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Wang H, Abe I. Recent developments in the enzymatic modifications of steroid scaffolds. Org Biomol Chem 2024; 22:3559-3583. [PMID: 38639195 DOI: 10.1039/d4ob00327f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
Steroids are an important family of bioactive compounds. Steroid drugs are renowned for their multifaceted pharmacological activities and are the second-largest category in the global pharmaceutical market. Recent developments in biocatalysis and biosynthesis have led to the increased use of enzymes to enhance the selectivity, efficiency, and sustainability for diverse modifications of steroids. This review discusses the advancements achieved over the past five years in the enzymatic modifications of steroid scaffolds, focusing on enzymatic hydroxylation, reduction, dehydrogenation, cascade reactions, and other modifications for future research on the synthesis of novel steroid compounds and related drugs, and new therapeutic possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huibin Wang
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
| | - Ikuro Abe
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
- Collaborative Research Institute for Innovative Microbiology, The University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
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Song L, Ke J, Luo ZK, Xiong LB, Dong YG, Wei DZ, Wang FQ. Driving the conversion of phytosterol to 9α-hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione in Mycolicibacterium neoaurum by engineering the supply and regeneration of flavin adenine dinucleotide. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS AND BIOPRODUCTS 2023; 16:98. [PMID: 37291661 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-023-02331-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The conversion of phytosterols to steroid synthons by engineered Mycolicibacteria comprises one of the core steps in the commercial production of steroid hormones. This is a complex oxidative catabolic process, and taking the production of androstenones as example, it requires about 10 equivalent flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). As the high demand for FAD, the insufficient supply of FAD may be a common issue limiting the conversion process. RESULTS We substantiated, using the production of 9α-hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione (9-OHAD) as a model, that increasing intracellular FAD supply could effectively increase the conversion of phytosterols into 9-OHAD. Overexpressing ribB and ribC, two key genes involving in FAD synthesis, could significantly enhance the amount of intracellular FAD by 167.4% and the production of 9-OHAD by 25.6%. Subsequently, styrene monooxygenase NfStyA2B from Nocardia farcinica was employed to promote the cyclic regeneration of FAD by coupling the oxidation of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) to NAD+, and the production of 9-OHAD was further enhanced by 9.4%. However, the viable cell numbers decreased by 20.1%, which was attributed to sharply increased levels of H2O2 because of the regeneration of FAD from FADH2. Thus, we tried to resolve the conflict between FAD regeneration and cell growth by the overexpression of catalase and promotor replacement. Finally, a robust strain NF-P2 was obtained, which could produce 9.02 g/L 9-OHAD after adding 15 g/L phytosterols with productivity of 0.075 g/(L h), which was 66.7% higher than that produced by the original strain. CONCLUSIONS This study highlighted that the cofactor engineering, including the supply and recycling of FAD and NAD+ in Mycolicibacterium, should be adopted as a parallel strategy with pathway engineering to improve the productivity of the industrial strains in the conversion of phytosterols into steroid synthons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Song
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
- Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Intelligent Manufacturing (ECUST), China National Light Industry, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Jie Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
- Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Intelligent Manufacturing (ECUST), China National Light Industry, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Zhi-Kun Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
- Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Intelligent Manufacturing (ECUST), China National Light Industry, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Liang-Bin Xiong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
- Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine and Health Sciences, Shanghai, 201800, China
| | - Yu-Guo Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China.
| | - Dong-Zhi Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
- Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Intelligent Manufacturing (ECUST), China National Light Industry, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Feng-Qing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Newworld Institute of Biotechnology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China.
- Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Intelligent Manufacturing (ECUST), China National Light Industry, Shanghai, 200237, China.
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Liu X, Zhang J, Yuan C, Du G, Han S, Shi J, Sun J, Zhang B. Improving the production of 9α-hydroxy-4-androstene-3,17-dione from phytosterols by 3-ketosteroid-Δ 1-dehydrogenase deletions and multiple genetic modifications in Mycobacterium fortuitum. Microb Cell Fact 2023; 22:53. [PMID: 36922830 PMCID: PMC10018825 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-023-02052-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND 9α-hydroxyandrost-4-ene-3,17-dione (9-OHAD) is a significant intermediate for the synthesis of glucocorticoid drugs. However, in the process of phytosterol biotransformation to manufacture 9-OHAD, product degradation, and by-products restrict 9-OHAD output. In this study, to construct a stable and high-yield 9-OHAD producer, we investigated a combined strategy of blocking Δ1‑dehydrogenation and regulating metabolic flux. RESULTS Five 3-Ketosteroid-Δ1-dehydrogenases (KstD) were identified in Mycobacterium fortuitum ATCC 35855. KstD2 showed the highest catalytic activity on 3-ketosteroids, followed by KstD3, KstD1, KstD4, and KstD5, respectively. In particular, KstD2 had a much higher catalytic activity for C9 hydroxylated steroids than for C9 non-hydroxylated steroids, whereas KstD3 showed the opposite characteristics. The deletion of kstDs indicated that KstD2 and KstD3 were the main causes of 9-OHAD degradation. Compared with the wild type M. fortuitum ATCC 35855, MFΔkstD, the five kstDs deficient strain, realized stable accumulation of 9-OHAD, and its yield increased by 42.57%. The knockout of opccr or the overexpression of hsd4A alone could not reduce the metabolic flux of the C22 pathway, while the overexpression of hsd4A based on the knockout of opccr in MFΔkstD could remarkably reduce the contents of 9,21 ‑dihydroxy‑20‑methyl‑pregna‑4‑en‑3‑one (9-OHHP) by-products. The inactivation of FadE28-29 leads to a large accumulation of incomplete side-chain degradation products. Therefore, hsd4A and fadE28-29 were co-expressed in MFΔkstDΔopccr successfully eliminating the two by-products. Compared with MFΔkstD, the purity of 9-OHAD improved from 80.24 to 90.14%. Ultimately, 9‑OHAD production reached 12.21 g/L (83.74% molar yield) and the productivity of 9-OHAD was 0.0927 g/L/h from 20 g/L phytosterol. CONCLUSIONS KstD2 and KstD3 are the main dehydrogenases that lead to 9-OHAD degradation. Hsd4A and Opccr are key enzymes regulating the metabolic flux of the C19- and C22-pathways. Overexpression of fadE28-29 can reduce the accumulation of incomplete degradation products of the side chains. According to the above findings, the MF-FA5020 transformant was successfully constructed to rapidly and stably accumulate 9-OHAD from phytosterols. These results contribute to the understanding of the diversity and complexity of steroid catabolism regulation in actinobacteria and provide a theoretical basis for further optimizing industrial microbial catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangcen Liu
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jingxian Zhang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chenyang Yuan
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Guilin Du
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Suwan Han
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jiping Shi
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China
| | - Junsong Sun
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China. .,School of Life Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, 201210, China.
| | - Baoguo Zhang
- Lab of Biorefinery, Shanghai Advanced Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, No. 99 Haike Road, Pudong, Shanghai, 201210, China.
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Loop pathways are responsible for tuning the accumulation of C19- and C22-sterol intermediates in the mycobacterial phytosterol degradation pathway. Microb Cell Fact 2023; 22:19. [PMID: 36710325 PMCID: PMC9885637 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-022-02008-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
4-Androstene-3,17-dione (4-AD) and 22-hydroxy-23,24-bisnorchol-4-ene-3-one (BA) are the most important and representative C19- and C22-steroidal materials. The optimalization of sterol production with mycobacterial phytosterol conversion has been investigated for decades. One of the major challenges is that current industrial mycobacterial strains accumulate unignorable impurities analogous to desired sterol intermediates, significantly hampering product extractions and refinements. Previously, we identified Mycobacterium neoaurum HGMS2 as an efficient 4-AD-producing strain (Wang et al. in Microb Cell Fact. 19:187, 2020). Recently, we have genetically modified the HGMS2 strain to remove its major impurities including ADD and 9OH-AD (Li et al. in Microb Cell Fact. 20:158, 2021). Unexpectedly, the modified mutants started to significantly accumulate BA compared with the HGMS2 strain. In this work, while we attempted to block BA occurrence during 4-AD accumulation in HGMS2 mutants, we identified a few loop pathways that regulated metabolic flux switching between 4-AD and BA accumulations and found that both the 4-AD and BA pathways shared a 9,10-secosteroidial route. One of the key enzymes in the loop pathways was Hsd4A1, which played an important role in determining 4-AD accumulation. The inactivation of the hsd4A1 gene significantly blocked the 4-AD metabolic pathway so that the phytosterol degradation pathway flowed to the BA metabolic pathway, suggesting that the BA metabolic pathway is a complementary pathway to the 4-AD pathway. Thus, knocking out the hsd4A1 gene essentially made the HGMS2 mutant (HGMS2Δhsd4A1) start to efficiently accumulate BA. After further knocking out the endogenous kstd and ksh genes, an HGMS2Δhsd4A1 mutant, HGMS2Δhsd4A1/Δkstd1, enhanced the phytosterol conversion rate to BA in 1.2-fold compared with the HGMS2Δhsd4A1 mutant in pilot-scale fermentation. The final BA yield increased to 38.3 g/L starting with 80 g/L of phytosterols. Furthermore, we knocked in exogenous active kstd or ksh genes to HGMS2Δhsd4A1/Δ kstd1 to construct DBA- and 9OH-BA-producing strains. The resultant DBA- and 9OH-BA-producing strains, HGMS2Δhsd4A1/kstd2 and HGMS2Δkstd1/Δhsd4A1/kshA1B1, efficiently converted phytosterols to DBA- and 9OH-BA with the rates of 42.5% and 40.3%, respectively, and their final yields reached 34.2 and 37.3 g/L, respectively, starting with 80 g/L phytosterols. Overall, our study not only provides efficient strains for the industrial production of BA, DBA and 9OH-BA but also provides insights into the metabolic engineering of the HGMS2 strain to produce other important steroidal compounds.
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Key Words
- 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD)
- 22-hydroxy-23,24-bisnorchol-4-ene-3-one (BA)
- 3-hydroxy-9,10-secoandrost-1,3,5(10)-triene-9,17-dione (HSA)
- 3-ketosteroid-1,2-dehydrogenase (KstD)
- 3-ketosteroid-9α-hydroxylase (Ksh)
- 4-androstene-3,17-dione (4-AD)
- 9α-hydroxyl-4-androstene-3,17-dione (9OH-AD)
- Bioconversion
- Biotransformation
- Cholesterol oxidases (Cho)
- Monooxygenase (Mon)
- Phytosterols and Mycobacterium sp.
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de Carvalho CCCR, Fernandes P. Biocatalysis of Steroids by Mycobacterium sp. in Aqueous and Organic Media. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2704:221-229. [PMID: 37642847 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3385-4_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium sp. can convert steroids such as β-sitosterol, campesterol, and cholesterol, by selective side-chain cleavage and oxidation of the C3 hydroxyl group to a ketone, into key intermediates that can be easily functionalized to yield commercially interesting pharmaceutical products. In aqueous systems, the biocatalysis is limited by the low solubility of the steroids in water. Several strategies have been introduced to tackle this limitation, e.g., formation of cyclodextrin-steroid complexes and generation of aqueous microdispersions with steroid particle size in the range of hundreds of nanometers. Still, the introduction of an organic phase acting as a substrate and/or product reservoir is a well-established and relatively easy to implement strategy to overcome the sparing water solubility of steroid molecules. However, the organic phase has to be carefully chosen to prevent tampering with the activity/viability of microbial cells.In this chapter, we describe the methodology for the biocatalysis of β-sitosterol to 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD) and 1,4-androstadiene-3,17-dione (ADD), both in aqueous and organic:aqueous systems. In the latter case, both traditional organic solvents and green solvents are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla C C R de Carvalho
- iBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Pedro Fernandes
- Associate Laboratory i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- iBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
- DREAMS and Faculty of Engineering, Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, Lisbon, Portugal
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Song S, Su Z. Targeted Mutagenesis of Mycobacterium Strains by Homologous Recombination. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2704:85-96. [PMID: 37642839 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3385-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Targeted mutagenesis by homologous recombination (TMHR) is an efficient allelic exchange mutagenesis for bacterial genome engineering in synthetic biology. Unlike other allelic exchange methods, TMHR does not require a heterologous recombinase to insert or excise a selectable marker from the genome. In contrast, positive and negative selection is achieved solely by suicide vector-encoded functional and host cell proteins. Here we describe a concise protocol to knock out and knock in a 3-ketosteroid-1,2-dehydrogenase gene (kstd) in Mycobacterium neoaurum HGMS2 using TMHR approach. The homology arms flanking the kstd gene are amplified by PCR in vitro and then subcloned into a common homologous recombination vector. The vector is then electroporated into the HGMS2 competent cells. The replacement of the kstd gene by homologous recombination produces antibiotic-resistant single-crossover recombination via the first allelic exchange. Double-crossover markerless mutants are directly separated using sucrose-mediated counterselection. These two steps can generate seamless mutations down to a single DNA base pair. The whole process takes less than 2 weeks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shikui Song
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation and Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Zhengding Su
- Laboratory of Protein Engineering and Biopharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Industrial Fermentation and Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China.
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Nunes VO, Vanzellotti NDC, Fraga JL, Pessoa FLP, Ferreira TF, Amaral PFF. Biotransformation of Phytosterols into Androstenedione—A Technological Prospecting Study. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27103164. [PMID: 35630641 PMCID: PMC9147728 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27103164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Androstenedione (AD) is a key intermediate in the body’s steroid metabolism, used as a precursor for several steroid substances, such as testosterone, estradiol, ethinyl estradiol, testolactone, progesterone, cortisone, cortisol, prednisone, and prednisolone. The world market for AD and ADD (androstadienedione) exceeds 1000 tons per year, which stimulates the pharmaceutical industry’s search for newer and cheaper raw materials to produce steroidal compounds. In light of this interest, we aimed to investigate the progress of AD biosynthesis from phytosterols by prospecting scientific articles (Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases) and patents (USPTO database). A wide variety of articles and patents involving AD and phytosterol were found in the last few decades, resulting in 108 relevant articles (from January 2000 to December 2021) and 23 patents of interest (from January 1976 to December 2021). The separation of these documents into macro, meso, and micro categories revealed that most studies (articles) are performed in China (54.8%) and in universities (76%), while patents are mostly granted to United States companies. It also highlights the fact that AD production studies are focused on “process improvement” techniques and on possible modifications of the “microorganism” involved in biosynthesis (64 and 62 documents, respectively). The most-reported “process improvement” technique is “chemical addition” (40%), which means that the addition of solvents, surfactants, cofactors, inducers, ionic liquids, etc., can significantly increase AD production. Microbial genetic modifications stand out in the “microorganism” category because this strategy improves AD yield considerably. These documents also revealed the main aspects of AD and ADD biosynthesis: Mycolicibacterium sp. (basonym: Mycobacterium sp.) (40%) and Mycolicibacterium neoaurum (known previously as Mycobacterium neoaurum) (32%) are the most recurrent species studied. Microbial incubation temperatures can vary from 29 °C to 37 °C; incubation can last from 72 h to 14 days; the mixture is agitated at 140 to 220 rpm; vegetable oils, mainly soybean, can be used as the source of a mixture of phytosterols. In general, the results obtained in the present technological prospecting study are fundamental to mapping the possibilities of AD biosynthesis process optimization, as well as to identifying emerging technologies and methodologies in this scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Oliveira Nunes
- By&Bio—By-Products to Bioproducts Lab, Escola de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (V.O.N.); (N.d.C.V.); (J.L.F.); (F.L.P.P.); (T.F.F.)
| | - Nathália de Castro Vanzellotti
- By&Bio—By-Products to Bioproducts Lab, Escola de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (V.O.N.); (N.d.C.V.); (J.L.F.); (F.L.P.P.); (T.F.F.)
| | - Jully Lacerda Fraga
- By&Bio—By-Products to Bioproducts Lab, Escola de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (V.O.N.); (N.d.C.V.); (J.L.F.); (F.L.P.P.); (T.F.F.)
| | - Fernando Luiz Pellegrini Pessoa
- By&Bio—By-Products to Bioproducts Lab, Escola de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (V.O.N.); (N.d.C.V.); (J.L.F.); (F.L.P.P.); (T.F.F.)
- Centro Universitário SENAI CIMATEC, Salvador 41650-010, BA, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Felix Ferreira
- By&Bio—By-Products to Bioproducts Lab, Escola de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (V.O.N.); (N.d.C.V.); (J.L.F.); (F.L.P.P.); (T.F.F.)
| | - Priscilla Filomena Fonseca Amaral
- By&Bio—By-Products to Bioproducts Lab, Escola de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, RJ, Brazil; (V.O.N.); (N.d.C.V.); (J.L.F.); (F.L.P.P.); (T.F.F.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-21-3938-7623
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Feng J, Wu Q, Zhu D, Ma Y. Biotransformation Enables Innovations Toward Green Synthesis of Steroidal Pharmaceuticals. CHEMSUSCHEM 2022; 15:e202102399. [PMID: 35089653 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202102399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Steroids have been widely used in birth-control, prevention, and treatment of various diseases, representing the largest sector after antibiotics in the global pharmaceutical market. The steroidal active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) have been produced via partial synthetic processes first mainly from sapogenins, which was converted into 16-dehydropregnenolone by the famous "Marker Degradation". Traditional mutation and screening, and process engineering have resulted in the industrial production of 4-androstene-3,17-dione (AD), androst-1,4-diene-3,17-dione (ADD), 9α-hydroxy-androsta-4-ene-3,17-dione (9α-OH-AD), and so on, which serve as the key intermediates for the synthesis of steroidal APIs. Recently, genetic and metabolic engineering have generated highly efficient microbial strains for the production of these precursors, leading to the replacement of sapogenins with phytosterols as the starting materials. Further advances in synthetic biology hold promise in the design and construction of microbial cell factories for the industrial production of steroidal intermediates and/or APIs from simple carbon sources such as glucose. Integration of biotransformation into the synthesis of steroidal APIs can greatly reduce the number of reaction steps, achieve lower waste discharge and higher production efficiency, thus enabling a greener steroidal pharmaceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhui Feng
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Enzymes and Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, 32 Xi Qi Dao, Tianjin, 300308, P. R. China
| | - Qiaqing Wu
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Enzymes and Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, 32 Xi Qi Dao, Tianjin, 300308, P. R. China
| | - Dunming Zhu
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Enzymes and Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, 32 Xi Qi Dao, Tianjin, 300308, P. R. China
| | - Yanhe Ma
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Enzymes and Tianjin Engineering Research Center of Biocatalytic Technology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, 32 Xi Qi Dao, Tianjin, 300308, P. R. China
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Microbial Steroid Production Technologies: Current Trends and Prospects. Microorganisms 2021; 10:microorganisms10010053. [PMID: 35056503 PMCID: PMC8779116 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10010053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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