capacity building, and forming partnerships with key stakeholders. Through this process, sex workers mobilised their collective agency to access their health and human rights including HIV prevention, care and treatment.

A Men Who Have Sex With Men-Friendly Doctor Finder Hackathon in Guangzhou, China: Development of a Mobile Health Intervention to Enhance Health Care Utilization

Background

Mobile health (mHeath)–based HIV and sexual health promotion among men who have sex with men (MSM) is feasible in low- and middle-income settings. However, many currently available mHealth tools on the market were developed by the private sector for profit and have limited input from MSM communities.

Objective

A health hackathon is an intensive contest that brings together participants from multidisciplinary backgrounds to develop a proposed solution for a specific health issue within a short period. The purpose of this paper was to describe a hackathon event that aimed to develop an mHealth tool to enhance health care (specifically HIV prevention) utilization among Chinese MSM, summarize characteristics of the final prototypes, and discuss implications for future mHealth intervention development.

Methods

The hackathon took place in Guangzhou, China. An open call for hackathon participants was advertised on 3 Chinese social media platforms, including Blued, a popular social networking app among MSM. All applicants completed a Web-based survey and were then scored. The top scoring applicants were grouped into teams based on their skills and content area expertise. Each team was allowed 1 month to prepare for the hackathon. The teams then came together in person with on-site expert mentorship for a 72-hour hackathon contest to develop and present mHealth prototype solutions. The judging panel included experts in psychology, public health, computer science, social media, clinical medicine, and MSM advocacy. The final prototypes were evaluated based on innovation, usability, and feasibility.

Results

We received 92 applicants, and 38 of them were selected to attend the April 2019 hackathon. A total of 8 teams were formed, including expertise in computer science, user interface design, business or marketing, clinical medicine, and public health. Moreover, 24 participants self-identified as gay, and 3 participants self-identified as bisexual. All teams successfully developed a prototype tool. A total of 4 prototypes were designed as a mini program that could be embedded within a popular Chinese social networking app, and 3 prototypes were designed as stand-alone apps. Common prototype functions included Web-based physician searching based on one’s location (8 prototypes), health education (4 prototypes), Web-based health counseling with providers or lay health volunteers (6 prototypes), appointment scheduling (8 prototypes), and between-user communication (2 prototypes). All prototypes included strategies to ensure privacy protection for MSM users, and some prototypes offered strategies to ensure privacy of physicians. The selected prototypes are undergoing pilot testing.

Conclusions

This study demonstrated the feasibility and acceptability of using a hackathon to create mHealth intervention tools. This suggests a different pathway to developing mHealth interventions and could be relevant in other settings.

Knowledge of HIV Status Is Associated With a Decrease in the Severity of Depressive Symptoms Among Female Sex Workers in Uganda and Zambia

BACKGROUND

Knowledge of HIV-positive status may result in depressive symptoms, which may be a concern to scaling novel HIV testing interventions that move testing outside the health system and away from counselor support.

SETTING

Uganda and Zambia.

METHODS

We used longitudinal data from 2 female sex worker (FSW) cohorts in Uganda (n = 960) and Zambia (n = 965). Over 4 months, participants had ample opportunity to HIV testing using standard-of-care services or self-tests. At baseline and 4 months, we measured participants' perceived knowledge of HIV status, severity of depressive symptoms (continuous PHQ-9 scale, 0-27 points), and prevalence of likely depression (PHQ-9 scores ≥10). We estimated associations using individual fixed-effects estimation.

RESULTS

Compared with unknown HIV status, knowledge of HIV-negative status was significantly associated with a decrease in depressive symptoms of 1.06 points in Uganda (95% CI -1.79 to -0.34) and 1.68 points in Zambia (95% CI -2.70 to -0.62). Knowledge of HIV-positive status was significantly associated with a decrease in depressive symptoms of 1.01 points in Uganda (95% CI -1.82 to -0.20) and 1.98 points in Zambia (95% CI -3.09 to -0.88). The prevalence of likely depression was not associated with knowledge of HIV status in Uganda but was associated with a 14.1% decrease with knowledge of HIV-negative status (95% CI -22.1% to -6.0%) and a 14.3% decrease with knowledge of HIV-positive status (95% CI -23.9% to -4.5%) in Zambia.

CONCLUSIONS

Knowledge of HIV status, be it positive or negative, was significantly associated with a decrease in depressive symptoms in 2 FSW populations. The expansion of HIV testing programs may have mental health benefits for FSWs.

PrEP indicators, social capital and social group memberships among gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men

Efforts to reduce HIV among gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men include increasing awareness and uptake of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Social capital may facilitate engagement in HIV prevention. Membership of social groups including chosen families (i.e. friends as family relationships) - one potential indicator of social capital - may be protective against HIV risk and infection. In this cross-sectional quantitative study, we examined social capital items and social group membership in association with PrEP outcomes. In 2014, the New Orleans arm of the National HIV Behavioral Surveillance recruited 353 HIV-negative men, of whom 46% identified as Black, Latino or Other Race and 54% as Non-Hispanic White, using venue-based sampling to complete a structured survey. Multivariable logistic regression models tested the relations between social group membership and social capital with PrEP indicators. Men who reported community group participation were more likely to be aware of PrEP compared to those who did not. Men in chosen families associated with a family name were least likely to be aware of and willing to take PrEP compared to those not in any other social groups. Social group membership is a potential social capital indicator for assessing HIV prevention among men.

Enhancing financial security of female sex workers through a community-led intervention in India: Evidence from a longitudinal survey

Introduction

Community-led organizations (COs) have been an integral part of HIV prevention programs to address the socio-economic and structural vulnerabilities faced by female sex workers (FSWs). The current study examines whether strengthening of community-led organizations and community collectivization have been instrumental in reducing the financial vulnerability and empowering FSWs in terms of their self-efficacy, confidence, and individual agency in India.

Data and methods

This study used a panel data of 2085 FSWs selected from 38 COs across five states of India. Two rounds of data (Round 1 in 2015 and Round 2 in 2017) were collected among FSWs. Data were collected both at CO and individual level. CO level data was used to assess the CO strength. Individual level data was used to measure financial security, community collectivization, and individual empowerment.

Results

There was a significant improvement in CO strength and community collectivization from Round 1 to Round 2. High CO strength has led to improved financial security among FSWs (R2: 85% vs. R1: 51%, AOR: 2.5; 95% CI: 1.5–4.1) from Round 1 to Round 2. High collective efficacy and community ownership have improved the financial security of FSWs during the inter-survey period. Further, the improvement in financial security in the inter-survey period led to increased or sustained individual empowerment (in terms of self-confidence, self-efficacy, and individual agency) among FSWs.

Conclusions

Institutional strengthening and community mobilization programs are key to address the structural issues and the decrease of financial vulnerability among FSWs. In addition, enhanced financial security is very important to sustain or improve the individual empowerment of FSWs. Further attention is needed to sustain the existing community advocacy and engagement systems to address the vulnerabilities faced by marginalized populations and build their empowerment.

Using Peer Education to Promote Psychosocial and Occupational Health and Empowerment Among Female Sex Workers in Nepal

Female sex workers (FSWs) in Nepal are vulnerable to an array of occupational risks, which may compromise their psychosocial health and ability to engage in protective behaviors. A peer education (PE) intervention designed to empower and promote the psychosocial health of FSWs was pilot tested in Kathmandu, Nepal. FSWs who were exposed to the PE intervention (n = 96) had significantly higher scores on psychosocial health knowledge, perceived self-efficacy and ability to access resources, happiness, and job control compared with those who were not (n = 64). PE may be a promising way to promote psychosocial health and empowerment among FSWs.

HIV prevention programme cascades: insights from HIV programme monitoring for female sex workers in Kenya

INTRODUCTION

HIV prevention cascades have emerged as a programme management and monitoring tool that outlines the sequential steps of an HIV prevention programme. We describe the application of an HIV combination prevention programme cascade framework to monitor and improve HIV prevention interventions for female sex workers (FSWs) in Kenya.

METHODS

Two data sources were analysed: (1) annual programme outcome surveys conducted using a polling booth survey methodology in 2017 among 4393 FSWs, and (2) routine programme monitoring data collected by (a) 92 implementing partners between July 2017 and June 2018, and (b) Learning Site in Mombasa (2014 to 2015) and Nairobi (2013). We present national, sub-national and implementing partner level cascades.

RESULTS

At the national level, the population size estimates for FSW were 133,675 while the programme coverage targets were 174,073. Programme targets as denominator, during the period 2017 to 2018, 156,220 (90%) FSWs received peer education and contact, 148,713 (85%) received condoms and 83,053 (48%) received condoms as per their estimated need. At the outcome level, 92% of FSWs used condoms at the last sex with their client but 73% reported consistent condom use. Although 96% of FSWs had ever tested for HIV, 85% had tested in the last three months. Seventy-nine per cent of the HIV-positive FSWs were enrolled in HIV care, 73% were currently enrolled on antiretroviral therapy (ART) and 52% had attended an ART clinic in the last month. In the last six months, 48% of the FSWs had experienced police violence but 24% received violence support. National and sub-national level cascades showed proportions of FSWs lost at each step of programme implementation and variability in programme achievement. Hotspot and sub-population level cascades, presented as examples, demonstrate development and use of these cascades at the implementation level.

CONCLUSIONS

HIV prevention programme cascades, drawing on multiple data sources to provide an understanding of gaps in programme outputs and outcomes, can provide powerful information for monitoring and improving HIV prevention programmes for FSWs at all levels of implementation and decision-making. Complexity of prevention programmes and the paucity of consistent data can pose a challenge to development of these cascades.

Disrupting gender norms in health systems: making the case for change

Restrictive gender norms and gender inequalities are replicated and reinforced in health systems, contributing to gender inequalities in health. In this Series paper, we explore how to address all three through recognition and then with disruptive solutions. We used intersectional feminist theory to guide our systematic reviews, qualitative case studies based on lived experiences, and quantitative analyses based on cross-sectional and evaluation research. We found that health systems reinforce patients' traditional gender roles and neglect gender inequalities in health, health system models and clinic-based programmes are rarely gender responsive, and women have less authority as health workers than men and are often devalued and abused. With regard to potential for disruption, we found that gender equality policies are associated with greater representation of female physicians, which in turn is associated with better health outcomes, but that gender parity is insufficient to achieve gender equality. We found that institutional support and respect of nurses improves quality of care, and that women's empowerment collectives can increase health-care access and provider responsiveness. We see promise from social movements in supporting women's reproductive rights and policies. Our findings suggest we must view gender as a fundamental factor that predetermines and shapes health systems and outcomes. Without addressing the role of restrictive gender norms and gender inequalities within and outside health systems, we will not reach our collective ambitions of universal health coverage and the Sustainable Development Goals. We propose action to systematically identify and address restrictive gender norms and gender inequalities in health systems.

The Effect of HIV Self-Testing Delivery Models on Female Sex Workers' Sexual Behaviors: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Urban Uganda

HIV self-testing increases recent and frequent HIV testing among female sex workers (FSWs) in urban Uganda. Using results from a randomized controlled trial, we aim to establish the effect of HIV self-testing delivery models on FSWs’ sexual behaviors in this setting. Clusters of one peer educator and eight participants were 1:1:1 randomized to: (1) direct provision of an HIV self-test, (2) provision of a coupon for facility collection of an HIV self-test, or (3) referral to standard-of-care HIV testing services. Sexual behaviors were self-reported at 1 and 4 months. From October to November 2016, 960 participants were enrolled and randomized. At 4 months, there were no statistically significant differences in participants’ sexual behaviors, including inconsistent condom use, across study arms. We do not find any changes in sexual risk-taking among FSWs in response to the delivery of HIV self-tests. Routine policies for HIV self-testing are likely a behaviorally safe component of comprehensive HIV prevention strategies.