QTLs and candidate genes analyses for fruit size under domestication and differentiation in melon (Cucumis melo L.) based on high resolution maps

Multiple Localization Analysis of the Major QTL-sfw 2.2 for Controlling Single Fruit Weight Traits in Melon Based on SLAF Sequencing

Cucumis melo is an annual dicotyledonous trailing herb. It is fruity, cool, and refreshing to eat and is widely loved by consumers worldwide. The single fruit weight is an important factor affecting the yield, and thus the income and economic benefits, of melon crops. In this study, to identify the main QTLs (quantitative trait locus) controlling the single fruit weight of melon and thereby identify candidate genes controlling this trait, specific-locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF) analysis was performed on the offspring of female 1244 plants crossed with male MS-5 plants. A total of 115 individual plants in the melon F2 population were analyzed to construct a genetic linkage map with a total map distance of 1383.88 cM by the group in the early stages of the project, which was divided into 12 linkage groups with a total of 10,596 SLAF markers spaced at an average genetic distance of 0.13 cM. A total of six QTLs controlling single fruit weight (sfw loci) were detected. Seven pairs of markers with polymorphisms were obtained by screening candidate intervals from the SLAF data. The primary QTL sfw2.2 was further studied in 300 F2:3 family lines grown in 2020 and 2021, respectively, a positioning sfw2.2 between the markers CY Indel 11 and CY Indel 16, between 18,568,142 and 18,704,724 on chromosome 2. This interval contained 136.58 kb and included three genes with functional annotations, MELO3C029673, MELO3C029669, and MELO3C029674. Gene expression information for different fruit development stages was obtained from 1244 and MS-5 fruits on the 15d, 25d, and 35d after pollination, and qRT-PCR (quantitative reverse transcription-PCR) indicated that the expression of the MELO3C029669 gene significantly differed between the parents during the three periods. The gene sequences between the parents of MELO3C029669 were analyzed and compared, a base mutation was found to occur in the intronic interval between the parents of the gene, from A-G. Phylogenetic evolutionary tree analysis revealed that the candidate gene MELO3C029669 is most closely related to Pisum sativum Fimbrin-5 variant 2 and most distantly related to Cucumis melo var. makuwa. Therefore, it was hypothesized that MELO3C029669 is the primary major locus controlling single fruit weight in melon. These results not only provide a theoretical basis for further studies to find genes with functions in melon single fruit weight but also lay the foundation for accelerating breakthroughs and innovations in melon breeding.

A wild melon reference genome provides novel insights into the domestication of a key gene responsible for melon fruit acidity

KEY MESSAGE

A wild melon reference genome elucidates the genomic basis of fruit acidity domestication. Structural variants (SVs) have been reported to impose major effects on agronomic traits, representing a significant contributor to crop domestication. However, the landscape of SVs between wild and cultivated melons is elusive and how SVs have contributed to melon domestication remains largely unexplored. Here, we report a 379-Mb chromosome-scale genome of a wild progenitor melon accession "P84", with a contig N50 of 14.9 Mb. Genome comparison identifies 10,589 SVs between P84 and four cultivated melons with 6937 not characterized in previously analysis of 25 melon genome sequences. Furthermore, the population-scale genotyping of these SVs was determined in 1175 accessions, and 18 GWAS signals including fruit acidity, fruit length, fruit weight, fruit color and sex determination were detected. Based on these genotyped SVs, we identified 3317 highly diverged SVs between wild and cultivated melons, which could be the potential SVs associated with domestication-related traits. Furthermore, we identify novel SVs affecting fruit acidity and proposed the diverged evolutionary trajectories of CmPH, a key regulator of melon fruit acidity, during domestication and selection of different populations. These results will offer valuable resources for genomic studies and genetic improvement in melon.

Crop Landraces and Indigenous Varieties: A Valuable Source of Genes for Plant Breeding

Landraces and indigenous varieties comprise valuable sources of crop species diversity. Their utilization in plant breeding may lead to increased yield and enhanced quality traits, as well as resilience to various abiotic and biotic stresses. Recently, new approaches based on the rapid advancement of genomic technologies such as deciphering of pangenomes, multi-omics tools, marker-assisted selection (MAS), genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing greatly facilitated the exploitation of landraces in modern plant breeding. In this paper, we present a comprehensive overview of the implementation of new genomic technologies and highlight their importance in pinpointing the genetic basis of desirable traits in landraces and indigenous varieties of annual, perennial herbaceous, and woody crop species cultivated in the Mediterranean region. The need for further employment of advanced -omic technologies to unravel the full potential of landraces and indigenous varieties underutilized genetic diversity is also indicated. Ultimately, the large amount of genomic data emerging from the investigation of landraces and indigenous varieties reveals their potential as a source of valuable genes and traits for breeding. The role of landraces and indigenous varieties in mitigating the ongoing risks posed by climate change in agriculture and food security is also highlighted.

Molecular Marker-Assisted Mapping, Candidate Gene Identification, and Breeding in Melon (Cucumis melo L.): A Review

Melon (Cucumis melo L.) is an important crop that is cultivated worldwide for its fleshy fruit. Understanding the genetic basis of a plant's qualitative and quantitative traits is essential for developing consumer-favored varieties. This review presents genetic and molecular advances related to qualitative and quantitative phenotypic traits and biochemical compounds in melons. This information guides trait incorporation and the production of novel varieties with desirable horticultural and economic characteristics and yield performance. This review summarizes the quantitative trait loci, candidate genes, and development of molecular markers related to plant architecture, branching patterns, floral attributes (sex expression and male sterility), fruit attributes (shape, rind and flesh color, yield, biochemical compounds, sugar content, and netting), and seed attributes (seed coat color and size). The findings discussed in this review will enhance demand-driven breeding to produce cultivars that benefit consumers and melon breeders.

A Novel Introgression Line Library Derived from a Wild Melon Gives Insights into the Genetics of Melon Domestication, Uncovering New Genetic Variability Useful for Breeding

A collection of 30 melon introgression lines (ILs) was developed from the wild accession Ames 24297 (TRI) into 'Piel de Sapo' (PS) genetic background. Each IL carried an average of 1.4 introgressions from TRI, and the introgressions represented 91.4% of the TRI genome. Twenty-two ILs, representing 75% of the TRI genome, were evaluated in greenhouse (Algarrobo and Meliana) and field (Alcàsser) trials, mainly to study traits related to domestication syndrome such as fruit weight (FW) and flesh content (FFP), as well as other fruit quality traits as fruit shape (FS), flesh firmness (FF), soluble solid concentration (SSC), rind color and abscission layer. The IL collection showed an impressive variation in size-related traits, with FW ranging from 800 to 4100 g, reflecting the strong effect of the wild genome on these traits. Most of the ILs produced smaller fruits compared with PS; however, unexpectedly, the IL TRI05-2 produced bigger fruits, likely due to new epistatic interacions with the PS genetic background. In contrast, the genotypic effect for FS was smaller, and few QTLs with notable effects were detected. Interestingly, variability was also observed for FFP, FF and SSC, rind color and abscission layer formation. Genes in these introgressions are candidates for having been involved in melon domestication and diversification as well. These results confirm that the TRI IL collection is a very powerful tool for mapping traits of agronomic interest in melon, allowing the confirmation of previously reported QTLs and the identification of new ones to better understand the domestication process of this crop.

A Combination of QTL Mapping and GradedPool-Seq to Dissect Genetic Complexity for Gibberella Ear Rot Resistance in Maize Using an IBM Syn10 DH Population

Gibberella ear rot (GER) caused by Fusarium graminearum (teleomorph Gibberella zeae) is one of the most devastating maize diseases that reduces grain yield and quality worldwide. Utilization of host genetic resistance has become one of the most suitable strategies to control GER. In this study, a set of 246 diverse inbred lines derived from the intermated B 73 × Mo 17 doubled haploid population (IBM Syn10 DH) were used to detect quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with resistance to GER. Meanwhile, a GradedPool-Seq (GPS) approach was performed to identify genomic variations involved in GER resistance. Using artificial inoculation across multiple environments, GER severity of the population was observed with wide phenotypic variation. Based on the linkage mapping, a total of 14 resistant QTLs were detected, accounting for 5.11 to 14.87% of the phenotypic variation, respectively. In GPS analysis, five significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with GER resistance were identified. Combining QTL mapping and GPS analysis, a peak-value SNP on chromosome 4 from GPS was overlapped with the QTL qGER4.2, suggesting that the colocalized region could be the most possible target location conferring resistance to GER. Subsequently, seven candidate genes were identified within the peak SNP, linking them to GER resistance. These findings are useful for exploring the complicated genetic variations in maize GER resistance. The genomic regions and genes identified herein provide a list of candidate targets for further investigation, in addition to the combined strategy that can be used for quantitative traits in plant species.

Identification of two tandem genes associated with primary rosette branching in flowering Chinese cabbage

Branching is an important agronomic trait determining plant architecture and yield; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying branching in the stalk vegetable, flowering Chinese cabbage, remain unclear. The present study identified two tandem genes responsible for primary rosette branching in flowering Chinese cabbage by GradedPool-Seq (GPS) combined with Kompetitive Allele Specific PCR (KASP) genotyping. A 900 kb candidate region was mapped in the 28.0-28.9 Mb interval of chromosome A07 through whole-genome sequencing of three graded-pool samples from the F₂ population derived by crossing the branching and non-branching lines. KASP genotyping narrowed the candidate region to 24.6 kb. Two tandem genes, BraA07g041560.3C and BraA07g041570.3C, homologous to AT1G78440 encoding GA2ox1 oxidase, were identified as the candidate genes. The BraA07g041560.3C sequence was identical between the branching and non-branching lines, but BraA07g041570.3C had a synonymous single nucleotide polymorphic (SNP) mutation in the first exon (290^th bp, A to G). In addition, an ERE cis-regulatory element was absent in the promoter of BraA07g041560.3C, and an MYB cis-regulatory element in the promoter of BraA07g041570.3C in the branching line. Gibberellic acid (GA₃) treatment decreased the primary rosette branch number in the branching line, indicating the significant role of GA in regulating branching in flowering Chinese cabbage. These results provide valuable information for revealing the regulatory mechanisms of branching and contributing to the breeding programs of developing high-yielding species in flowering Chinese cabbage.

Phenotypic Characterization and Fine Mapping of a Major-Effect Fruit Shape QTL FS5.2 in Cucumber, Cucumis sativus L., with Near-Isogenic Line-Derived Segregating Populations

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) fruit size/shape (FS) is an important yield and quality trait that is quantitatively inherited. Many quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for fruit size/shape have been identified, but very few have been fine-mapped or cloned. In this study, through marker-assisted foreground and background selections, we developed near-isogenic lines (NILs) for a major-effect fruit size/shape QTL FS5.2 in cucumber. Morphological and microscopic characterization of NILs suggests that the allele of fs5.2 from the semi-wild Xishuangbanna (XIS) cucumber (C. s. var. xishuangbannesis) reduces fruit elongation but promotes radial growth resulting in shorter but wider fruit, which seems to be due to reduced cell length, but increased cellular layers. Consistent with this, the NIL carrying the homozygous XIS allele (fs5.2) had lower auxin/IAA contents in both the ovary and the developing fruit. Fine genetic mapping with NIL-derived segregating populations placed FS5.2 into a 95.5 kb region with 15 predicted genes, and a homolog of the Arabidopsis CRABS CLAW (CsCRC) appeared to be the most possible candidate for FS5.2. Transcriptome profiling of NIL fruits at anthesis identified differentially expressed genes enriched in the auxin biosynthesis and signaling pathways, as well as genes involved in cell cycle, division, and cell wall processes. We conclude that the major-effect QTL FS5.2 controls cucumber fruit size/shape through regulating auxin-mediated cell division and expansion for the lateral and longitudinal fruit growth, respectively. The gibberellic acid (GA) signaling pathway also plays a role in FS5.2-mediated fruit elongation.

Development and Application of InDel Markers Linked to Fruit-Shape and Peel-Colour Genes in Wax Gourd

The wax gourd is commonly grown in many countries because of its high nutritional and economic value. While the genes for the fruit shape and peel colour of wax gourd have been reported, the InDel markers linked to these genes remain undeveloped. In this study, the InDel markers linked to fruit-shape (Bch02G016830) and peel-colour (Bch05G003950) genes were developed from resequenced data. We used 120 inbred lines, 536 isolated populations, and 4 commercial hybrids to evaluate the validity and application value of the InDel markers. The accuracy rates of nine pairs of fruit-shape InDel markers (GX1-GX9) were 84.16–91.66% in 120 inbred lines. The accuracy rates of 27 pairs of peel-colour InDel markers (PS1-PS27) within approximately 3.0 Mb upstream and 3.0 Mb downstream of the peel-colour gene were 100% and those of 6 pairs of peel-colour InDel markers (PS28-PS33) within 3.0–20 Mb upstream and downstream of the peel-colour gene were 55.83–90% in 120 inbred lines. The purity of four commercial hybrids determined using GX1, GX2, PS13, and PS14 was highly consistent with the field results for purity determination. Our results provide important information for genetic linkage map construction, molecular-marker-assisted selective breeding, and purity determination of wax gourd hybrids.

A preliminary mapping of QTL qsg5.1 controlling seed germination in melon (Cucumis melo L.)

Melon (Cucumis melo L.) seed germination significantly affects its economic value. Cultivation of melon varieties with high germination ability and seedling vigor is beneficial in large-scale melon propagation. In this study, two melon genotypes differing in their germination ability, P5 with low and P10 with high germination ability, were used to identify the optimal seed germination conditions by evaluating different water immersion times and germination temperatures. The germination rate of the P5 and P10 parental genotypes and their segregating population, consisting of 358 F2:3 families, were evaluated for 2 years to identify their genetic basis. QTL analysis was performed on a high-density genetic map constructed using specific-locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq). The germination rate of F1 and F2 populations treated with water immersion for 8 h at 28°C and measured at 48 h showed a normal distribution Genetic mapping carried out using the high-density genetic map revealed eight QTLs in chromosomes 2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 that control melon seed germination, of which 2020/2021-qsg5.1 was consistently significant in both years of experimentation. qsg5.1 explained 15.13% of the phenotypic variance with a LOD of 4.1. To fine map the candidate region of qsg5.1, eight cleaved amplified polymorphism sequence (CAPS) markers were used to construct a genetic map with another 421 F2 individual fruits. The major QTL qsg5.1 was located between SNP53 and SNP54 within a 55.96 Kb interval containing four genes. qRT-PCR gene expression analysis of the candidate genes showed that MELO3C031219.2 (Phosphorus transporter PHO-5) exhibited a significant difference in gene expression between the parental lines at 24, 32, and 48 h after germination, potentially being the underlying gene controlling melon seed germination. These results provide a theoretical basis for the molecular mechanisms controlling melon seed germination and can practically contribute to further improving germination to increase the propagation efficiency of commercial melon cultivars.

Identification of Key Gene Networks Controlling Soluble Sugar and Organic Acid Metabolism During Oriental Melon Fruit Development by Integrated Analysis of Metabolic and Transcriptomic Analyses

Oriental melon (Cucumis melo var. acidulus) is one of the most economically important fruit crops worldwide. To elucidate the molecular basis related to soluble sugar and organic acid metabolism in the fruits of two oriental melon cultivars with different sweetness, we performed integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses of the fruits of 'Tianbao' (A) with high sweetness and 'Xiaocuigua' (B) with low sweetness at different ripening stages. The high accumulation of sucrose, D-glucose, D-(+)-raffinose, and the relatively lower citric acid and malic acid might contribute to the sweet taste of A. By screening the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and correlation analysis of the DEGs and differentially accumulated metabolites, we deduced that the B cultivar might promote the conversion of glucose and fructose into intermediate compounds for downstream processes such as glycolysis. The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle might also be enhanced compared to A, thus resulting in the differential accumulation of soluble sugars and organic acids, ultimately causing the taste difference between the two oriental melon cultivars. Our finding provides important information for further exploring the metabolic mechanisms of soluble sugars and organic acids in oriental melon.

Expression characterization and cross-species complementation uncover the functional conservation of YABBY genes for leaf abaxial polarity and carpel polarity establishment in Saccharum spontaneum

BACKGROUND

Cell polarity establishment and maintenance is indispensable for plant growth and development. In plants, the YABBY transcription factor family has a distinct role in leaf asymmetric polarity establishment and lateral organ initiation. However, for the important sugar crop Saccharum, little information on YABBY genes is available.

RESULTS

In this study, a total of 20 sequences for 7 SsYABBY genes were identified in the sugarcane genome, designated as SsYABBY1-7 based on their chromosome locations, and characterized by phylogenetic analysis. We provided a high-resolution map of SsYABBYs' global expression dynamics during vegetative and reproductive organ morphogenesis and revealed that SsYABBY3/4/5 are predominately expressed at the seedling stage of stem and leaf basal zone; SsYABBY2/5/7 are highly expressed in ovules. Besides, cross-species overexpression and/or complementation verified the conserved function of SsYABBY2 in establishing leaf adaxial-abaxial polarity and ovules development. We found that the SsYABBY2 could successfully rescue the leaves curling, carpel dehiscence, and ovule abortion defects in Arabidopsis crc mutant.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our study demonstrates that SsYABBY genes retained a conserved function in establishing and preserving leaf adaxial-abaxial polarity and lateral organ development during evolution.

Broadening the horizon of crop research: a decade of advancements in plant molecular genetics to divulge phenotype governing genes

Advancements in sequencing, genotyping, and computational technologies during the last decade (2011-2020) enabled new forward-genetic approaches, which subdue the impediments of precise gene mapping in varied crops. The modern crop improvement programs rely heavily on two major steps-trait-associated QTL/gene/marker's identification and molecular breeding. Thus, it is vital for basic and translational crop research to identify genomic regions that govern the phenotype of interest. Until the advent of next-generation sequencing, the forward-genetic techniques were laborious and time-consuming. Over the last 10 years, advancements in the area of genome assembly, genotyping, large-scale data analysis, and statistical algorithms have led faster identification of genomic variations regulating the complex agronomic traits and pathogen resistance. In this review, we describe the latest developments in genome sequencing and genotyping along with a comprehensive evaluation of the last 10-year headways in forward-genetic techniques that have shifted the focus of plant research from model plants to diverse crops. We have classified the available molecular genetic methods under bulk-segregant analysis-based (QTL-seq, GradedPool-Seq, QTG-Seq, Exome QTL-seq, and RapMap), target sequence enrichment-based (RenSeq, AgRenSeq, and TACCA), and mutation-based groups (MutMap, NIKS algorithm, MutRenSeq, MutChromSeq), alongside improvements in classical mapping and genome-wide association analyses. Newer methods for outcrossing, heterozygous, and polyploid plant genetics have also been discussed. The use of k-mers has enriched the nature of genetic variants which can be utilized to identify the phenotype-causing genes, independent of reference genomes. We envisage that the recent methods discussed herein will expand the repertoire of useful alleles and help in developing high-yielding and climate-resilient crops.

Cantaloupe melon genome reveals 3D chromatin features and structural relationship with the ancestral cucurbitaceae karyotype

Cucumis melo displays a large diversity of horticultural groups with cantaloupe melon the most cultivated type. Using a combination of single-molecule sequencing, 10X Genomics link-reads, high-density optical and genetic maps, and chromosome conformation capture (Hi-C), we assembled a chromosome scale C. melo var. cantalupensis Charentais mono genome. Integration of RNA-seq, MeDip-seq, ChIP-seq, and Hi-C data revealed a widespread compartmentalization of the melon genome, segregating constitutive heterochromatin and euchromatin. Genome-wide comparative and evolutionary analysis between melon botanical groups identified Charentais mono genome increasingly more divergent from Harukei-3 (reticulatus), Payzawat (inodorus), and HS (ssp. agrestis) genomes. To assess the paleohistory of the Cucurbitaceae, we reconstructed the ancestral Cucurbitaceae karyotype and compared it to sequenced cucurbit genomes. In contrast to other species that experienced massive chromosome shuffling, melon has retained the ancestral genome structure. We provide comprehensive genomic resources and new insights in the diversity of melon horticultural groups and evolution of cucurbits.

•

We provide a chromosome scale C. melo var. cantalupensis Charentais mono genome

•

Epigenomic analysis revealed a widespread compartmentalization of the melon genome

•

We reconstructed the ancestral Cucurbitaceae karyotype

•

Melon has retained the ancestral Cucurbitaceae genome structure