Eurycomanone induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells via up-regulation of p53

<em>Eurycoma longifolia</em>: an overview on the pharmacological properties for the treatment of common cancer

Eurycoma longifolia plant, the so called Tongkat Ali in Malaysia, is a well grown prominent tree in all Southeast Asia. It is well known among traditional medicine practitioners as a curative plant for many diseases and health conditions. The major quassinoid from the plant is eurycomanone, which exhibits many prominent effects on various cancer cell lines. Numerous studies have shown that eurycomanone inhibits cancerous cell growth and encourages cell death both in vitro and in vivo test. Even though analyses of safety and toxicity have been conducted, there is still a substantial knowledge barrier when it comes to providing a scientific foundation for the molecular mechanism as well as intervention strategy in the living people cancer cell. In a way to offer adequate baseline data for future investigations based on molecular mechanism and intervention, the present work seeks to review the researches conducted to date on this herbal plant.

Phytochemical Profiles, Antioxidant Activity and Antiproliferative Mechanism of Rhodiola rosea L. Phenolic Extract

The phenolic profiles, antioxidant activity, antiproliferative property and the underlying molecular mechanisms of cell apoptosis of Rhodiola rosea free phenolic (RFE) were analyzed in this work. Overall, Rhodiola rosea rhizome phenolic extract (RE) contained Rhodiola rosea rhizome free phenolic extract (RFE) and Rhodiola rosea rhizome bound phenolic extract (RBE). Compared with RBE, RFE contained higher phenolic contents and possessed stronger antioxidant activity. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) results demonstrated that the main phenolics of were epigallocatechin (EGC), epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), gallic acid (GA) and catechin. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis found that Rhodiola rosea L. was rich in volatile phytochemicals. In addition, many types of vitamin E and a few kinds of carotenoids were found in Rhodiola rosea. In addition, the main compounds in RFE (GA, EGC, EGCG) and RFE all exhibited excellent antiproliferative activity, indicating the antiproliferative activity of RFE was partly attributed to the synergy effects of the main compounds. Further study confirmed that RFE could block 16.99% of HepG2 cells at S phase and induce 20.32% programmed cell death compared with the control group. Specifically, RFE dose-dependently induced cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest via modulating the p53 signaling pathway including up-regulation of the expression of p53 and Bax while down-regulation of the Bcl-2, cyclin D1 and CDK4 levels. Therefore, RFE exhibited the potential of being developed as an auxiliary antioxidant and a therapeutic agent for cancer.

DHOK Exerts Anti-Cancer Effect Through Autophagy Inhibition in Colorectal Cancer

DHOK (14,15β-dihydroxyklaineanone) is a novel diterpene isolated from roots of Eurycoma longifolia Jack, a traditional herb widely applied in Southeast Asia. It is reported that DHOK has cytotoxic effect on cancer cells, but its anti-cancer mechanism has still been not clear. In our study, we first observed that DHOK inhibits cell proliferation of colorectal cancer cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Next, we performed transcriptome sequencing to identify the targets of DHOK and found that autophagy-related signaling pathways are involved under DHOK treatment. Indeed, in DHOK-treated cells, the level of autophagosome marker LC3 and the formation of GFP-LC3 puncta were decreased, indicating the reduction of autophagy. Moreover, confocal microscopy results revealed the lysosomal activity and the formation of autolysosomes are also inhibited. Our western blotting results demonstrated the activation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway by DHOK, which may be attributed to the enhancement of ERK and AKT activity. Functionally, activation of autophagy attenuated DHOK-caused cell death, indicating that autophagy serves as cell survival. In xenograft mouse model, our results also showed that DHOK activates the mTOR signaling pathway, decreases autophagy level and inhibits the tumorigenesis of colon cancer. Taken together, we revealed the molecular mechanism of DHOK against cancer and our results also demonstrate great potential of DHOK in the treatment of colorectal cancer.

Anti-cancer effect of astrakurkurol from a folklore tribal mushroom on human hepatocellular carcinoma cells via mediating cell cycle inhibition, apoptosis, and migration

Astraeus hygrometricus extensively been utilized by tribal people for long time. A triterpene, astrakurkurol has been isolated from A. hygrometricus but anticancer effect of this novel triterpene has imperceptibly been investigated. Motive of this research was to scrutinize its underlying apoptotic mechanism in HepG2 cells. Cytotoxicity studies demonstrated a selective effect of astrakurkurol with towering influence in HepG2 than Thle2 cells. The exposure of these triterpene-induced marked apoptotic morphological changes enhanced the rate of cell apoptosis and arrest cell cycle at G0/G1. Furthermore, these results are aided by decline in the expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-xL with an increase in the expression of p53, Bax, Fas, FADD together with the activation of caspase cascade. Astrakurkurol also displayed a remarkable anti-migratory capacity at a lower concentration. Altogether, studies explained anti-proliferative, pro-apoptotic, and anti-migratory efficacy of astrakurkurol on HepG2, composing a gripping challenge in the advancement of novel treatments against hepatocellular carcinoma. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Mushrooms, the minuscule pharmaceutical factory, bear hundreds of novel elements with incredible biological attributes. Triterpenoids from mushrooms has been proven to bear potentials of curing cancer. This study highlights the cytotoxic and anti-migratory effects of novel triterpene in vitro in HepG2 cell, an HCC cell line. Astrakurkurol mediated cell death via both extrinsic and intrinsic apoptotic signaling. Utilization of astrakurkurol will provide a non-toxic substitute of chemotherapy and also uplift the value of forsaken taxon, Astraeus and boost the rural acceptance.

Comparison of apoptotic responses in Blastocystis sp. upon treatment with Tongkat Ali and Metronidazole

Blastocystis sp. infection, although many remain asymptomatic, there is growing data in recent studies that suggests it is a frequent cause of gastrointestinal symptoms in children and adults. This proposes that treatment against this infection is necessary however metronidazole (MTZ), which is the current choice of treatment, has expressed non-uniformity in its efficacy in combating this infection which has led to the study of alternative treatment. In our previous study, it was established that Tongkat Ali fractions exhibited promising anti-protozoal properties which leads to the current aim of the study, to further narrow down the purification process in order to identify the specific active compound promoting the anti-protozoal effect through HPLC analysis. Based on the data analysis and in-vitro susceptibility assay, the collected Tongkat Ali fraction that demonstrated anti-blastocystis property was shown to contain eurycomanone. Previous studies have suggested that there is a mechanism in Blastocystis sp. that regulates the apoptotic process to produce higher number of viable cells when treated. In reference to this, our current study also aims to investigate the apoptotic response of Tongkat Ali extract and eurycomanone across different subtype groups with comparison to MTZ. Based on our investigation, both Tongkat Ali extract and eurycomanone induced the high apoptotic rate however exhibited a reduction in viable cell count (p < 0.05) when compared to MTZ. This study suggests that there is potential in developing a standardized treatment regardless of subtype variations which makes Tongkat Ali extract a promising anti-protozoal treatment against all Blastocystis sp. subtype groups.

Phytochemical profiling and cytotoxic evaluation of Premna serratifolia L. against human liver cancer cell line

Premna serratifolia L. (Lamiaceae) is a medicinal plant, widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions and commonly used in traditional medicine. The current study was focused to evaluate the cytotoxic potential of aqueous extract of root of P. serratifolia (AEPS) against human hepatoblastoma cancer cell line (Hep G2).The yield of the dried extract was 5.8% and used for further studies.Cytotoxic potential of AEPS was analyzed by MTT assay, which exhibits IC50 value 1000 µg/mL after 48 h incubation. Hoechst and AO/EtBr staining, ROS measurement, mitochondrial membrane potential, clonogenic and wound healing assays also confirmed the cytotoxic efficacy of AEPS in dose and time-dependent manner. UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS analysis of AEPS confirmed the presence of 12polyphenolic compounds, namely 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid, linarin, peonidin-3,5-O-di-beta-glucopyranoside, diosmin, trans-cinnamic acid, daidzein, saponarin, homoorietin, acacetin, sarsasapogenin, phytol and sissotrin. The cytotoxic potential of AEPS might due to presence of biologically active polyphenolic compounds.

Herbal-Based Formulation Containing Eurycoma longifolia and Labisia pumila Aqueous Extracts: Safe for Consumption?

A combined polyherbal formulation containing tongkat ali (Eurycoma longifolia) and kacip fatimah (Labisia pumila) aqueous extracts was evaluated for its safety aspect. A repeated dose 28-day toxicity study using Wistar rats was conducted where the polyherbal formulation was administered at doses 125, 500 and 2000 mg/kg body weight to male and female treatment groups daily via oral gavage, with rats receiving only water as the control group. In-life parameters measured include monitoring of food and water consumption and clinical and functional observations. On day 29, blood was collected for haematological and biochemical analysis. The rats were necropsied and the organs were collected for histopathological examination. This study showed that the combined formulation did not induce any significant toxicity effect at any dose level in terms of morbidity, mortality, behaviour, functional observation, body weight, food and water consumption, whole blood haematology and serum biochemistry. However, there were some microscopic changes in the histopathological examinations of some organs given 2000 mg/kg body weight, which may suggest an early response to the polyherbal formulation. From this study, the no observed adverse effect level is estimated to be more than 500 mg/kg body weight but not exceeding 2000 mg/kg body weight. The observed effects at the highest dose indicate the need for further study of longer dosing duration.

Phytochemicals and Cytotoxicity of Quercus infectoria Ethyl Acetate Extracts on Human Cancer Cells

Conventional and modern cancer treatment were reported to manifest adverse effects to the patients. More researches were conducted to search for selective cytotoxic agent of plant natural product on cancer cells. The presences of wide range phytochemicals in Quercus infectoria (QI) extract have been implicated with the cytotoxic effect against various types of cancer cell which remain undiscovered. This present study aimed to evaluate cytotoxic effect of QI extracts on selected human cancer cells and then, the most potent extract was further analysed for general phytochemical constituents. QI galls were extracted successively with n-hexane, ethyl acetate and methanol yielded three main extracts; n-hexane (QIH), ethyl acetate (QIEA) and methanol (QIM), respectively. The most potent extract was qualitatively analysed for the present of tannin, alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids and phenolic compounds. Next, the extracts were tested to determine the cytotoxic activity against cervical cancer cells (HeLa), breast cancer cells (MDA-MB-231) and liver cancer cells (Hep G2) using MTT assay. Cytotoxic activity of QI extracts against normal fibroblast (L929) cell line was also evaluated to determine the cytoselective property. Meanwhile, DMSO-treated cells served as negative control while cisplatin-treated cells served as positive control. The most potent extract then chosen to be further investigated for DNA fragmentation as hallmark of apoptosis using Hoechst staining. Qualitative phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of tannin, alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, terpenoids, flavonoids and phenolic compounds. QIEA extract exhibited the most potent cytotoxic activity against HeLa cells with (IC₅₀ value = 6.33 ± 0.33 μg/mL) and showed cytoselective property against L929 cells. DNA fragmentation revealed QIEA induced apoptosis in the treated cells. The richness of phytochemical constituents in QIEA extract might contribute to the potency of cytotoxic activity towards HeLa cells.

Inactivation of AKT/NF‑κB signaling by eurycomalactone decreases human NSCLC cell viability and improves the chemosensitivity to cisplatin

The high activation of protein kinase B (AKT)/nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling has often been associated with the induction of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell survival and resistance to cisplatin, which is one of the most widely used chemotherapeutic drugs in the treatment of NSCLC. The inhibition of AKT/NF-κB can potentially be used as a molecular target for cancer therapy. Eurycomalactone (ECL), a quassinoid from Eurycoma longifolia Jack, has previously been revealed to exhibit strong cytotoxic activity against the human NSCLC A549 cell line, and can inhibit NF-κB activity in TNF-α-activated 293 cells stably transfected with an NF-κB luciferase reporter. The present study was the first to investigate whether ECL inhibits the activation of AKT/NF-κB signaling, induces apoptosis and enhances chemosensitivity to cisplatin in human NSCLC cells. The anticancer activity of ECL was evaluated in two NSCLC cell lines, A549 and Calu-1. ECL decreased the viability and colony formation ability of both cell lines by inducing cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through the activation of pro-apoptotic caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase, as well as the reduction of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-xL and survivin. In addition, ECL treatment suppressed the levels of AKT (phospho Ser473) and NF-κB (phospho Ser536). Notably, ECL significantly enhanced cisplatin sensitivity in both assessed NSCLC cell lines. The combination treatment of cisplatin and ECL promoted cell apoptosis more effectively than cisplatin alone, as revealed by the increased cleaved caspase-3, but decreased Bcl-xL and survivin levels. Exposure to cisplatin alone induced the levels of phosphorylated-AKT and phosphorylated-NF-κB, whereas co-treatment with ECL inhibited the cisplatin-induced phosphorylation of AKT and NF-κB, leading to an increased sensitization effect on cisplatin-induced apoptosis. In conclusion, ECL exhibited an anticancer effect and sensitized NSCLC cells to cisplatin through the inactivation of AKT/NF-κB signaling. This finding provides a rationale for the combined use of chemotherapy drugs with ECL to improve their efficacy in NSCLC treatment.

In Vitro Antimalarial and Toxicological Activities of Quercus infectoria (Olivier) Gall Extracts

BACKGROUND

The spread of Plasmodium falciparum resistance in common antimalarial drugs, including artemisinin-based combination therapies, has necessitated the discovery of new drugs with novel mechanisms of action. In the present study, the in vitro antimalarial and toxicological activities of acetone, methanol, ethanol and aqueous extracts of Quercus infectoria (Q. infectoria) galls were investigated.

METHODS

The extracts were assessed for the antimalarial potential using a malarial SYBR Green I fluorescence-based (MSF) assay, while the toxicity was screened by using brine shrimp lethality test (BSLT), haemolytic assay, and cytotoxicity assay against normal embryo fibroblast cell line (NIH/3T3) and normal kidney epithelial cell line (Vero).

RESULTS

The acetone extract showed the highest antimalarial activity (50% inhibitory concentration, IC50 = 5.85 ± 1.64 μg/mL), followed by the methanol extract (IC50 = 10.31 ± 1.90 μg/mL). Meanwhile, the ethanol and aqueous extracts displayed low antimalarial activity with IC50 values of 20.00 ± 1.57 and 30.95 μg/mL ± 1.27 μg/mL, respectively. The significant antimalarial activity was demonstrated in all extracts and artemisinin (P < 0.05). All extracts were non-toxic to brine shrimps (50% lethality concentration, LC50 > 1000 ppm). Furthermore, no occurrence of haemolysis (< 5%) was observed in normal erythrocytes when treated with all extracts compared to Triton X-100 that caused 100% haemolysis (P < 0.05). The acetone and methanol extracts were non-toxic to the normal cell lines and statistically significant to artemisinin (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Taken together with satisfactory selectivity index (SI) values, the acetone and methanol extracts of Q. infectoria galls could serve as an alternative, promising and safe antimalarial agents.

Comparative Study on the Chemical Structure and In Vitro Antiproliferative Activity of Anthocyanins in Purple Root Tubers and Leaves of Sweet Potato ( Ipomoea batatas)

The structure and in vitro antiproliferative activity of anthocyanins in the root tubers of a sweet potato variety cv. Bhu Krishna and the purple leaves of a promising accession S-1467 were studied with the objectives of understanding the structure-activity relationship and comparing the leaf and tuber anthocyanins. The chemical structure of anthocyanins was determined by high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry analysis. A fluorescence-resonance-energy-transfer-based caspase sensor probe had been used to study the antiproliferative property, and analysis of the cell cycle was performed after staining with propidium iodide and subsequent fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Structurally, the anthocyanins in root tubers were identical to those in leaves, but there was a difference in the proportion of various aglycones present in both. This has led to distinguishable differences in the antiproliferative activity of leaf and tuber anthocyanins to various cancer cells. All nine anthocyanins were found in acylated forms in both tubers and leaves. However, peonidin derivatives were major anthocyanins in tubers (33.98 ± 1.41 mg) as well as leaves (27.68 ± 1.07 mg). The cyanidin derivatives were comparatively higher in leaves (20.55 ± 0.91 mg) than tubers (9.44 ± 0.94 mg). The tuber and leaf anthocyanins exhibited potential antiproliferative properties to MCF-7, HCT-116, and HeLa cancer cells, and the structure of anthocyanins had a critical role in it. The leaf anthocyanins exhibited significantly higher activity against colon and cervical cancer cells, whereas tuber anthocyanins had a slightly greater effect against breast cancer cells.

Bioavailability of Eurycomanone in Its Pure Form and in a Standardised Eurycoma longifolia Water Extract

Eurycoma longifolia is one of the commonly consumed herbal preparations and its major chemical compound, eurycomanone, has been described to have antimalarial, antipyretic, aphrodisiac, and cytotoxic activities. Today, the consumption of E. longifolia is popular through the incorporation of its extract in food items, most frequently in drinks such as tea and coffee. In the current study, the characterisation of the physicochemical and pharmacokinetic (PK) attributes of eurycomanone were conducted via a series of in vitro and in vivo studies in rats and mice. The solubility and chemical stability of eurycomanone under the conditions of the gastrointestinal tract environment were determined. The permeability of eurycomanone was investigated by determining its distribution coefficient in aqueous and organic environments and its permeability using the parallel artificial membrane permeability assay system and Caco-2 cultured cells. Eurycomanone’s stability in plasma and its protein-binding ability were measured by using an equilibrium dialysis method. Its stability in liver microsomes across species (mice, rat, dog, monkey, and human) and rat liver hepatocytes was also investigated. Along with the PK evaluations of eurycomanone in mice and rats, the PK parameters for the Malaysian Standard (MS: 2409:201) standardised water extract of E. longifolia were also evaluated in rats. Both rodent models showed that eurycomanone in both the compound form and extract form had a half-life of 0.30 h. The differences in the bioavailability of eurycomanone in the compound form between the rats (11.8%) and mice (54.9%) suggests that the PK parameters cannot be directly extrapolated to humans. The results also suggest that eurycomanone is not readily absorbed across biological membranes. However, once absorbed, the compound is not easily metabolised (is stable), hence retaining its bioactive properties, which may be responsible for the various reported biological activities.

Dihydroartemisinin Induces Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Mediated Apoptosis in HepG2 Human Hepatoma Cells

Aims and Background

Previous studies showed that dihydroartemisinin (DHA) possessed antitumor activity in many human tumor cells through the induction of apoptosis. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of DHA on apoptosis in the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2 and the possible molecular mechanisms involved.

Methods

The inhibitory effect of DHA on HepG2 cells was measured by MTT assay. The percentage of apoptotic cells was detected by flow cytometry with double staining of fluorescein isothiocyanate-annexin V/propidium iodide. The intracellular production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) were detected by fluorescence spectrophotometry. Protein expression of GADD153, Bcl-2 and Bax in HepG2 cells was examined by Western blot and immunocytochemistry.

Results

DHA significantly inhibited proliferation of HepG2 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The apoptosis rates in HepG2 cells treated with 0, 50, 100 and 200 mol/L DHA for 24 hours were 2.53 ± 0.88%, 24.85 ± 3.63%, 35.27 ± 5.92% and 48.53 ± 7.76%, respectively. Compared with the control group, DHA significantly increased ROS generation and [Ca2+]i level (P <0.05), with the generation of ROS preceding the increase in [Ca2+]i. An increase in GADD153 and Bax expression and a decrease in Bcl-2 were observed in DHA-treated cells. Pretreatment with the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine could attenuate the effects of DHA in the experiments.

Conclusion

DHA could inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis in HepG2 cell lines through increasing the intracellular production of ROS and [Ca2+]i. Endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced apoptosis may contribute to this effect by regulating the expression of GADD153, proapoptotic Bax, and antiapoptotic Bcl-2.

Biomimetic synthesis and anticancer activity of Eurycoma longifolia branch extract‐mediated silver nanoparticles

In the present study, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were synthesised by adding 1 mM Ag nitrate solution to different concentrations (1%, 2.5%, 5%) of branch extracts of Eurycoma longifolia, a well known medicinal plant in South–East Asian countries. Characterisation of AgNPs was carried out using techniques such as ultraviolet–visible spectrophotometry, X‐ray diffractrometry, Fourier transform infrared–attenuated total reflection spectroscopy (FTIR–ATR), scanning electron microscopy. XRD analysis revealed face centre cubic structure of AgNPs and FTIR–ATR showed that primary and secondary amide groups in combination with the protein molecules present in the branch extract were responsible for the reduction and stabilisation of AgNPs. Furthermore, antioxidant [2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl and 2,2′‐Azino‐bis(3‐ethylbenzthiazoline‐6‐sulphonic acid)], antimicrobial and anticancer activities of AgNPs were investigated. The highest bactericidal activity of these biogenic AgNPs was found against Escherichia coli with zone inhibition of 11 mm. AgNPs exhibited significant anticancer activity against human glioma cells (DBTRG and U87) and human breast adenocarcinoma cells (MCF‐7 and MDA‐MB‐231) with IC50 values of 33, 42, 60 and 38 µg/ml.

Determination of eurycomanone in rat plasma using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for pharmacokinetic study

In this study, a rapid, sensitive, and reliable hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) method for the determination of eurycomanone in rat plasma was developed and validated. Plasma samples were pretreated with a protein precipitation method and quercitrin was used as an internal standard (IS). A HILIC silica column (2.1 × 100 mm, 3 μm) was used for hydrophilic-based chromatographic separation, using the mobile phase of 0.1% formic acid with acetonitrile in gradient elution at a flow rate of 0.25 mL/min. Precursor-product ion pairs for multiple-reaction monitoring were m/z 409.1 → 391.0 for eurycomanone and m/z 449.1 → 303.0 for IS. The linear range was 2-120 ng/mL. The intra- and inter-day accuracies were between 95.5 and 103.4% with a precision of <4.2%. The developed method was successfully applied to the pharmacokinetic analysis of eurycomanone in rat plasma after oral dosing with pure compound and E. longifolia extract. The C_max and AUC_0-t , respectively, were 40.43 ± 16.08 ng/mL and 161.09 ± 37.63 ng h/mL for 10 mg/kg eurycomanone, and 9.90 ± 3.97 ng/mL and 37.15 ± 6.80 ng h/mL for E. longifolia extract (2 mg/kg as eurycomanone). The pharmacokinetic results were comparable with each other, based on the dose as eurycomanone.

Molecular cloning, characterization, and expression analysis of p53 from the oriental river prawn, Macrobrachium nipponense, in response to hypoxia

The tumor suppressor gene p53 plays a critical role in safeguarding the integrity of the genome in mammalian cells. It acts as a sequence-specific transcription factor. Once p53 is activated by a variety of cellular stresses, it transactivates downstream target genes and regulates the cell cycle and apoptosis. However, little is known about the functions of the p53 pathway in prawns in response to hypoxia. In this study, the cDNA of p53 from the oriental river prawn, Macrobrachium nipponense, (Mnp53) was cloned using a combination of homology cloning and rapid amplification of cDNA ends. The full-length cDNA of Mnp53 has 2130 bp, including an open reading frame of 1125 bp that encodes a polypeptide of 374 amino acids with a predicted molecular weight of 41.9 kDa and a theoretical isoelectric point of 6.9. Quantitative real-time (qRT)-PCR assays revealed that Mnp53 was ubiquitously expressed in all examined tissues, but at high levels in the hepatopancreas. In addition, we studied respiratory bursts and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the hepatopancreas of M. nipponense. Our results suggest that oxidative stress occurred in prawns in response to hypoxia and that apoptosis was associated with an increase in caspase-3 mRNA expression. qRT-PCR and western blot results confirmed that hypoxic stress induced the upregulation of Mnp53 at mRNA and protein levels. Furthermore, immunohistochemistry showed remarkable changes in immunopositive staining after the same hypoxic treatment. These results suggest that hypoxia-induced oxidative stress may cause apoptosis and cooperatively stimulate the expression of Mnp53.

Immunomodulation in Middle-Aged Humans Via the Ingestion of Physta® Standardized Root Water Extract of Eurycoma longifolia Jack--A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel Study

This study was aimed to investigate the capacity of a standardized root water extract of Eurycoma longifolia (Tongkat Ali, TA), Physta® to modulate human immunity in a middle-aged Japanese population. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel study was conducted for 4 weeks. Eighty-four of 126 subjects had relatively lower scores according to Scoring of Immunological Vigor (SIV) screening. Subjects were instructed to ingest either 200 mg/day of TA or rice powder as a placebo for 4 weeks [TA and Placebo (P) groups] and to visit a clinic in Tokyo twice (weeks 0 and 4). SIV, immunological grade, immunological age, and other immune parameters were measured. Eighty-three subjects completed the study; 40 in the TA group and 41 in the P group were statistically analyzed, whereas two were excluded from the analyses. At week 4, the SIV and immunological grade were significantly higher in the TA group than those in P group (p < 0.05). The numbers of total, naïve, and CD4(+) T cells were also higher in the TA group than those in P group (p < 0.05). No severe adverse events were observed. The results suggest that ingestion of the root water extract of TA (Physta®) enhances comprehensive immunity in both middle-aged men and women. This study is registered in UMIN-CTR (UMIN000011753).

Review Ergogenic Effect of Long Jack, Eurycoma Longifolia

Eurycoma longifolia (family: Simaroubaceae) is commonly distributed in the Southeast Asia and Indo-China. In particular, the aqueous extract and decoction of its root are a well-known folk medicine which enhances sexuality, fertility, and antiaging. Furthermore, it has been shown to possess anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties. Its common phytochemical components include alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, tannins, and triterpenes. This plant is rich in various quassinoids including eurycolactone, eurycomalactone, eurycomanol, eurycomanone, and eurycomaoside all of which has been reported to contribute to its remedial properties including increased muscle strength, endurance in cycling time, and reduced anxiety and stress. Based on established literature on the health benefits of E. longifolia, this review article has attempted to compile E. longifolia to be one of the choices of ergogenic plants.

Development of a biofilm inhibitor molecule against multidrug resistant Staphylococcus aureus associated with gestational urinary tract infections

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) is a globally widespread human infection caused by an infestation of uropathogens. Eventhough, Escherichia coli is often quoted as being the chief among them, Staphylococcus aureus involvement in UTI especially in gestational UTI is often understated. Staphylococcal accessory regulator A (SarA) is a quorum regulator of S. aureus that controls the expression of various virulence and biofilm phenotypes. Since SarA had been a focussed target for antibiofilm agent development, the study aims to develop a potential drug molecule targeting the SarA of S. aureus to combat biofilm associated infections in which it is involved. In our previous studies, we have reported the antibiofilm activity of SarA based biofilm inhibitor, (SarABI) with a 50% minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC50) value of 200 μg/mL against S. aureus associated with vascular graft infections and also the antibiofilm activity of the root ethanolic extracts of Melia dubia against uropathogenic E. coli. In the present study, in silico design of a hybrid molecule composed of a molecule screened from M. dubia root ethanolic extracts and a modified SarA based inhibitor (SarABI(M)) was undertaken. SarABI(M) is a modified form of SarABI where the fluorine groups are absent in SarABI(M). Chemical synthesis of the hybrid molecule, 4-(Benzylamino)cyclohexyl 2-hydroxycinnamate (henceforth referred to as UTI Quorum-Quencher, UTI(QQ)) was then performed, followed by in vitro and in vivo validation. The MBIC50 and MBIC90 of UTI(QQ) were found to be 15 and 65 μg/mL, respectively. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images witnessed biofilm reduction and bacterial killing in either UTI(QQ) or in combined use of antibiotic gentamicin and UTI (QQ) . Similar results were observed with in vivo studies of experimental UTI in rat model. So, we propose that the drug UTI(QQ) would be a promising candidate when used alone or, in combination with an antibiotic for staphylococcal associated UTI.

The in vitro and in vivo anti-cancer activities of a standardized quassinoids composition from Eurycoma longifolia on LNCaP human prostate cancer cells

Quassinoids are a group of diterpenoids found in plants from the Simaroubaceae family. They are also the major bioactive compounds found in Eurycoma longifolia which is commonly used as traditional medicine in South East Asia to treat various ailments including sexual dysfunction and infertility. These uses are attributed to its ability to improve testosterone level in men. Chronic consumption of E. longifolia extracts has been reported to increase testosterone level in men and animal model but its effect on prostate growth remains unknown. Therefore, the present study investigates the effects of a standardized total quassinoids composition (SQ40) containing 40% of the total quassinoids found in E. longifolia on LNCaP human prostate cancer cell line. SQ40 inhibited LNCaP cell growth at IC₅₀ value of 5.97 μg/mL while the IC₅₀ on RWPE-1 human prostate normal cells was 59.26 μg/mL. SQ40 also inhibited 5α-dihydrotestosterone-stimulated growth in LNCaP cells dose-dependently. The inhibitory effect of SQ40 in anchorage-independent growth of LNCaP cells was also demonstrated using soft agar assay. SQ40 suppressed LNCaP cell growth via G₀/G₁ phase arrest which was accompanied by the down-regulation of CDK4, CDK2, Cyclin D1 and Cyclin D3 and up-regulation of p21^Waf1/Cip1 protein levels. SQ40 at higher concentrations or longer treatment duration can cause G₂M growth arrest leading to apoptotic cell death as demonstrated by the detection of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase cleavage in LNCaP cells. Moreover, SQ40 also inhibited androgen receptor translocation to nucleus which is important for the transactivation of its target gene, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) and resulted in a significant reduction of PSA secretion after the treatment. In addition, intraperitoneal injection of 5 and 10 mg/kg of SQ40 also significantly suppressed the LNCaP tumor growth on mouse xenograft model. Results from the present study suggest that the standardized total quassinoids composition from E. longifolia promotes anti-prostate cancer activities in LNCaP human prostate cancer cells.

Eurycomanone and eurycomanol from Eurycoma longifolia Jack as regulators of signaling pathways involved in proliferation, cell death and inflammation

Eurycomanone and eurycomanol are two quassinoids from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia Jack. The aim of this study was to assess the bioactivity of these compounds in Jurkat and K562 human leukemia cell models compared to peripheral blood mononuclear cells from healthy donors. Both eurycomanone and eurycomanol inhibited Jurkat and K562 cell viability and proliferation without affecting healthy cells. Interestingly, eurycomanone inhibited NF-κB signaling through inhibition of IκBα phosphorylation and upstream mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, but not eurycomanol. In conclusion, both quassinoids present differential toxicity towards leukemia cells, and the presence of the α,β-unsaturated ketone in eurycomanone could be prerequisite for the NF-κB inhibition.

Anti-tumor activity of Eurycoma longifolia root extracts against K-562 cell line: in vitro and in vivo study

Eurycoma longifolia Jack has been widely used in traditional medicine for its antimalarial, aphrodisiac, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial and anti-pyretic activities. Its anticancer activity has also been recently reported on different solid tumors, however no anti-leukemic activity of this plant has been reported. Thus the present study assesses the in vitro and in vivo anti-proliferative and apoptotic potentials of E. longifolia on K-562 leukemic cell line. The K-562 cells (purchased from ATCC) were isolated from patients with chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML) were treated with the various fractions (TAF273, F3 and F4) of E. longifolia root methanolic extract at various concentrations and time intervals and the anti-proliferative activity assessed by MTS assay. Flow cytometry was used to assess the apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. Nude mice injected subcutaneously with 10⁷ K-562 cells were used to study the anti-leukemic activity of TAF273 in vivo. TAF273, F3 and F4 showed various degrees of growth inhibition with IC50 values of 19, 55 and 62 µg/ml, respectively. TAF273 induced apoptosis in a dose and time dependent manner. TAF273 arrested cell cycle at G1and S phases. Intraperitoneal administration of TAF273 (50 mg/kg) resulted in a significant growth inhibition of subcutaneous tumor in TAF273-treated mice compared with the control mice (P = 0.024). TAF273 shows potent anti-proliferative activity in vitro and in vivo models of CML and therefore, justifies further efforts to define more clearly the potential benefits of using TAF273 as a novel therapeutic strategy for CML management.

p53 is involved in shrimp survival via its regulation roles on MnSOD and GPx in response to acute environmental stresses

The tumor suppressor gene p53 plays a critical role in safeguarding the integrity of genome in mammalian cells. It acts as a sequence-specific transcription factor. Once activated by a variety of cellular stresses, p53 transactivates downstream target genes, through which it regulates cell cycle and apoptosis. However, little is known about p53 as well as its downstream target genes in invertebrates. A full length cDNA that encodes a 453-amino-acid p53 protein (Lvp53) was characterized in the Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) to explore the potential relationships between p53 and two antioxidant enzyme genes: Mn-superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in eliminating cell stresses in L. vannamei. Sequence analysis revealed a close phylogenetic relationship between Lvp53 and that of Marsupenaeus japonicus, and a high degree of conservation in critical amino acids residues is involved in DNA and zinc binding among species. Quantitative real-time PCR showed that Lvp53 was expressed with varied levels in all the 11 tissues under investigation. In response to acute pH challenge, the relative expression of Lvp53 was induced in a pH- and time-dependent manner, with the peak observed at pH 6.1 and after 24 h of treatment, in which condition, both the relative mRNA expressions and the enzymatic activities of LvMnSOD and LvGPx were increased correspondingly. In response to acute cadmium (Cd) exposure, the relative expression of Lvp53 was upregulated in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, with the maximum detected at Cd 6.6 μM and after 48 h of exposure, in which case, both the transcripts and the enzymatic activities of LvMnSOD and LvGPx were also induced. After Lvp53 transcripts were declined by double-strand RNA injection, the relative mRNA expressions of LvMnSOD and LvGPx were decreased correspondingly. Meanwhile, pH 6.1 or 6.6 μM Cd could not induce the transcripts or the enzymatic activities of LvMnSOD or LvGPx any more in Lvp53-silenced shrimp, but increased shrimp mortalities. These results indicated the involvement of Lvp53, LvMnSOD and LvGPx in mediating cell stress caused by suboptimal pH and elevated levels of Cd in L. vannamei, and that the expressions of LvMnSOD and LvGPx were positively regulated by Lvp53, which is a potential mechanism for shrimp to survive the oxidative stress that occurs during short-term exposure to Cd or challenge with acidic pH. This finding will contribute to better understanding of p53 signaling pathways and redox regulation in invertebrate organisms.

Molecular cloning, characterization and expression analysis of tumor suppressor protein p53 from orange-spotted grouper, Epinephelus coioides in response to temperature stress

The tumor suppressor protein p53 is a critical component of cell cycle checkpoint responses. It upregulates the expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors in response to DNA damage and other cellular perturbations, and promotes apoptosis when DNA repair pathways are overwhelmed. In the present study, the cDNA of p53 from the orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) (Ec-p53) was cloned by the combination of homology cloning and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) approaches. The full-length cDNA of Ec-p53 was of 1921 bp, including an open reading frame (ORF) of 1143 bp encoding a polypeptide of 380 amino acids with predicted molecular weight of 42.3 kDa and theoretical isoelectric point of 7.0. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) assays revealed that Ec-p53 was ubiquitously expressed in all the examined tissues but with high levels in intestine and liver of the orange-spotted grouper. In addition, we measured the DNA damage and apoptosis in the blood cells and the percentage of dead and damaged blood cells. Our results suggest that oxidative stress and DNA damage occurred in grouper in conditions where the temperature was 15 ± 0.5 °C. Furthermore, qRT-PCR and western blot confirmed that low temperature stress induced upregulation of Ec-p53 in the mRNA and protein levels. These results suggest that low temperature-induced oxidative stress may cause DNA damage or apoptosis, and cooperatively stimulate the expression of Ec-p53, which plays a critical role in immune defense and antioxidant responses.

Evaluation of Acute 13-Week Subchronic Toxicity and Genotoxicity of the Powdered Root of Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia Jack)

Tongkat Ali (Eurycoma longifolia) is an indigenous traditional herb in Southern Asia. Its powdered root has been processed to produce health supplements, but no detailed toxicology report is available. In this study, neither mutagenicity nor clastogenicity was noted, and acute oral LD50 was more than 6 g/kg b.w. After 4-week subacute and 13-week subchronic exposure paradigms (0, 0.6, 1.2, and 2 g/kg b.w./day), adverse effects attributable to test compound were not observed with respect to body weight, hematology, serum biochemistry, urinalysis, macropathology, or histopathology. However, the treatment significantly reduced prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase, creatine phosphate kinase, lactate dehydrogenase, and cholesterol levels, especially in males (P < 0.05). These changes were judged as pharmacological effects, and they are beneficial to health. The calculated acceptable daily intake (ADI) was up to 1.2 g/adult/day. This information will be useful for product development and safety management.

Anti-angiogenic quassinoid-rich fraction from Eurycoma longifolia modulates endothelial cell function

Targeting angiogenesis could be an excellent strategy to combat angiogenesis-dependent pathophysiological conditions such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, obesity, systemic lupus erythematosus, psoriasis, proliferative retinopathy and atherosclerosis. Recently a number of clinical investigations are being undertaken to assess the potential therapeutic application of various anti-angiogenic agents. Many of these angiogenesis inhibitors are directed against the functions of endothelial cells, which are considered as the building blocks of blood vessels. Similarly, roots of a traditional medicinal plant, Eurycoma longifolia, can be used as an alternative treatment to prevent and treat the angiogenesis-related diseases. In the present study, antiangiogenic potential of partially purified quassinoid-rich fraction (TAF273) of E. longifolia root extract was evaluated using ex vivo and in vivo angiogenesis models and the anti-angiogenic efficacy of TAF273 was investigated in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). TAF273 caused significant suppression in sprouting of microvessels in rat aorta with IC50 11.5μg/ml. TAF273 (50μg/ml) showed remarkable inhibition (63.13%) of neovascularization in chorioallantoic membrane of chick embryo. Tumor histology also revealed marked reduction in extent of vascularization. In vitro, TAF273 significantly inhibited the major angiogenesis steps such as proliferation, migration and differentiation of HUVECs. Phytochemical analysis revealed high content of quassinoids in TAF273. Specially, HPLC characterization showed that TAF273 is enriched with eurycomanone, 13α(21)-epoxyeurycomanone and eurycomanol. These results demonstrated that the antiangiogenic activity of TAF273 may be due to its inhibitory effect on endothelial cell proliferation, differentiation and migration which could be attributed to the high content of quassinoids in E. longifolia.

Effect of eurycomanone on cytochrome P450 isoforms CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2E1 and CYP3A4 in vitro

Eurycomanone, an active constituent isolated from Eurycoma longifolia Jack, was examined for modulatory effects on cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoforms CYP1A2, CYP2A6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2E1 and CYP3A4 using in vitro assays. The IC50 value was determined to assess the potencies of modulation for each CYP isoform. Our results indicated that eurycomanone did not potently inhibit any of the CYP isoforms investigated, with IC50 values greater than 250 μg/ml. Hence there appears to be little likelihood of drug-herb interaction between eurycomanone or herbal products with high content of this compound and CYP drug substrates via CYP inhibition.

A step further toward glyphosate-induced epidermal cell death: involvement of mitochondrial and oxidative mechanisms

A deregulation of programmed cell death mechanisms in human epidermis leads to skin pathologies. We previously showed that glyphosate, an extensively used herbicide, provoked cytotoxic effects on cultured human keratinocytes, affecting their antioxidant capacities and impairing morphological and functional cell characteristics. The aim of the present study, carried out on the human epidermal cell line HaCaT, was to examine the part of apoptosis plays in the cytotoxic effects of glyphosate and the intracellular mechanisms involved in the apoptotic events. We have conducted different incubation periods to reveal the specific events in glyphosate-induced cell death. We observed an increase in the number of early apoptotic cells at a low cytotoxicity level (15%), and then, a decrease, in favor of late apoptotic and necrotic cell rates for more severe cytotoxicity conditions. At the same time, we showed that the glyphosate-induced mitochondrial membrane potential disruption could be a cause of apoptosis in keratinocyte cultures.

Eurycomanone suppresses expression of lung cancer cell tumor markers, prohibitin, annexin 1 and endoplasmic reticulum protein 28

Bioactive compounds from the medicinal plant, Eurycoma longifolia Jack have been shown to promote anti-proliferative effects on various cancer cell lines. Here we examined the effects of purified eurycomanone, a quassinoid found in Eurycoma longifolia Jack extract, on the expression of selected genes of the A549 lung cancer cells. Eurycomanone inhibited A549 lung cancer cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations ranging from 5 to 20 μg/ml. The concentration that inhibited 50% of cell growth (GI(50)) was 5.1 μg/ml. The anti-proliferative effects were not fully reversible following the removal of eurycomanone, in which 30% of cell inhibition still remained (p<0.0001, T-test). At 8 μg/ml (GI(70)), eurycomanone suppressed anchorage-independent growth of A549 cells by >25% (p<0.05, T-test, n=8) as determined using soft agar colony formation assay. Cisplatin, a chemotherapy drug used for the treatment of non small cell lung cancer on the other hand, inhibited A549 cells proliferation at concentrations ranging from 0.2 μg/ml to 15 μg/ml with a GI(50) of 0.58 μg/ml. The treatment with eurycomanone reduced the abundance expression of the lung cancer markers, heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A2/B1, p53 tumor suppressor protein and other cancer-associated genes including prohibitin (PHB), annexin 1 (ANX1) and endoplasmic reticulum protein 28 (ERp28) but not the house keeping genes. The mRNA expressions of all genes with the exception of PHB were significantly downregulated, 72 h after treatment (p<0.05, T-test, n=9). These findings suggest that eurycomanone at viable therapeutic concentrations of 5-20 μg/ml exhibited significant anti-proliferative and anti-clonogenic cell growth effects on A549 lung cancer cells. The treatment also resulted in suppression of the lung cancer cell tumor markers and several known cancer cell growth-associated genes.

Blechnum orientale Linn - a fern with potential as antioxidant, anticancer and antibacterial agent

Background

Blechnum orientale Linn. (Blechnaceae) is used ethnomedicinally for the treatment of various skin diseases, stomach pain, urinary bladder complaints and sterilization of women. The aim of the study was to evaluate antioxidant, anticancer and antibacterial activity of five solvent fractions obtained from the methanol extract of the leaves of Blechnum orientale Linn.

Methods

Five solvent fractions were obtained from the methanol extract of B. orientale through successive partitioning with petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, butanol and water. Total phenolic content was assessed using Folin-Ciocalteu's method. The antioxidant activity was determined by measuring the scavenging activity of DPPH radicals. Cytotoxic activity was tested against four cancer cell lines and a non-malignant cell using MTT assay. Antibacterial activity was assessed using the disc diffusion and broth microdilution assays. Standard phytochemical screening tests for saponins, tannins, terpenoids, flavonoids and alkaloids were also conducted.

Results

The ethyl acetate, butanol and water fractions possessed strong radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀ 8.6-13.0 μg/ml) and cytotoxic activity towards human colon cancer cell HT-29 (IC₅₀ 27.5-42.8 μg/ml). The three extracts were also effective against all Gram-positive bacteria tested: Bacillus cereus, Micrococcus luteus, methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Stapylococcus epidermidis(minimum inhibitory concentration MIC 15.6-250 μg/ml; minimum bactericidal concentration MBC 15.6-250 μg/ml). Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of flavonoids, terpenoids and tannins. Ethyl acetate and butanol fractions showed highest total phenolic content (675-804 mg gallic acid equivalent/g).

Conclusions

The results indicate that this fern is a potential candidate to be used as an antioxidant agent, for colon cancer therapy and for treatment of MRSA infections and other MSSA/Gram-positive bacterial infectious diseases.