Primary and secondary prevention interventions for cardiovascular disease in low-income and middle-income countries: a systematic review of economic evaluations

Cost-effectiveness of non-communicable disease prevention in Southeast Asia: a scoping review

Background

Cost-effectiveness analyses (CEAs) on prevention of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are necessary to guide decision makers to allocate scarce healthcare resource, especially in Southeast Asia (SEA), where many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are in the process of scaling-up preventive interventions. This scoping review aims to summarize the cost-effectiveness evidence of primary, secondary, or tertiary prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) as well as of major NCDs risk factors in SEA.

Methods

A scoping review was done following the PRISMA checklist for Scoping Reviews. Systematic searches were performed on Cochrane Library, EconLit, PubMed, and Web of Science to identify CEAs which focused on primary, secondary, or tertiary prevention of T2DM, CVDs and major NCDs risk factors with the focus on primary health-care facilities and clinics and conducted in SEA LMICs. Risks of bias of included studies was assessed using the Consensus of Health Economic Criteria list.

Results

This study included 42 CEAs. The interventions ranged from screening and targeting specific groups for T2DM and CVDs to smoking cessation programs, discouragement of smoking or unhealthy diet through taxation, or health education. Most CEAs were model-based and compared to a do-nothing scenario. In CEAs related to tobacco use prevention, the cost-effectiveness of tax increase was confirmed in all related CEAs. Unhealthy diet prevention, mass media campaigns, salt-reduction strategies, and tax increases on sugar-sweetened beverages were shown to be cost-effective in several settings. CVD prevention and treatment of hypertension were found to be the most cost-effective interventions. Regarding T2DM prevention, all assessed screening strategies were cost-effective or even cost-saving, and a few strategies to prevent T2DM complications were found to be cost-effective in certain settings.

Conclusion

This review shows that the cost-effectiveness of preventive strategies in SEA against T2DM, CVDs, and their major NCDs risk factors are heterogenous in both methodology as well as outcome. This review combined with the WHO "best buys" could guide LMICs in SEA in possible interventions to be considered for implementation and upscaling. However, updated and country-specific information is needed to further assess the prioritization of the different healthcare interventions.

Systematic review registration

https://osf.io, identifier: 10.17605/OSF.IO/NPEHT.

Global epidemiology of acute coronary syndromes

This Review provides an epidemiological overview of global mortality from acute coronary syndromes (ACS). Across the regions of the world where data are available, mortality from ACS - including premature (age <70 years) mortality from ACS - was higher in men than in women. In both sexes, age-standardized mortality rates (ASMRs) for ACS in 2020 were highest in lower-income global regions. However, 20 years earlier, ASMRs for ACS were highest in higher-income global regions, including Europe, Northern America and Oceania. These higher-income regions have seen progressive reductions in mortality from ACS during the past 20 years, which is in contrast to the more stable levels of mortality from ACS in Asia and in Latin America and the Caribbean. In the seven African countries with data available, a small upwards trend in ASMRs for ACS was observed, reflecting an epidemiological transition that is already well advanced in these regions. Consistent with these changes during the past 20 years were >50% reductions in ASMRs for ACS in the high-income countries of the world compared with <15% reductions in lower-middle-income countries. Policymakers need more complete epidemiological data across and within global regions to identify those countries in which the burden of death from ACS is greatest and the need to implement preventive strategies is most pressing.

Economic evaluations of non-communicable diseases conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa: a critical review of data sources

BACKGROUND

Policymakers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) face challenging decisions regarding the allocation of health resources. Economic evaluations can help decision makers to determine which health interventions should be funded and or included in their benefits package. A major problem is whether the evaluations incorporated data from sources that are reliable and relevant to the country of interest. We aimed to review the quality of the data sources used in all published economic evaluations for cardiovascular disease and diabetes in SSA.

METHODS

We systematically searched selected databases for all published economic evaluations for CVD and diabetes in SSA. We modified a hierarchy of data sources and used a reference case to measure the adherence to reporting and methodological characteristics, and descriptively analysed author statements.

RESULTS

From 7,297 articles retrieved from the search, we selected 35 for study inclusion. Most were modelled evaluations and almost all focused on pharmacological interventions. The studies adhered to the reporting standards but were less adherent to the methodological standards. The quality of data sources varied. The quality level of evidence in the data domains of resource use and costs were generally considered of high quality, with studies often sourcing information from reliable databases within the same jurisdiction. The authors of most studies referred to data sources in the discussion section of the publications highlighting the challenges of obtaining good quality and locally relevant data.

CONCLUSIONS

The data sources in some domains are considered high quality but there remains a need to make substantial improvements in the methodological adherence and overall quality of data sources to provide evidence that is sufficiently robust to support decision making in SSA within the context of UHC and health benefits plans. Many SSA governments will need to strengthen and build their capacity to conduct economic evaluations of interventions and health technology assessment for improved priority setting. This capacity building includes enhancing local infrastructures for routine data production and management. If many of the policy makers are using economic evaluations to guide resource allocation, it is imperative that the evidence used is of the feasibly highest quality.

Global perspectives on heart disease rehabilitation and secondary prevention: a scientific statement from the Association of Cardiovascular Nursing and Allied Professions, European Association of Preventive Cardiology, and International Council of Cardiovascular Prevention and Rehabilitation

Cardiovascular disease is a leading cause of death, morbidity, disability, and reduced health-related quality of life, as well as economic burden worldwide, with some 80% of disease burden occurring in the low- and middle-income country (LMIC) settings. With increasing numbers of people living longer with symptomatic disease, the effectiveness and accessibility of secondary preventative and rehabilitative health services have never been more important. Whilst LMICs experience the highest prevalence and mortality rates, the global approach to secondary prevention and cardiac rehabilitation, which mitigates this burden, has traditionally been driven from clinical guidelines emanating from high-income settings. This state-of-the art review provides a contemporary global perspective on cardiac rehabilitation and secondary prevention, contrasting the challenges of and opportunities for high vs. lower income settings. Actionable solutions to overcome system, clinician, programme, and patient level barriers to cardiac rehabilitation access in LMICs are provided.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Personalized Hypertension Prevention

BACKGROUND

While a population-wide strategy involving lifestyle changes and a high-risk strategy involving pharmacological interventions have been described, the recently proposed personalized medicine approach combining both strategies for the prevention of hypertension has increasingly gained attention. However, a cost-effectiveness analysis has been hardly addressed. This study was set out to build a Markov analytical decision model with a variety of prevention strategies in order to conduct an economic analysis for tailored preventative methods.

METHODS

The Markov decision model was used to perform an economic analysis of four preventative strategies: usual care, a population-based universal approach, a population-based high-risk approach, and a personalized strategy. In all decisions, the cohort in each prevention method was tracked throughout time to clarify the four-state model-based natural history of hypertension. Utilizing the Monte Carlo simulation, a probabilistic cost-effectiveness analysis was carried out. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was calculated to estimate the additional cost to save an additional life year.

RESULTS

The incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICER) for the personalized preventive strategy versus those for standard care were -USD 3317 per QALY gained, whereas they were, respectively, USD 120,781 and USD 53,223 per Quality-Adjusted Life Year (QALY) gained for the population-wide universal approach and the population-based high-risk approach. When the ceiling ratio of willingness to pay was USD 300,000, the probability of being cost-effective reached 74% for the universal approach and was almost certain for the personalized preventive strategy. The equivalent analysis for the personalized strategy against a general plan showed that the former was still cost-effective.

CONCLUSIONS

To support a health economic decision model for the financial evaluation of hypertension preventative measures, a personalized four-state natural history of hypertension model was created. The personalized preventive treatment appeared more cost-effective than population-based conventional care. These findings are extremely valuable for making hypertension-based health decisions based on precise preventive medication.

Changes in ideal cardiovascular health among Malawian adults from 2009 to 2017

Ideal Cardiovascular Health (CVH) is a concept defined by the American Heart Association (AHA) as part of its 2020 Impact Goals. Until now, changes in ideal CVH have been poorly evaluated in Sub-Saharan African populations. We aimed to investigate changes in the prevalence of ideal CVH and its components in a population of Malawian adults. Secondary analysis was done on cross-sectional data from 2009 to 2017, obtained from the Malawi STEPS surveys which included 5730 participants aged 25-64 years. CVH metrics categorized into "ideal (6-7 ideal metrics)", "intermediate (3-5 ideal metrics)" and "poor (0-2 ideal metrics)" were computed using blood pressure, body mass index (BMI), fasting glycaemia, fruit and vegetable intake, physical activity, smoking, and total cholesterol. Sampling weights were used to account for the sampling design, and all estimates were standardised by age and sex using the direct method. The mean participant age across both periods was 40.1 ± 12.4 years. The prevalence of meeting ≥ 6 ideal CVH metrics increased substantially from 9.4% in 2009 to 33.3% in 2017, whereas having ≤ 2 ideal CVH metrics decreased from 7.6% to 0.5% over this time. For the individual metrics, desirable levels of smoking, fruit and vegetable intake, physical activity, blood pressure (BP), total cholesterol and fasting glucose all increased during the study period whilst achievable levels of BMI (< 25 kg/m²) declined. From 2009 to 2017, the mean number of ideal CVH metrics was higher in women compared to men (from 2.1% to 5.1% vs 2.0% to 5.0%). However, poor levels of smoking and fruit and vegetable intake were higher in men compared to women (from 27.9% to 23.6% vs. 7.4%% to 1.9% , and from 33.7% to 42.9% vs 30.8% to 34.6%, respectively). Also, whilst achievable levels of BMI rose in men (from 84.4% to 86.2%) the proportion reduced in women (from 72.1% to 67.5% ). Overall, CVH improved in Malawian adults from 2009 to 2017 and was highest in women. However, the prevalence of poor fruit and vegetable intake, and poor smoking remained high in men whilst optimal levels of BMI was declined in women. To improve this situation, individual and population-based strategies that address body mass, smoking and fruit and vegetable intake are warranted for maximal health gains in stemming the development of cardiovascular events.

The costs of interventions for type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cardiovascular disease in South Africa - a systematic literature review

BACKGROUND

In the context of a move to universal health coverage, three separate systematic reviews were conducted to summarise available evidence on the direct costs of interventions for type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease in South Africa.

METHODS

PubMed® and Web of Science was searched for literature published between 01 and 1995 and 27 October 2022. Additionally, reference and citations lists of retrieved articles and experts were consulted. We also tracked reference lists of previous, related systematic reviews. Eligible publications were cost analyses of clinical interventions targeted at adults age 15 + reporting primary estimates of in- and out-of-hospital costs from a provider perspective. Costs were extracted and converted to 2021 US dollars, and article methodological and reporting quality was appraised using the 2013 CHEERS checklist.

RESULTS

Of the 600, 1,172 and 1,466 identified publications for type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease, respectively, 10, 12, and 17 met full inclusion criteria. 60% of articles reported cardiovascular disease costs, 52% were of good reporting quality, and 10%, 50%, and 39% of type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cardiovascular disease papers reported private-sector costs only. Hypertension drug costs ranged from $2 to $85 per person-month, while type 2 diabetes mellitus drug costs ranged between $57 and $630 per person-year (ppy). Diabetes-related complication treatment costs ranged from $55 for retinopathy treatment to $25,193 ppy for haemodialysis, while cardiovascular disease treatment costs were between $160 and $37,491 ppy. Drugs and treatment of complications were major cost drivers for hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus, while hospitalisation drove cardiovascular disease costs.

CONCLUSION

The intervention costs of type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension and cardiovascular disease care have received more attention recently, particularly diabetes-related complications and cardiovascular disease. However, 39% of identified cardiovascular disease treatment costs used a private sector perspective, leaving significant research gaps in the public sector and the cheaper to treat hypertension and type 2 diabetes mellitus. This review fills an information gap regarding the intervention costs of these diseases in South Africa.

Association of health insurance status with coronary risk factors, coronary artery disease, interventions and outcomes in India

Objective

Coronary artery disease (CAD) related hospitalization and interventions are associated with catastrophic out-of-pocket health expenditure in India. To evaluate differences in risk factors, disease severity, management and outcomes in uninsured vs insured CAD patients we performed a study.

Methods

Successive CAD patients who underwent percutaneous intervention (PCI) at our centre were enrolled from January 2018 to June 2021. Clinical, angiographic and intervention data were periodically uploaded in the American College of Cardiology CathPCI platform. Descriptive statistics are reported.

Results

4672 CAD patients (men 3736, women 936) were included; uninsured were 2166 (46%), government insurance was in 1635 (36%) and private insurance in 871 (18%). Mean age was 60.1 ± 11 years, uninsured <50y were 21.6% vs 14.0% and 20.3% with government and private insurance. Among the uninsured prevalence of raised total and non-HDL cholesterol, any tobacco use, ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and ejection fraction <30% were more (p < 0.01). In the STEMI group (n = 1985), rates of primary PCI were the highest in those with private insurance (38.7%) compared to others. Multivessel stenting (≥2 stents) was more among the insured patients. Median length of hospital stay was similar in the three groups. In-hospital mortality was slightly more in the uninsured (1.43%), compared to government (0.88) and privately insured (0.82) (p = 0.242). The cost of hospitalization and procedures was the highest among uninsured (US$ 2240, IQR 1877–2783) compared to government (US$ 1977, IQR 1653–2437) and privately insured (US$ 2013, IQR 1668–2633) (p < 0.001).

Conclusions

Uninsured CAD patients in India are younger with more risk factors, acute coronary syndrome, STEMI, multivessel disease and coronary stenting compared to those with government or private insurance. The uninsured bear significantly greater direct costs with slightly greater mortality.

Perceptions of community members on contextual factors driving cardiovascular disease behavioural risk in Ghana: a qualitative study

Background

There is clear evidence that lifestyle interventions are effective towards reducing cardiovascular risk. However, implementing these interventions in real-world setting has been suboptimal, especially in sub-Saharan Africa, thus creating ‘evidence to practice gap.’ We explore perceptions of community members on contextual factors driving cardiovascular disease (CVD) behavioural risk (alcohol consumption, smoking, physical (in)activity and fruits and vegetables consumption) in Ghana.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study. Thirty (30) focus group discussions (FGDs) were carried out in five communities in Ghana (Ga Mashie, Tafo, Gyegyeano, Chanshegu and Agorve) between October and November 2017, and these were analysed using a thematic approach.

Results

Five main factors were raised by participants as contextual factors driving alcohol consumption and smoking and these include economic (poverty, unemployment, loss of jobs), psycho-social (worries, hardships, anxieties), medical (pain suppression, illness management), sexual (sexual performance boost), and socio-cultural (curse invocation, quest for supernatural powers) factors. Personal/social factors (time constraints, personal dislike, lack of knowledge of the benefits of exercise), economic factors (poverty, economic hardship), and negative health effects (getting tired easily, medical conditions) were cited as reasons why community members did not engage in physical activity. Consumption of fruits and vegetables in the five communities were determined by availability, cost, personal (dis)like, lack of knowledge about benefits, and cultural taboo. Participants’ narratives revealed that the symbolic functions of some of these behavioural risk factors and the built environment were important determining factors that have sustained these behaviours in these communities over the years.

Conclusions

This study showed that successful implementation of CVD interventions in Ghana needs to address the perceptions of community members on factors driving CVD behavioural risk factors. Future policies and interventions should be developed based on these contextual factors taking into consideration the age, sex and ethnic variations especially with interventions seeking to address CVD risk factors at the primary health care level. These findings should urge local policy makers and health managers to incorporate the roles of these contextual factors in new programs targeting cardiovascular health. Closing the ‘evidence to practice’ gap as far as CVD interventions are concerned may be impossible without this.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-13646-3.

Effects of intervention on lifestyle changes among coronary artery disease patients: A 6‐month follow‐up study

Aim

The main aim of the study was to investigate the effects of a nurse‐led lifestyle‐related risk factor modification intervention on multiple lifestyle behaviours among coronary artery disease patients over six months.

Design

A pre‐test post‐test control group design was conducted in a single clinical centre in Nepal.

Methods

A total of 224 eligible patients were randomly assigned to either the usual care group or the intervention group at baseline. The lifestyle intervention consisted of a brief counselling session supplemented with informational leaflets. Standard questionnaires were used to collect self‐reported data from patients on multiple lifestyle behaviours: diet, physical activity, adherence to medication, stress, body mass index, smoking and alcohol consumption. General linear model repeated measure analysis was used to estimate the effect of intervention.

Results

A statistically significant effect of study group‐by‐time interaction for diet, adherence to medication, physical activity, and perceived stress was found at 6‐month follow‐up. Overall, greater improvement in lifestyle habits was found in the intervention group compared with the control group at 6‐month follow‐up.

Developing a Sustainable Cardiovascular Disease Research Strategy in Tanzania Through Training: Leveraging From the East African Centre of Excellence in Cardiovascular Sciences Project

Introduction

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) contribute the largest mortality burden globally, with most of the deaths (80% of all deaths) occurring in low and middle-income countries (LMICs), including Tanzania. Despite the increasing burden, to date, CVD research output is still limited in Tanzania, as it is for many sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries. This trend hinders the establishment of locally informed CVD management and policy changes. Here, we aim to review the existing gaps while highlighting the available opportunities for a sustainable CVD research strategy in Tanzania.

Methods

A rapid review of available literature on CVD research in SSA was conducted, with emphasis on the contribution of Tanzania in the world literature of CVD. Through available literature, we identify strategic CVD research priorities in Tanzania and highlight challenges and opportunities for sustainable CVD research output.

Findings

Shortage of skilled researchers, inadequate research infrastructure, limited funding, and lack of organized research strategies at different levels (regional, country, and institutional) are among the existing key bottlenecks contributing to the low output of CVD research in Tanzania. There is generally strong global, regional and local political will to address the CVD epidemic. The establishment of the East African Centre of Excellence in Cardiovascular Sciences (EACoECVS) offers a unique opportunity for setting strategies and coordinating CVD research and training for Tanzania and the East African region.

Conclusion

There is a light of hope for long-term sustainable CVD research output from Tanzania, taking advantage of the ongoing activities and plans for the evolving EACoECVS. The Tanzanian experience can be taken as a lesson for other SSA countries.

Factors associated with the availability and affordability of essential cardiovascular disease medicines in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review

Despite their potential to prevent or delay the onset and progression of cardiovascular disease (CVD), medicines for CVD remain unavailable and unaffordable to many in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We systematically reviewed the literature to identify factors associated with availability and affordability of CVD medicines in LMICs. A protocol for this study was registered on the PROSPERO register of systematic reviews (CRD42019135393). We searched Medline, EMBASE, Global Health, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, EconLit, Social Policy and Practice, and Africa Wide Information for studies analyzing factors associated with the presence of medicines (availability) or the price of these medicines as it relates to ability to pay (affordability) in LMICs. We performed a narrative synthesis of the results using an access to medicines framework that examines influences at different levels of the health system. We did not conduct a meta-analysis because of the differences in analytic approaches and outcome measures in different studies. The search was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Of 43 studies meeting inclusion criteria, 41 were cross-sectional. Availability and affordability were defined and measured in different ways. A range of factors such as sociodemographic characteristics, facility tier, presence of medicines on national essential medicine lists, and international subsidy programs were examined. The studies had variable quality and findings were often inconsistent. We find gaps in the literature on factors associated with availability and affordability of CVD medicines, particularly at the health program level. We conclude that there is a need for experimental and quasi-experimental studies that could identify causal factors and effective responses. Such studies would help further our understanding of how complex multifactorial influences impact these outcomes, which could inform policy decisions. Along with this, greater standardization of definitions and measurement approaches of availability and affordability are needed to allow for more effective comparisons.

A Systematic Review of Economic Aspects of Service Interventions to Increase Anticoagulation Use in Atrial Fibrillation

OBJECTIVE

To systematically identify and appraise existing evidence surrounding economic aspects of anticoagulation service interventions for patients with atrial fibrillation.

METHODS

We searched the published and grey literature up to October 2019 to identify relevant economic evidence in any health care setting. A narrative-synthesis approach was taken to summarise evidence by economic design and type of service intervention, with costs expressed in pound sterling and valued at 2017 to 2018 prices.

RESULTS

A total of 13 studies met our inclusion criteria from 1,168 papers originally identified. Categories of interventions included anticoagulation clinics (n = 4), complex interventions (n = 4), decision support tools (n = 3) and patient-centred approaches (n = 2). Anticoagulation clinics were cost-saving compared with usual care (range for mean cost difference: £188-£691 per-patient per-year) with equivalent health outcomes. Only one economic evaluation of a complex intervention was conducted; case management was more expensive than usual care (mean cost difference: £255 per-patient per-year) and the probability of its cost-effectiveness did not exceed 70%. There was limited economic evidence surrounding decision support tools or patient-centred approaches. Targeting service interventions at high-risk groups and those with suboptimal treatment was most likely to result in cost savings.

CONCLUSION

This review revealed some evidence to support the cost-effectiveness of anticoagulation clinics. However, summative conclusions are constrained by a paucity of economic evidence, a lack of direct comparisons between interventions, and study heterogeneity in terms of intervention, comparator and study year. Further research is urgently needed to inform commissioning and service development. Data from this review can inform future economic evaluations of anticoagulation service interventions.

Ischemic Heart Disease in Nigeria: Exploring the Challenges, Current Status, and Impact of Lifestyle Interventions on Its Primary Healthcare System

The burden of ischemic heart disease in Nigeria calls for an evidence-based, innovative, and interdisciplinary approach towards decreasing health inequalities resulting from individual lifestyle and poor socioeconomic status in order to uphold the holistic health of individuals to achieve global sustainability and health equity. The poor diagnosis and management of ischemic heart disease in Nigeria contributes to the inadequate knowledge of its prognosis among individuals, which often results in a decreased ability to seek help and self-care. Hence, current policies aimed at altering lifestyle behaviour to minimize exposure to cardiovascular risk factors may be less suitable for Nigeria's diverse culture. Mitigating the burden of ischemic heart disease through the equitable access to health services and respect for the autonomy and beliefs of individuals in view of achieving Universal Health Coverage (UHC) requires comprehensive measures to accommodate, as much as possible, every individual, notwithstanding their values and socioeconomic status.

Guideline based eligibility for primary prevention statin therapy - Insights from the North India ST-elevation myocardial infarction registry (NORIN-STEMI)

BACKGROUND

Current risk scores to estimate atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk and allocate statins in at-risk persons have largely been developed in Western populations; their applicability in India is uncertain.

OBJECTIVE

To assess eligibility for primary prevention statin therapy using the 2018 U.S Multisociety Guideline and other contemporary cholesterol guidelines in patients presenting with ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) in the North India STEMI (NORIN-STEMI) registry.

METHODS

NORIN-STEMI registry prospectively enrolled 3,635 patients at 2 tertiary care centers in Delhi, India from January 2019 to February 2020. Pooled cohort risk equations were used to estimate ASCVD risk at presentation. Patients were evaluated for statin eligibility using the 2018 U.S Multisociety Guideline, United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF), and National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) III cholesterol guidelines.

RESULTS

A total of 2,551 met the inclusion criteria. The median age was 54 years; 17% were women. The median ASCVD risk was 7.0%. At the time of MI, 54% of patients were eligible for primary prevention statin therapy by Multisociety Guideline, 46% by USPSTF, and 30% by NCEP III guidelines. These findings were applicable in both women and men. Compared with patients aged ≥50 years, those <50 years were less likely to be recommended statin therapy by all the three guidelines.

CONCLUSION

A significant proportion of patients with STEMI in India did not meet the current guideline-based threshold for statin therapy for primary prevention. Novel risk stratification tools are needed to identify patients for primary prevention statin therapy in this population.

Dietary Salt Reduction, Prevalence of Hypertension and Avoidable Burden of Stroke in Vietnam: Modelling the Health and Economic Impacts

Dietary salt reduction has been recommended as a cost-effective population-wide strategy to prevent cardiovascular disease. The health and economic impact of salt consumption on the future burden of stroke in Vietnam is not known.

Objective: To estimate the avoidable incidence of and deaths from stroke, as well as the healthy life years and healthcare costs that could be gained from reducing salt consumption in Vietnam.

Methods: This was a macrosimulation health and economic impact assessment study. Data on blood pressure, salt consumption and stroke epidemiology were obtained from the Vietnam 2015 STEPS survey and the Global Burden of Disease study. A proportional multi-cohort multistate lifetable Markov model was used to estimate the impact of achieving the Vietnam national salt targets of 8 g/day by 2025 and 7 g/day by 2030, and to the 5 g/day WHO recommendation by 2030. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis was conducted to quantify the uncertainty in our projections.

Results: If the 8 g/day, 7 g/day, and 5 g/day targets were achieved, the prevalence of hypertension could reduce by 1.2% (95% uncertainty interval [UI]: 0.5 to 2.3), 2.0% (95% UI: 0.8 to 3.6), and 3.5% (95% UI: 1.5 to 6.3), respectively. This would translate, respectively, to over 80,000, 180,000, and 257,000 incident strokes and over 18,000, 55,000, and 73,000 stroke deaths averted. By 2025, over 56,554 stroke-related health-adjusted life years (HALYs) could be gained while saving over US$ 42.6 million in stroke healthcare costs. By 2030, about 206,030 HALYs (for 7 g/day target) and 262,170 HALYs (for 5 g/day target) could be gained while saving over US$ 88.1 million and US$ 122.3 million in stroke healthcare costs respectively.

Conclusion: Achieving the national salt reduction targets could result in substantial population health and economic benefits. Estimated gains were larger if the WHO salt targets were attained and if changes can be sustained over the longer term. Future work should consider the equity impacts of specific salt reduction programs.

Utilizing social media platforms to promote mental health awareness and help seeking in underserved communities during the COVID-19 pandemic

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 virus has resulted in significant psychological distress for many individuals, particularly, those in underserved communities. Social media have the potential to be one of the most effective tools for mental health campaigns, reaching wide audiences in the shortest amount of time. In this paper, the potential of harnessing social media platforms to address mental health needs in underserved populations is presented. In addition, description of the preliminary implementation of a social media mental health campaign, the 5 × 5 campaign, is described as an example of the feasibility and benefits of such efforts. Key implications gleaned from the implementation process are also presented.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Utilizing a participatory approach, the 5 × 5 campaign aimed to improve recognition of mental health symptoms, promote help seeking, and provide immediate strategies for self-care for individuals experiencing psychological distress related to the COVID-19 pandemic in low-income, high-risk communities in and around Guatemala City. Campaign content was promoted on Facebook, Instagram, and WhatsApp from April 2020 to June 2020.

RESULTS

Preliminary analysis of the 5 × 5 campaign demonstrated feasibility and substantial impact with over 84,000 individuals reached by the campaigns through initial messaging and shares.

CONCLUSION

The 5 × 5 highlights the feasibility of using social media campaigns for mental health promotion and key factors that should be incorporated in the planning of social media mental health campaigns aimed at promoting awareness, engaging underserved communities, and encouraging help seeking.

Estimation and determinants of direct medical costs of ischaemic heart disease, stroke and hypertensive heart disease: evidence from two major hospitals in Cameroon

Background

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the largest contributor to the non-communicable diseases (NCD) burden in Cameroon, but data on its economic burden is lacking.

Methods

A prevalence-based cost-of-illness study was conducted from a healthcare provider perspective and enrolled patients with ischaemic heart disease (IHD), ischaemic stroke, haemorrhagic stroke and hypertensive heart disease (HHD) from two major hospitals between 2013 and 2017. Determinants of cost were explored using multivariate generalized linear models.

Results

Overall, data from 850 patients: IHD (n = 92, 10.8%), ischaemic stroke (n = 317, 37.3%), haemorrhagic stroke (n = 193, 22.7%) and HHD (n = 248, 29.2%) were analysed. The total cost for these CVDs was XAF 676,694,000 (~US$ 1,224,918). The average annual direct medical costs of care per patient were XAF 1,395,200 (US$ 2400) for IHD, XAF 932,700 (US$ 1600) for ischaemic stroke, XAF 815,400 (US$ 1400) for haemorrhagic stroke, and XAF 384,300 (US$ 700) for HHD. In the fully adjusted models, apart from history of CVD event (β = − 0.429; 95% confidence interval − 0.705, − 0.153) that predicted lower costs in patients with IHD, having of diabetes mellitus predicted higher costs in patients with IHD (β = 0.435; 0.098, 0.772), ischaemic stroke (β = 0.188; 0.052, 0.324) and HHD (β = 0.229; 0.080, 0.378).

Conclusions

This study reveals substantial economic burden due to CVD in Cameroon. Diabetes mellitus was a consistent driver of elevated costs across the CVDs. There is urgent need to invest in cost-effective primary prevention strategies in order to reduce the incidence of CVD and consequent economic burden on a health system already laden with the impact of communicable diseases.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12913-021-06146-4.

Overview of the socio-economic consequences of heart failure

Heart failure (HF) is a frequent cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The prevalence of HF increases, and in high-income countries, 1-2% of total healthcare expenditure is spent on HF. This article gives an overview on the impact of HF on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and the economic burden of HF. Those suffering from HF are associated with a substantial decrease of HRQoL compared to individuals with most other chronic diseases and to individuals without HF. Therapeutic approaches, which decrease risk factors and lead to an improvement of the clinical status of patients, have a positive effect on HRQoL of the patients. Hospitalization rates have been shown to be correlated with disease severity, mortality, and HRQoL. Inpatient treatments of HF patients are cost intensive and the most important component for the economic burden of HF, responsible for at least half of direct cost. Prevention strategies, diagnostic and therapeutic approaches should focus on avoiding need for hospitalizations, and in particular, readmissions. Outpatient care including medication represents the second largest cost component. The cost of HF varies from less than 1,000 USD per patient in low-income countries to between 5,000 and 15,000 EUR in Europe, and between 17,000 and 30,000 USD in the US. There is a lack of study results on indirect costs. All study results on the socio-economic burden of HF clearly underscore the public health relevance of HF, showing a large economic burden for healthcare systems all over the world and a considerable impact on patients' HRQoL. The results on HRQoL are relatively homogeneous, but there are large differences across countries in respect of the economic burden they have to bear. Despite the large number of studies on the socio-economic consequences of HF further research is necessary, especially on indirect cost and for low- and middle-income countries. Future studies would benefit from a greater standardization of methods and presentation of results.

Oral healthcare delivery in institutionalised older people: A health-economic evaluation

OBJECTIVES

This health-economic evaluation aimed to assess the cost-effectiveness of a number of alternatives for preventive and curative oral health care in institutionalised older people in Flanders.

METHODS

A six-state Markov model was used to compare expected costs and healthy oral years (HOYs) of four alternatives: (1) usual care; (2) on-site preventive care; (3) on-site preventive care + curative care in the community; and (4) on-site preventive care + on-site curative care. A healthcare payer perspective was adopted, and the time horizon was 10 years. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) of alternatives 2, 3 and 4 (all compared to alternative 1) were as follows: (2) 7944 €/HOY gained; (3) 1576 €/HOY gained; and (4) 1132 €/HOY gained. Hence, alternatives 2 and 3 were not cost-effective compared to alternative 4. The probability that oral care interventions are more effective and cost-saving than usual care was <3% for all three interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

For institutionalised older people, on-site solutions for preventive and curative oral health care might be the most cost-effective alternative. It should be kept in mind that on-site solutions require large initial investment and that the advanced age of the population and the high costs of oral health care make it unlikely that these interventions would become cost-saving, even in the long term.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of population salt reduction interventions to prevent cardiovascular disease in Cameroon: mathematical modelling study

BACKGROUND

Reducing dietary sodium (salt) intake has been proposed as a population-wide strategy to reduce blood pressure and cardiovascular disease (CVD). The cost-effectiveness of such strategies has hitherto not been investigated in Cameroon.

METHODS

A multicohort multistate life table Markov model was used to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of three population salt reduction strategies: mass media campaign, school-based salt education programme and low-sodium salt substitute. A healthcare system perspective was considered and adults alive in 2016 were simulated over the life course. Outcomes were changes in disease incidence, mortality, health-adjusted life years (HALYs), healthcare costs and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) over the lifetime. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis was used to quantify uncertainty.

RESULTS

Over the life span of the cohort of adults alive in Cameroon in 2016, substantial numbers of new CVD events could be prevented, with over 10 000, 79 000 and 84 000 CVD deaths that could be averted from mass media, school education programme and salt substitute interventions, respectively. Population health gains over the lifetime were 46 700 HALYs, 348 800 HALYs and 368 400 HALYs for the mass media, school education programme and salt substitute interventions, respectively. ICERs showed that all interventions were dominant, with probabilities of being cost-saving of 84% for the school education programme, 89% for the mass media campaign and 99% for the low sodium salt substitute. Results were largely robust in sensitivity analysis.

CONCLUSION

All the salt reduction strategies evaluated were highly cost-effective with very high probabilities of being cost-saving. Salt reduction in Cameroon has the potential to save many lives and offers good value for money.

Job strain and incident cardiovascular disease: the confounding and mediating effects of lifestyle habits. An overview of systematic reviews

This overview of systematic reviews (SR) aims to determine how the potential confounding and/or mediating effects of lifestyle habits were taken into consideration in SR examining the job strain effect on cardiovascular disease (CVD) incidence. Thirteen SR were identified. Lifestyle habits were often considered as confounders (n = 8). Authors reported that the job strain and CVD association remained after adjusting for lifestyle habits (n = 6); discussed lifestyle habits as potential mediators (n = 8) and postulated a total effect underestimation due to over-adjustment (n = 4). None investigated the magnitude of this bias.The effect of job strain on CVD is independent of lifestyle habits, supporting its causal effect on CVD. Lifestyle habits are also potential mediators. The current practice of adjusting for lifestyle habits can therefore lead to an underestimation of the total effect. Research using meditation methods is needed.

Novel Treatment Strategies for Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review of Cost-Effectiveness

BACKGROUND

New pharmacological therapies for the treatment of cardiovascular disease (CVD) have emerged in recent years. The high rates of CVD and the need for long-term treatment to decrease risk factors makes cost-effectiveness crucial for their successful long-term implementation.

OBJECTIVE

This study assessed cost-effectiveness studies of novel pharmacological treatments (ezetimibe, proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 [PCSK9] inhibitors, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids [n-3 PUFAs], and the cardiovascular polypill) compared with standard care for the secondary prevention of CVD.

METHODS

We searched seven databases and the reference list of selected literature reviews for eligible cost-effective analyses (CEA) published between January 2009 and January 2020 that evaluated the above novel treatments versus standard care. Two independent reviewers performed the screening and evaluation in accordance with the Consolidated Health Economic Evaluation Reporting Standards statement. Cost results were adapted to 2018 US dollars (US$) to facilitate comparisons between studies. Consideration of cost-effectiveness was based on the original study criteria.

RESULTS

Thirty-two studies were included in this review, most of them adopting a healthcare perspective. Studies evaluating ezetimibe, PCSK9 inhibitors and n-3 PUFAs assessed their addition to standard care compared with standard care alone, while studies analysing the polypill evaluated the replacement of multiple monotherapies for a fixed-dose combination. Ten studies reported on ezetimibe, fifteen evaluated PCSK9 inhibitors, five focused on n-3 PUFAs and seven on the polypill. From a healthcare perspective, ezetimibe was cost effective in 62.5% of the studies (incremental cost-effectiveness ratios [ICERs] ranged from US$27,195 to US$204,140), n-3 PUFAs in 60% (ICERs from US$57,128 to US$139,082) and the cardiovascular polypill in 100% (ICERs from dominant to US$30,731) compared with standard care. Conversely, only 10% of the studies considered PCSK9 inhibitors cost effective compared with standard care from a healthcare perspective (ICERs ranged from US$231,119 to US$1,223,831). Additionally, ezetimibe was cost effective in 50% of the studies, PCSK9 inhibitors in 33% and the polypill in 50% of the studies adopting a societal perspective. The key model-related parameters predicting cost-effectiveness included drug cost, time horizon, and the baseline risk of cardiovascular events.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on current pricing and willingness-to-pay thresholds, most CEA studies considered ezetimibe, n-3 PUFAs and the polypill to be cost effective compared with standard care but not PCSK9 inhibitors for secondary prevention of CVD.

The shift of the paradigm between ageing and diseases

In the area of the Medical Sciences, the chronological age has always been, and still is, an indicator by which we try to understand the health status of an individual. However, besides considering people born with an already expressed disease, each human genome has sequence alterations called predisposing mutations; carriers of such genetic alterations have an increased risk of contracting diseases during their life. In addition, the exposome, i.e. the totality of environmental noxae (“hits”) to which our body is exposed throughout life (through ingestion, breathing, body surface hits, and psychosociological stress agents, etc.) contributes to increase gradually but inexorably the frailty of an organism, and this process is usually referred to as “physiological ageing”. This position paper proposes that we invert our visual angle and view the passage-of-time not as the cause of diseases, but consider the genome alterations present at birth and the noxae received during our life as the real major causes of ageing. The Biomedical Sciences are now increasingly unraveling the etiopathogenesis of most chronic degenerative diseases; thus, it will be possible to monitor and treat those that most contribute to the increased frailty of each person, which is now referred to with the misnomer “physiological ageing”. These concepts are not banal; indeed, they imply that we must try to avoid the causes of alterations that result later in chronic degenerative diseases. Thus, we should shift our attention from the cure to the prevention of alterations/diseases also to improve both the length and quality of our life. Moreover, this approach involves real personalized or individualized medicine, thus conferring a more direct benefit to each of us by finalizing either the cure or the monitoring of diseases.

Health consumer engagement in developing novel preventive health community pharmacy roles in cardiovascular disease in Saudi Arabia: A qualitative analysis

Introduction

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are one of key leading causes of mortality worldwide. Both modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors contribute to the development of CVD. Modifiable risk factors such as smoking, unhealthy diets and lack of exercise are increasing in prevalence in Saudi Arabia but may be mitigated using pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches. Thus, identifying, assessing and managing these modifiable risks at an early stage is essential. Pharmacists are highly accessible primary health professionals and can play a crucial role in screening and managing these risk factors in collaboration with primary care physicians. There is currently no research in Saudi Arabia exploring the views of health consumers with CVD risk factors regarding their preferences for or willingness to engage with community pharmacy CVD preventive health services.

Objectives

To explore the perceptions of health consumers about current and feasible future services by pharmacists with a specific focus on CVD risk screening and management in Saudi Arabia.

Methods

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with consumers with at least one modifiable CVD risk factor. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, translated into English and then thematically analysed.

Results

A total of 25 individuals, most of whom were Saudi (88%) and women (65%), participated in face to face interviews. Five main themes emerged from the analysis of consumers’ responses. 1. Perception of pharmacists’ role, the pharmacists’ main role was perceived as medication supply. 2. Trust and satisfaction with current service, most participants appeared to have low trust in pharmacists. 3. Preferences for future pharmacy services, most participants were willing to engage in future pharmacy delivered CVD preventive health services, provided there was stringent regulation and oversight of the quality of such services. 4. Viability of new pharmacy services was raised with promotion of such services to the public, collaboration with other health professionals, financial incentivization and motivational rewards thought of as essential ingredient to ensure service feasibility. 5. Health beliefs and help seeking behaviours of consumers were diverse and low health literacy was evident; it was thought that pharmacists can help in these matters by educating and advocating for such consumers. Overall, the data suggested that clinical, communication and professional skills need to be enhanced among Saudi pharmacists to enable them to provide optimal patient cantered services.

Conclusion

Health consumers participants were willing to participate and utilise CVD risk screening and management pharmacy-based services, when offered, provided their concerns are addressed. Therefore, in light of the burden of CVD disease in the country, development, implementation and evaluation of pharmacist provided CVD risk screening and management should be undertaken.

Preventive Pharmacotherapy for Cardiovascular Disease: A Modelling Study Considering Health Gain, Costs, and Cost-Effectiveness when Stratifying by Absolute Risk

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death internationally. We aimed to model the impact of CVD preventive double therapy (a statin and anti-hypertensive) by clinician-assessed absolute risk level. An established and validated multi-state life-table model for the national New Zealand (NZ) population was adapted. The new version of the model specifically considered the 60–64-year-old male population which was stratified by risk using a published NZ-specific CVD risk equation. The intervention period of treatment was for five years, but a lifetime horizon was used for measuring benefits and costs (a five-year horizon was also implemented). We found that for this group offering double therapy was highly cost-effective in all absolute risk categories (eg, NZ$1580 per QALY gained in the >20% in 5 years risk stratum; 95%UI: Dominant to NZ$3990). Even in the lowest risk stratum (≤5% risk in 5 years), the cost per QALY was only NZ$25,500 (NZ$28,200 and US$19,100 in 2018). At an individual level, the gain for those who responded to the screening offer and commenced preventive treatment ranged from 0.6 to 4.9 months of quality-adjusted life gained (or less than a month gain with a five-year horizon). Nevertheless, at the individual level, patient considerations are critical as some people may decide that this amount of average health gain does not justify taking daily medication.

Uncovering the protective mechanism of Huoxue Anxin Recipe against coronary heart disease by network analysis and experimental validation

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Huoxue Anxin Recipe (HAR) is a novel Chinese Herbal Medicine formula of that has been used to treat CHD for several decades. Our previous study found that HAR had anti-oxidative effects, and could promote myocardial angiogenesis and improve cardiac function following myocardial infarction (MI) in rats. However, the active compounds, potential targets, and biological processes related to HAR have not been systematically investigated. Here, network pharmacology and experimental validation were used to study the protective mechanisms of HAR against CHD. We identified 124 active components, 124 verified targets, and 111 predictive targets. A total of 1192 genes related to CHD were identified by cDNA microarray and database analysis. A total of 47 putative targets of HAR against CHD were identified, including 32 verified targets and 15 predictive targets. ClueGo enrichment analysis identified 49 biological processes involved in the anti-CHD effects of HAR. Among them, the negative regulation of blood coagulation and regulation of collagen biosynthetic process were experimentally validated. After constructing a protein-protein interaction network and clustering with MECODE and ClusterONE, 162 key proteins (from ClueGo and clustering) were used to construct an internal interaction network. Complement C3 (C3), Fibrinogen alpha (FGA), Fibrinogen gamma (FGG), interleukin-6 (IL6), and Apolipoprotein A1 (APOA1) were the top 5 hub proteins identified by cytoHubber analysis. HAR limited the concentrations of C3, FGA, FGG, and IL6 and increased APOA1 levels. The results indicated that HAR could down-regulate blood coagulation, regulate collagen biosynthesis, inhibit peroxidation and inflammation injury, and promote cholesterol efflux. HAR could be a potential source of novel and effective drugs for CHD.

The Scope of Research on Transfer and Transition in Young Persons With Chronic Conditions

PURPOSE

To determine the amount, type, and evidence level of published literature on transfer and/or transition of young people with chronic conditions (CCs) and to describe the characteristics of such studies.

METHODS

Databases including PubMed, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched for publications in English, French, Spanish, Dutch, or Swedish. Included publications were related to transfer and/or transition of young persons (10-25 years) with a CC. Grey literature was excluded. Region and country where the study was performed, type of study design, study population (i.e., type of CC, sample size, group), and data collection methods were extracted from the studies.

RESULTS

We included 952 publications for data analysis, of which 790 were quantitative, 128 qualitative, and 34 multimethods or mixed methods studies. Only seven studies were experimental designs, and the majority (n = 341) were categorized as expert opinion or narrative reviews. Endocrinology and neurology were the most common medical specialties involved in the studies, and young persons were the most represented group, while health-care providers were involved the least.

CONCLUSIONS

The majority of publications are categorized at the lowest evidence level. Furthermore, evidence is limited to a certain group of medical specialties.

Cardiovascular disease risk screening by pharmacists: a behavior change wheel guided qualitative analysis

BACKGROUND

In common with many developed countries, Saudi Arabia is currently experiencing an increasing cardiovascular disease (CVD) burden. However, systematic screening programs for early identification and minimization of CVD risk within community or general clinical settings are limited. Globally, research suggests that pharmacists can play an effective role in identifying, assessing, managing and referring people at risk of CVD in the community as well as in the hospital setting. This role is not yet developed in Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to explore the perspectives of hospital and community pharmacists in Saudi Arabia about potential roles in CVD risk screening. The purpose of the study was to propose potential interventions to facilitate the development of pharmacist delivered models for CVD risk prevention and management services in Saudi Arabia.

METHODS

A qualitative study was conducted using semi-structured in-depth interviews and focus group discussions with a purposive convenience sample of hospital and community pharmacists in Saudi Arabia. Data collection continued until saturation was achieved. All interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and thematically analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 50 pharmacists (26 hospital and 24 community pharmacists) participated in this study. Twenty hospital and eight community pharmacists were interviewed individually, while the remaining participants contributed to three focus groups discussions. Currently, it appears that CVD risk prevention services are rarely provided, and when offered involved provision of discrete elements only such as blood pressure measurement, rather than a consolidated evidence based approach to risk assessment. Participating pharmacists did not appear to have a clear understanding of how to assess CVD risk. Four key themes were identified: pharmacists' perception about their current roles in CVD, proposed future clinical and service roles, impeding factors and enabling factors. Subthemes were mainly related to determinants likely to influence future CVD services. These subthemes included public perception of pharmacists' roles, pharmacist-physician collaboration, legislative restrictions, systemic issues, sociocultural barriers, organizational pharmacy issues, lack of professional motivation, government and organizational support and professional pharmacy support frameworks. These influencing factors need to be addressed at micro, meso and macro systems level in order to facilitate development of new pharmacist delivered cognitive services in Saudi Arabia.

CONCLUSIONS

Pharmacists in Saudi Arabia are willing to expand their role and offer pharmacy-based services, but influencing determinants have to be addressed at the individual, professional and health system levels. Further work is needed to clarify and develop practical and appropriate protocols for pharmacist CVD prevention and management services within the Saudi public and health care system. Such work should be guided by implementation science frameworks rather than embarking on conventional research trial pipelines where public benefit of generated evidence is delayed or limited.

Potential impact of a modest reduction in salt intake on blood pressure, cardiovascular disease burden and premature mortality: a modelling study

Objective

To assess the potential impact of reduction in salt intake on the burden of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and premature mortality in Cameroon.

Methods

Using a multicohort proportional multistate life table model with Markov process, we modelled the impact of WHO's recommended 30% relative reduction in population-wide sodium intake on the CVD burden for Cameroonian adults alive in 2016. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were conducted and used to quantify uncertainty.

Results

Over the lifetime, incidence is predicted to decrease by 5.2% (95% uncertainty interval (UI) 4.6 to 5.7) for ischaemic heart disease (IHD), 6.6% (95% UI 5.9 to 7.4) for haemorrhagic strokes, 4.8% (95% UI 4.2 to 5.4) for ischaemic strokes and 12.9% (95% UI 12.4 to 13.5) for hypertensive heart disease (HHD). Mortality over the lifetime is projected to reduce by 5.1% (95% UI 4.5 to 5.6) for IHD, by 6.9% (95% UI 6.1 to 7.7) for haemorrhagic stroke, by 4.5% (95% UI 4.0 to 5.1) for ischaemic stroke and by 13.3% (95% UI 12.9 to 13.7) for HHD. About 776 400 (95% UI 712 600 to 841 200) health-adjusted life years could be gained, and life expectancy might increase by 0.23 years and 0.20 years for men and women, respectively. A projected 16.8% change (reduction) between 2016 and 2030 in probability of premature mortality due to CVD would occur if population salt reduction recommended by WHO is attained.

Conclusion

Achieving the 30% reduction in sodium intake recommended by WHO could considerably decrease the burden of CVD. Targeting blood pressure via decreasing population salt intake could translate in significant reductions in premature CVD mortality in Cameroon by 2030.

Trend analysis of smoking-attributable hospitalizations in Thailand, 2007-2014

INTRODUCTION

Tobacco use is a major preventable risk factor for many noncommunicable diseases. Smoking-attributable mortality has been well described. However, the prevalence of smoking-attributable hospitalization (SAH) and associated costs have been less documented, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Our objective was to estimate the number of hospital admissions and expenditure attributable to tobacco use during 2007–2014 in Thailand.

METHODS

Hospitalization data between 2007 and 2014 were used for the analysis. SAHs were derived by applying smoking-attributable fractions, based on Thailand’s estimates of smoking prevalence data and relative risks extracted from the published literature, to hospital admissions related to smoking according to the International Classification of Diseases version 10. Age-adjusted SAHs among adults age 35 and older were calculated. Joinpoint regression analysis was used to detect changes in trends among genders and geographical areas, based on annual per cent change (APC) and average annual per cent change (AAPC). Costs related to SAHs were also estimated.

RESULTS

During 2007–2014, among adults age 35 years and older, smoking accounted for almost 3.6 million hospital admissions, with attributable hospital costs calculated at more than US$572 million annually, which represents 16.8% of the national hospital budget. While the age-adjusted rate of SAHs had been relatively stable (AAPC=1.12), the age-adjusted rate of SAHs due to cancers increased significantly for both sexes (AAPC=2.33). Cardiovascular diseases related to smoking increased significantly among men (AAPC=2.5), whereas, COPD, the most common smoking-related conditions decreased significantly during 2011–2014 (APC= -7.21). Furthermore, more provinces in the northeastern and the southern regions where smoking prevalence was higher than the national average have a significantly higher AAPC of SAH than other parts of the country.

CONCLUSIONS

Smoking remains a significant health and economic burden in Thailand. Findings from this study pose compelling evidence for Thailand to advance tobacco control efforts to reduce the financial and social burden of diseases attributable to smoking.