Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) in ectoparasites and reptiles in southern Italy

Lizards and the enzootic cycle of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato

Emerging and re-emerging pathogens often stem from zoonotic origins, cycling between humans and animals, and are frequently vectored and maintained by hematophagous arthropod vectors. The efficiency by which these disease agents are successfully transmitted between vertebrate hosts is influenced by many factors, including the host on which a vector feeds. The Lyme disease bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato has adapted to survive in complex host environments, vectored by Ixodes ticks, and maintained in multiple vertebrate hosts. The versatility of Lyme borreliae in disparate host milieus is a compelling platform to investigate mechanisms dictating pathogen transmission through complex networks of vertebrates and ticks. Squamata, one of the most diverse clade of extant reptiles, is comprised primarily of lizards, many of which are readily fed upon by Ixodes ticks. Yet, lizards are one of the least studied taxa at risk of contributing to the transmission and life cycle maintenance of Lyme borreliae. In this review, we summarize the current evidence, spanning from field surveillance to laboratory infection studies, supporting their contributions to Lyme borreliae circulation. We also summarize the current understanding of divergent lizard immune responses that may explain the underlying molecular mechanisms to confer Lyme spirochete survival in vertebrate hosts. This review offers a critical perspective on potential enzootic cycles existing between lizard-tick-Borrelia interactions and highlights the importance of an eco-immunology lens for zoonotic pathogen transmission studies.

Molecular identification of Borrelia and SFG Rickettsia spp. in hard ticks parasitizing domestic and wild animals in southeastern Spain

Lyme disease and the spotted fever group rickettsiosis, involve bacteria belonging to the genus Borrelia and Rickettsia, respectively. These infections are the most important tick-borne zoonotic diseases involving ticks as vectors. Descriptive and epidemiological studies are essential to determine the animal hosts involved in the maintenance of these diseases. In the present study, 94 tick pool samples from 15 different host species located in the Region of Murcia (southeastern, Spain) were analysed. Ticks were morphologically identified as: Dermacentor marginatus, Hyalomma lusitanicum, Ixodes Ricinus, and Rhipicephalus sanguineus. Our results showed that 5.3% of the tick pool samples carried Borrelia spp. DNA, and 20.2% carried SFG Rickettsia DNA. In every hard tick pool Spot Fever Group (SFG) Rickettsia spp. DNA were detected, except for H. lusitanicum. Likewise, D. marginatum was the only species in which Borrelia spp. DNA was not detected. Barbary sheep and wild boar were the host species in which tick pools showed DNA presence of both pathogens. This study increases the knowledge about the presence of Borrelia spp. DNA and SFG Rickettsia spp. DNA in different hard tick species from this geographical area.

Italian peninsula as a hybridization zone of Ixodes inopinatus and I. ricinus and the prevalence of tick-borne pathogens in I. inopinatus, I. ricinus, and their hybrids

BACKGROUND

Ixodes inopinatus was described from Spain on the basis of morphology and partial sequencing of 16S ribosomal DNA. However, several studies suggested that morphological differences between I. inopinatus and Ixodes ricinus are minimal and that 16S rDNA lacks the power to distinguish the two species. Furthermore, nuclear and mitochondrial markers indicated evidence of hybridization between I. inopinatus and I. ricinus. In this study, we tested our hypothesis on tick dispersal from North Africa to Southern Europe and determined the prevalence of selected tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) in I. inopinatus, I. ricinus, and their hybrids.

METHODS

Ticks were collected in Italy and Algeria by flagging, identified by sequencing of partial TROSPA and COI genes, and screened for Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., B. miyamotoi, Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasma phagocytophilum by polymerase chain reaction and sequencing of specific markers.

RESULTS

Out of the 380 ticks, in Italy, 92 were I. ricinus, 3 were I. inopinatus, and 136 were hybrids of the two species. All 149 ticks from Algeria were I. inopinatus. Overall, 60% of ticks were positive for at least one TBP. Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. was detected in 19.5% of ticks, and it was significantly more prevalent in Ixodes ticks from Algeria than in ticks from Italy. Prevalence of Rickettsia spotted fever group (SFG) was 51.1%, with significantly greater prevalence in ticks from Algeria than in ticks from Italy. Borrelia miyamotoi and A. phagocytophilum were detected in low prevalence (0.9% and 5.2%, respectively) and only in ticks from Italy.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates that I. inopinatus is a dominant species in Algeria, while I. ricinus and hybrids were common in Italy. The higher prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. and Rickettsia SFG in I. inopinatus compared with that in I. ricinus might be due to geographical and ecological differences between these two tick species. The role of I. inopinatus in the epidemiology of TBPs needs further investigation in the Mediterranean Basin.

ParSCo: celebrating 10 years of a unique parasitology summer course

ParSCo (Parasitology Summer Course) is an intense, 1-week-long summer course organized by the Parasitology Unit of the Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, Italy, with the support of the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP), the European Veterinary Parasitology College (EVPC) and Parasites and Vectors. The course, which is conducted in southern Italy, is planned for parasitologists and post-graduate students working in the field of parasitology. The course consists of theoretical and practical lessons, which include the collection, identification and diagnosis of parasites of pets, livestock and wildlife. The participants in ParSCo are afforded the opportunity to be involved in clinical examination and sample collection for the diagnosis of parasitic diseases (e.g. leishmaniosis, thelaziosis and many tick-borne diseases) present in the Mediterranean Basin. The course is conducted at Casa di Caccia, a hunting lodge situated in the Gallipoli Cognato Forest near the Basento River in the Basilicata region in southern Italy. In addition to the training purpose, ParSCo is a great opportunity for sharing knowledge and expertise while becoming part of the parasitology community in a pleasant environment. In this editorial, we share some information and celebrate 10 years of ParSCo, looking forward to forthcoming sessions of this unique parasitology summer course.

Squamata reptiles as a potential source of helminth infections when preyed on by companion animals

BACKGROUND

Squamate reptiles cohabiting with companion animals may represent a source of helminth infections, especially through predation by dogs and cats with an outdoor lifestyle.

METHODS

In order to assess the role of reptiles as intermediate/paratenic hosts of trophically transmitted helminths, synanthropic reptiles (n = 245) captured from different ecological settings (i.e., households, dog shelters, urban, peri-urban and rural areas or natural parks) of southern Italy were examined for endoparasites. Parasitic cysts (i.e., larval forms of acanthocephalans, cestodes and nematodes) and free helminths (i.e., adult nematodes and digeneans) were morphologically and molecularly identified, and statistical analysis was carried out to evaluate the correlations between reptiles, infections, and ecological settings.

RESULTS

Overall, 31% of reptiles were positive for at least one helminth, with Podarcis siculus (18.7%) and Tarentola mauritanica (8.1%) being the most frequently infected species. Among the parasites of medical interest, Joyeuxiella echinorhyncoides showed the highest prevalence (19.7%), followed by Diplopylidium acanthotetra (10.5%), Joyeuxiella pasqualei, Mesocestoides lineatus (5.6%) and Physaloptera sp. (3.9%). Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus was detected once. Podarcis siculus and T. mauritanica were associated with cestode infections.

CONCLUSIONS

The wide range of helminths detected here in reptiles living in sympatry with pets and the fact that many of these helminth species are parasitic and may infect companion animals (e.g., J. pasqualei, J. echinorhyncoides, D. acanthotetra, Physaloptera sp.) and humans (i.e., Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, Mesocestoides lineatus) indicate the potential health risk associated with pets preying on these small vertebrates. Our results indicate the need for complementary investigations of trophically transmitted parasites in dogs and cats living in sympatry with reptiles.

Afoxolaner (NexGard®) in pet snakes for the treatment and control of Ophionyssus natricis (Mesostigmata: Macronyssidae)

BACKGROUND

Ophionyssus natricis is the main species of mite that infests captive reptiles. High infestations may result in the host experiencing general discomfort and deleterious effects, even death. Moreover, O. natricis is an important vector of reptile vector-borne diseases and is considered to be the putative vector of the Reptarenavirus, the causal agent of the inclusion body disease. Despite the cosmopolitan distribution of O. natricis in captive reptiles, treatment options are limited. The aim of the present study was to assess the efficacy of afoxolaner (NexGard®; Boehringer Ingelheim, Ingelheim, Germany) in heavily infested, privately owned snakes, evaluate the prevalence of mites and drug availability in the plasma of treated snakes (pharmacokinetics) and perform a clinical examination of animals.

METHODS

The study was conducted in two snake breeding facilities, where many snakes were infested with mites. Each animal was clinically examined and weighed, and mite infestations were assessed on the animals and in their enclosures (environment). Animals were treated with a dose of 2.5 mg afoxolaner per kilogram body weight (2.5 mg/kg) administered orally. All animals were examined pre-treatment (T0) and at various time points post-treatment (T1, 6 h; T2, 24 h; T3, 14 days; T4, 28 days). The collected mites were morphologically identified at the species level and the species identity also confirmed molecularly.

RESULTS

Overall, 81 snakes from the two participating facilities (i.e. 70 from site 1 and 11 from site 2) were screened, and 31 (38.3%) snakes were found to have at least one mite. All mites were identified morphologically and molecularly as O. natricis. Lampropeltis was the genus of snakes with highest number of infested individuals. Mites were found to be alive on snakes at T1, but at T2 only dead mites were observed, and at T3 and T4 mites were no longer present on the animals or in their environment. No side effects were observed in the treated snakes.

CONCLUSIONS

A single oral administration of afoxolaner at 2.5 mg/kg was a safe treatment for snakes and 100% effective for the eradication of natural O. natricis infestation without the need to treat the environment of the snake.

A Systematic Review of the Distribution of Tick-Borne Pathogens in Wild Animals and Their Ticks in the Mediterranean Rim between 2000 and 2021

Tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) can be divided into three groups: bacteria, parasites, and viruses. They are transmitted by a wide range of tick species and cause a variety of human, animal, and zoonotic diseases. A total of 148 publications were found on tick-borne pathogens in wild animals, reporting on 85 species of pathogens from 35 tick species and 17 wild animal hosts between 2000 and February 2021. The main TBPs reported were of bacterial origin, including Anaplasma spp. and Rickettsia spp. A total of 72.2% of the TBPs came from infected ticks collected from wild animals. The main tick genus positive for TBPs was Ixodes. This genus was mainly reported in Western Europe, which was the focus of most of the publications (66.9%). It was followed by the Hyalomma genus, which was mainly reported in other areas of the Mediterranean Rim. These TBPs and TBP-positive tick genera were reported to have come from a total of 17 wild animal hosts. The main hosts reported were game mammals such as red deer and wild boars, but small vertebrates such as birds and rodents were also found to be infected. Of the 148 publications, 12.8% investigated publications on Mediterranean islands, and 36.8% of all the TBPs were reported in seven tick genera and 11 wild animal hosts there. The main TBP-positive wild animals and tick genera reported on these islands were birds and Hyalomma spp. Despite the small percentage of publications focusing on ticks, they reveal the importance of islands when monitoring TBPs in wild animals. This is especially true for wild birds, which may disseminate their ticks and TBPs along their migration path.

Detection of Endosymbiont Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii and Tickborne Pathogens in Humans Exposed to Tick Bites, Italy

During 2021, we collected blood and serum samples from 135 persons exposed to tick bites in southern Italy. We serologically and molecularly screened for zoonotic tickborne pathogens and only molecularly screened for Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii. Overall, 62 (45.9%) persons tested positive for tickborne pathogens. Coxiella burnetii was detected most frequently (27.4%), along with Rickettsia spp. (21.5%) and Borrelia spp. (10.4%). We detected Candidatus M. mitochondrii DNA in 46 (34.1%) participants who had statistically significant associations to tickborne pathogens (p<0.0001). Phylogenetic analysis of Candidatus M. mitochondrii sequences revealed 5 clades and 8 human sequence types that correlated with vertebrates, Ixodes spp. ticks, and countries in Europe. These data demonstrated a high circulation of tickborne pathogens and Candidatus M. mitochondrii DNA in persons participating in outdoor activities in southern Italy. Our study shows how coordinated surveillance among patients, clinicians, and veterinarians could inform a One Health approach for monitoring and controlling the circulation of tickborne pathogens.

Role of lizards as reservoirs of pathogenic yeasts of zoonotic concern

Reptiles have become popular exotic pets and in some parts of the world, they are used as important source of food, medicines, and materials. Synanthropic lizards are recognized as reservoirs of viruses, bacteria, and parasites but their role in dissemination of zoonotic pathogenic yeasts in the environment was never investigated. Therefore, fecal samples (n=177) from Podarcis siculus (Italian wall lizard), Chalcides ocellatus (Ocellated skink) and Tarentola mauritanica (Moorish gecko) were collected and yeasts were isolated and identified biochemically and molecularly by sequencing the rDNA internal transcribed spacer region (ITS). The phylogenetical relationship of isolated yeast species and their antifungal susceptibility profiles to ten antifungal agents were also assessed. Sixty samples (n=60/177; 33.9%) scored positive for yeasts, with the highest occurrence in C. ocellatus (n=11/17; 64.7%) and the highest variety of species in P. siculus (n=11/12; 91.6%). A total of 364 isolates belonging to Candida, Trichosporon, Saccharomyces and Geotrichum genera were molecularly identified. In particular, Candida albicans (n=160; 44%) followed by Trichosporon coremiiforme (n=44; 12.1%), Pichia kudriavzevii (n=32; 8.8%) and Trichosporon asahii (n=28; 7.7%) were the most frequently isolated species. The phylogenetic tree grouped all representative sequence types within the clade including Candida spp. strains from different geographical areas and from animal species, including human. All tested strains showed high susceptibility to the assayed antifungal drugs. This study suggests the role of lizards as reservoirs and spreaders of zoonotic pathogenic yeasts in the environment. The absence of resistance phenomena in the isolated yeasts might reflect an environment free of azole antifungal pollution or chemicals, suggesting the usefulness of these animals as bio indicators of environment quality.

Occupational risk of cutaneous larva migrans: A case report and a systematic literature review

Cutaneous larva migrans (CLM) is a parasitic zoonosis of warm tropical and subtropical areas, although autochthonous cases have been increasingly reported in Western European countries. Data on the prevalence of CLM as an occupational disease in workers exposed to potentially contaminated soil or in close contact with dogs and cats are scant. Herein, we report an autochthonous case of CLM in a dog breeder from southern Italy (Apulia region), along with a systematic literature review describing the risk of CLM infection, mainly according to job categories. The patient was referred to the dermatology unit presenting a serpiginous lesion on his hand, raising the suspected CLM diagnosis. In non-endemic areas, CLM might represent a challenge for physicians in terms of diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, particularly in workplaces. The multidisciplinary approach in the diagnosis of CLM with the involvement of different scientific competences (i.e., dermatologists, veterinarians, and occupational physicians) may contribute to further assess the distribution of human CLM and associated risk factors, toward reducing the risk for the infection.

Ticks on reptiles and amphibians in Central Amazonia, with notes on rickettsial infections

Reptiles and amphibians are exceptional hosts for different ectoparasites, including mites and ticks. In this study, we investigated tick infestations on reptiles and amphibians trapped in Central Amazonia, and also assessed the presence of rickettsial infections in the collected ticks. From September 2016 to September 2019, 385 reptiles (350 lizards, 20 snakes, 12 tortoises, and three caimans) and 120 amphibians (119 anurans and one caecilian) were captured and examined for ectoparasites. Overall, 35 (10%) lizards, three (25%) tortoises and one (0.8%) toad were parasitized by ticks (124 larvae, 32 nymphs, and 22 adults). In lizards, tick infestation varied significantly according to landscape category and age group. Based on combined morphological and molecular analyses, these ticks were identified as Amblyomma humerale (14 larvae, 12 nymphs, 19 males, and one female), Amblyomma nodosum (three larvae, one nymph, and one female), and Amblyomma rotundatum (four larvae, three nymphs, and one female), and Amblyomma spp. (103 larvae and 16 nymphs). Our study presents the first records of A. nodosum in the Amazonas state and suggests that teiid lizards are important hosts for larvae and nymphs of A. humerale in Central Amazonia. Moreover, a nymph of A. humerale collected from a common tegu (Tupinambis teguixin) was found positive for Rickettsia amblyommatis, which agrees with previous reports, suggesting that the A. humerale-R. amblyommatis relationship may be more common than currently recognized.

LoopTag FRET Probe System for Multiplex qPCR Detection of Borrelia Species

Background: Laboratory diagnosis of Lyme borreliosis refers to some methods with known limitations. Molecular diagnostics using specific nucleic acid probes may overcome some of these limitations. Methods: We describe the novel reporter fluorescence real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) probe system LoopTag for detection of Borrelia species. Advantages of the LoopTag system include having cheap conventional fluorescence dyes, easy primer design, no restrictions for PCR product lengths, robustness, high sequence specificity, applicability for multiplex real-time PCRs, melting curve analysis (single nucleotide polymorphism analysis) over a large temperature range, high sensitivity, and easy adaptation of conventional PCRs. Results: Using the LoopTag probe system we were able to detect all nine tested European species belonging to the Borrelia burgdorferi (sensu lato) complex and differentiated them from relapsing fever Borrelia species. As few as 10 copies of Borrelia in one PCR reaction were detectable. Conclusion: We established a novel multiplex probe real-time PCR system, designated LoopTag, that is simple, robust, and incorporates melting curve analysis for the detection and in the differentiation of European species belonging to the Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. complex.

Molecular detection of zoonotic blood pathogens in ticks from illegally imported turtles in Italy

International trade of animals may represent a gateway for the spreading of zoonotic pathogens and their vectors. Amongst animals, reptiles are commonly illegally imported worldwide, being Italy in the fifth position of importation of these animals. Thus, the current study analysed the pathogens associated with Hyalomma aegyptium ticks, which were collected from illegally imported tortoises from North Africa to Italy. All tick DNA samples were tested by conventional PCR for the presence of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., Borrelia spp., Coxiella burnetti, Ehrlichia spp., Hepatozoon spp., Rickettsia spp. and microfilariae of filarioids. Out of 22% (n=161) of ticks screened, 78.9% (n=127) were males and 21.1% (n=34) females. Among them, three male specimens collected from two different turtles (1.9%; 95% CI; 0.5-5.5) scored positive for Anaplasma spp./Ehrlichia spp., whereas all females were negative. BLAST analysis of the sequences obtained from positive samples revealed 99-99.3% nucleotide identity with the sequence of Ehrlichia ewingii available in GenBank. The finding of E. ewingii in ticks from imported reptiles warrants the need for imposing strict rules in the international trade of reptiles to effectively reduce the introduction of exotic pathogens and their vectors in new geographic areas.

Detection of Leishmania tarentolae in lizards, sand flies and dogs in southern Italy, where Leishmania infantum is endemic: hindrances and opportunities

Background

Leishmania tarentolae is a protozoan isolated from geckoes (Tarentola annularis, Tarentola mauritanica), which is considered non-pathogenic and is transmitted by herpetophilic Sergentomyia spp. sand flies. This species occurs in sympatry with Leishmania infantum in areas where canine leishmaniasis is endemic. In the present study, we investigated the circulation of L. tarentolae and L. infantum in sand flies, dogs and lizards in a dog shelter in southern Italy, where canine leishmaniasis by L. infantum is endemic.

Methods

Sheltered dogs (n = 100) negative for Leishmania spp. (March 2020) were screened by immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) using promastigotes of both species at two time points (June 2020 and March 2021). Whole blood from dogs, tissues of Podarcis siculus lizards (n = 28) and sand flies (n = 2306) were also sampled and tested by a duplex real-time PCR (dqPCR). Host blood meal was assessed in sand flies by PCR.

Results

Overall, 16 dogs became positive for L. infantum and/or L. tarentolae by IFAT at one or both sampling periods. One canine blood sample was positive for L. infantum, whilst two for L. tarentolae by dqPCR. At the cytology of lizard blood, Leishmania spp. amastigote-like forms were detected in erythrocytes. Twenty-two tissue samples, mostly lung (21.4%), scored molecularly positive for L. tarentolae, corresponding to 10 lizards (i.e., 35.7%). Of the female Sergentomyia minuta sampled (n = 1252), 158 scored positive for L. tarentolae, four for L. infantum, and one co-infected. Two Phlebotomus perniciosus (out of 29 females) were positive for L. tarentolae. Engorged S. minuta (n = 10) fed on humans, and one P. perniciosus, positive for L. tarentolae, on lagomorphs.

Conclusions

Dogs and lacertid lizards (Podarcis siculus) were herein found for the first time infected by L. tarentolae. The detection of both L. tarentolae and L. infantum in S. minuta and P. perniciosus suggests their sympatric circulation, with a potential overlap in vertebrate hosts. The interactions between L. tarentolae and L. infantum should be further investigated in both vectors and vertebrate hosts to understand the potential implications for the diagnosis and control of canine leishmaniasis in endemic areas.

Graphical abstract

Tick exposure and risk of tick-borne pathogens infection in hunters and hunting dogs: a citizen science approach

Citizen science may be described as a research involving communities and individuals, other than scientists. Following this approach, along with the evidence of a high prevalence of Rickettsia spp. in Dermacentor marginatus from wild boars in hunting areas of southern Italy, this study aimed to assess the occurrence of tick‐borne pathogens (TBPs) in ticks collected from hunters and their hunting dogs. From October 2020 to May 2021, ticks were collected from wild boar hunters (n = 347) and their dogs (n = 422) in regions of southern Italy (i.e., Apulia, Basilicata, Calabria, Campania and Sicily). All ticks were morphologically identified, classified according to gender, feeding status, host, geographic origin, and molecularly screened for zoonotic bacteria. Adult ticks (n = 411) were collected from hunters (i.e., n = 29; 8.4%; mean of 1.6 ticks for person) and dogs (i.e., n = 200; 47.4%; mean of 1.8 ticks for animal) and identified at species level as D. marginatus (n = 240, 58.4%), Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (n = 135, 32.8%), Rhipicephalus turanicus (n = 27, 6.6%) and Ixodes ricinus (n = 9, 2.2%). Overall, 45 ticks (i.e., 10.9%, 95% CI: 8.3‐14.3) tested positive for at least one tick‐borne agent, being Rickettsia slovaca the most frequent species (n = 37, 9.0%), followed by Rickettsia raoultii, Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Rickettsia monacensis, Coxiella burnetii, Borrelia lusitaniae and Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii (n = 2, 0.5% each). Data herein presented demonstrate a relevant risk of exposure to TBPs for hunters and hunting dogs during the hunting activities. Therefore, the role of hunters to monitor the circulation of ticks in rural areas may be considered an effective example of the citizen science approach, supporting the cooperation toward private and public health stakeholders.

Reptile vector-borne diseases of zoonotic concern

Reptile vector-borne diseases (RVBDs) of zoonotic concern are caused by bacteria, protozoa and viruses transmitted by arthropod vectors, which belong to the subclass Acarina (mites and ticks) and the order Diptera (mosquitoes, sand flies and tsetse flies). The phyletic age of reptiles since their origin in the late Carboniferous, has favored vectors and pathogens to co-evolve through millions of years, bridging to the present host-vector-pathogen interactions. The origin of vector-borne diseases is dated to the early cretaceous with Trypanosomatidae species in extinct sand flies, ancestral of modern protozoan hemoparasites of zoonotic concern (e.g., Leishmania and Trypanosoma) associated to reptiles. Bacterial RVBDs are represented by microorganisms also affecting mammals of the genera Aeromonas, Anaplasma, Borrelia, Coxiella, Ehrlichia and Rickettsia, most of them having reptilian clades. Finally, reptiles may play an important role as reservoirs of arborivuses, given the low host specificity of anthropophilic mosquitoes and sand flies. In this review, vector-borne pathogens of zoonotic concern from reptiles are discussed, as well as the interactions between reptiles, arthropod vectors and the zoonotic pathogens they may transmit.

Molecular detection of Wolbachia endosymbiont in reptiles and their ectoparasites

Wolbachia, a maternally transmitted Gram-negative endosymbiont of onchocercid nematodes and arthropods, has a role in the biology of their host; thus it has been exploited for the filariasis treatment in humans. To assess the presence and prevalence of this endosymbiont in reptiles and their ectoparasites, blood and tail tissue as well as ticks and mites collected from them were molecularly screened for Wolbachia DNA using two sets of primers targeting partial 16S rRNA and Wolbachia surface protein (wsp) genes. Positive samples were screened for the partial 12S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) genes for filarioids. Of the different species of lizards (Podarcis siculus, Podarcis muralis and Lacerta bilineata) and snakes (Elaphe quatuorlineata and Boa constrictor constrictor) screened from three collection sites, only P. siculus scored positive for Wolbachia 16S rRNA. Among ectoparasites collected from reptiles (Ixodes ricinus ticks and Neotrombicula autumnalis, Ophionyssus sauracum and Ophionyssus natricis mites), I. ricinus (n = 4; 2.8%; 95% CI, 0.9–7) from P. siculus, N. autumnalis (n = 2 each; 2.8%; 95% CI, 0.9–6.5) from P. siculus and P. muralis and O. natricis (n = 1; 14.3%; 95% CI, 0.7–55.4) from Boa constrictor constrictor scored positive for Wolbachia DNA. None of the positive Wolbachia samples scored positive for filarioids. This represents the first report of Wolbachia in reptilian hosts and their ectoparasites, which follows a single identification in the intestinal cells of a filarioid associated with a gecko. This data could contribute to better understand the reptile filarioid-Wolbachia association and to unveil the evolutionary pattern of Wolbachia in its filarial host.

Novel Protozoans in Austria Revealed through the Use of Dogs as Sentinels for Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens

We previously isolated and cultivated the novel Rickettsia raoultii strain Jongejan. This prompted us to ask whether this strain is unique or more widely present in Austria. To assess this issue, we retrospectively screened ticks collected from dogs in 2008. Of these collected ticks, we randomly selected 75 (47 females and 28 males) Dermacentor reticulatus, 44 (21 females, 7 males, and 16 nymphs) Haemaphysalis concinna, and 55 (52 females and 3 males) ticks of the Ixodes ricinus complex. Subsequently, these ticks were individually screened for the presence of tick-borne pathogens using the reverse line blot hybridization assay. In our current study, we detected DNA from the following microbes in D. reticulatus: Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia lusitaniae, Borrelia spielmanii, Borrelia valaisiana, and R. raoultii, all of which were R. raoultii strain Jongejan. In H. concinna, we found DNA of a Babesia sp., Rickettsia helvetica, and an organism closely related to Theileria capreoli. Lastly, I. ricinus was positive for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia garinii/Borrelia bavariensis, B. lusitaniae, B. spielmanii, B. valaisiana, Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis, Rickettsia helvetica, Rickettsia monacensis, and Theileria (Babesia) microti DNA. The detection of DNA of the Babesia sp. and an organism closely related to Theileria capreoli, both found in H. concinna ticks, is novel for Austria.

Seropositivity to canine tick-borne pathogens in a population of sick dogs in Italy

BACKGROUND

Canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) associated to ticks are among the most important health issues affecting dogs. In Italy, Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia conorii and Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) have been studied in both healthy canine populations and those clinically ill with suspected CVBDs. However, little information is currently available on the overall prevalence and distribution of these pathogens in the country. The aim of this study was to assess the prevalence and distribution of tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) in clinically suspect dogs from three Italian macro areas during a 15-year period (2006-2020).

METHODS

A large dataset (n = 21,992) of serological test results for selected TBPs in three macro areas in Italy was analysed using a Chi-square test to evaluate the associations between the categorical factors (i.e. macro area, region, year, sex and age) and a standard logistic regression model (significance set at P = 0.05). Serological data were presented as annual and cumulative prevalence, and distribution maps of cumulative positive cases for TBPs were generated.

RESULTS

Of the tested serum samples, 86.9% originated from northern (43.9%) and central (43%) Italy. The majority of the tests was requested for the diagnosis of E. canis (47%; n = 10,334), followed by Rickettsia spp. (35.1%; n = 7725), B. burgdorferi (s.l.) (11.6%; n = 2560) and Anaplasma spp. (6.2%; n = 1373). The highest serological exposure was recorded for B. burgdorferi (s.l.) (83.5%), followed by Rickettsia spp. (64.9%), Anaplasma spp. (39.8%) and E. canis (28.7%). The highest number of cumulative cases of Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) was recorded in samples from Tuscany, central Italy. Rickettsia spp. was more prevalent in the south and on the islands, particularly in dogs on Sicily older than 6 years, whereas Anaplasma spp. was more prevalent in the north and E. canis more prevalent in the south and on the islands.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study highlight the high seroprevalence and wide distribution of the four TBPs in dogs with clinically suspected CVBDs from the studied regions of Italy. The very high seroprevalence of B. burgdorferi (s.l.) exemplifies a limitation of this study, given the use of clinically suspect dogs and the possibility of cross-reactions when using serological tests. The present research provides updated and illustrative information on the seroprevalence and distribution of four key TBPs, and advocates for integrative control strategies for their prevention.

Molecular investigation of bacterial and protozoal pathogens in ticks collected from different hosts in Turkey

Background

The emergence of tick-borne disease is increasing because of the effects of the temperature rise driven by global warming. In Turkey, 19 pathogens transmitted by ticks to humans and animals have been reported. Based on this, this study aimed to investigate tick-borne pathogens including Hepatozoon spp., Theileria spp., Babesia spp., Anaplasma spp., Borrelia spp., and Bartonella spp. in tick samples (n = 110) collected from different hosts (dogs, cats, cattle, goats, sheep, and turtles) by molecular methods.

Methods

To meet this objective, ticks were identified morphologically at the genus level by microscopy; after DNA isolation, each tick sample was identified at the species level using the molecular method. Involved pathogens were then investigated by PCR method.

Results

Seven different tick species were identified including Rhipicephalus sanguineus, R. turanicus, R. bursa, Hyalomma marginatum, H. anatolicum, H. aegyptium, and Haemaphysalis erinacei. Among the analyzed ticks, Hepatozoon spp., Theileria spp., Babesia spp., and Anaplasma spp. were detected at rates of 6.36%, 16.3%, 1.81%, and 6.36%, respectively while Borrelia spp. and Bartonella spp. were not detected. Hepatozoon spp. was detected in R. sanguineus ticks while Theileria spp., Babesia spp., and Anaplasma spp. were detected in R. turanicus and H. marginatum. According to the results of sequence analyses applied for pathogen positive samples, Hepatozoon canis, Theileria ovis, Babesia caballi, and Anaplasma ovis were identified.

Conclusion

Theileria ovis and Anaplasma ovis were detected for the first time to our knowledge in H. marginatum and R. turanicus collected from Turkey, respectively. Also, B. caballi was detected for the first time to our knowledge in ticks in Turkey.

Effects of food intake and hydration state on behavioral thermoregulation and locomotor activity in the tropidurid lizard Tropidurus catalanensis

Theoretical models predict that lizards adjust their body temperature through behavioral thermoregulation as a function of food availability. However, behavioral thermoregulation is also governed by interactions among physiological and ecological factors other than food availability, such as hydration state, and sometimes it can even conflict with the locomotor activity of animals. Here, we aimed to investigate the role of food intake and hydration state on behavioral thermoregulation and voluntary locomotor activity in the lizard Tropidurus catalanensis We hypothesized that food intake can influence behavioral thermoregulation via an interaction with hydration state. We also hypothesized that lizards should endeavor to spend as little time as possible to reach their preferred body temperature to defend other physiological and/or ecological functions. We collected lizards in the field and brought them to the laboratory to measure the preferred temperature selected in a thermal gradient and the total distance traveled by them in fed and unfed conditions and with variable hydration state. Our results showed that food consumption was the most important predictor of preferred temperature. In contrast, either the hydration state alone or its interaction with food consumption did not have important effects on the lizards' thermal preference. Also, we found that the total distance traveled by lizards was not affected by food intake and was barely affected by the hydration state. We provide an experimental approach and a robust analysis of the factors that influence behavioral thermoregulation and locomotor activity in a tropical lizard.

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors for vector-borne pathogens in dogs from Egypt

Background

Dogs play an important role as reservoirs of many zoonotic vector-borne pathogens worldwide, yet reports of canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) in Egypt are scarce.

Methods

Serum samples were collected from pet dogs (n = 500) of the three most common breeds (German Shepherd, Rottweiler and Pit Bull) in five Governates of Cairo (n = 230), Giza (n = 110), Al-Qalyubia (n = 60), Al-Gharbia (n = 60) and Kafr El-Sheikh (n = 40) with a hot desert climate. The presence of antibodies to Anaplasma spp. (A. phagocytophilum, A. platys), Ehrlichia spp. (E. canis, E. chaffeensis, E. ewingii), Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) and Dirofilaria immitis were assessed using IDEXX SNAP^® 4Dx^® ELISA tests. For each pathogen, risk factors (i.e. geographical area, keeping condition, sex, age, breed, tick infestation, weekly sanitation of dog enclosures and application of ectoparasiticides) were evaluated by logistic regression approach.

Results

In total, 18.2% (n = 91, 95% CI 15.1–21.8) of dogs scored seropositive for at least one pathogen, the most frequent being Ehrlichia spp. (n = 56; 11.2%; 95% CI 8.7–14.3) followed by Anaplasma spp. (n = 33; 6.6%, 95% CI 4.7–9.1), Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) (n = 9; 1.8%, 95% CI 0.9–3.4) and D. immitis (n = 7; 1.4%, 95% CI 0.9–2.9). In the tested population, 15.4% (95% CI 12.5–18.8) of dogs were exposed to a single pathogen while 2.4 (95% CI 1.4–4.2) and 0.4% (95% CI 0.1–1.4) were simultaneously exposed to two or three pathogens, respectively. Major risk factors associated with VBDs were living outdoors (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.0001), female sex (Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.005), German Shepherd breed (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.04; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.03), tick infestation (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi (s.l.), P = 0.003; D. immitis, P = 0.02), irregular sanitation (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi (s.l.), P = 0.002; D. immitis, P = 0.01) and not using ectoparasiticides (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi (s.l.), P = 0.007).

Conclusion

To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale seroepidemiological study of CVBDs in Egypt. Considering that all of the detected pathogens are potentially zoonotic, effective ectoparasite control strategies, regular examination of pet dogs and successful chemoprophylaxis are advocated.

First report of Ericotrombidium ibericense in domestic dogs

PURPOSE

Larval stages of trombiculid mites infest a wide variety of wild and domestic animals. The most common clinical signs related with the presence of these parasites are alopecia, crusts, erythema, excoriation, erosion, papules, pustules and vesicles. Most of trombiculid infestations may not be perceived by the clinician due to their small size. Although Ericotrombidium ibericense has been recorded on cats, it has not been found on dogs.

METHODS

In August 2019, three domestic dogs presenting pruritic dermatological lesions in the ventral area of the body and interdigital spaces were presented at a veterinary clinic in Santarém, central Portugal. Trombiculid mites were extracted from the skin and preserved in 70% ethanol. Specimens were prepared in slides with Hoyer's medium and observed with optical microscopy.

RESULTS

After morphological examination of the specimens, mites were identified as E. ibericense (Acariformes: Trombiculidae).

CONCLUSIONS

Most of the trombiculids recorded in European clinical practice are generally identified as Neotrombicula autumnalis by default, since, in most cases, mites are not examined morphologically. This is the first record of E. ibericense in domestic dogs. More studies are needed to evaluate the distribution of these mites in Portugal. Veterinary clinicians must be aware of this parasitosis, as trombiculids can cause exuberant clinical signs, but are often misdiagnosed.

Role of reptiles and associated arthropods in the epidemiology of rickettsioses: A one health paradigm

We assessed the presence of Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii and Anaplasma phagocytophilum in reptiles, their ectoparasites and in questing ticks collected in a nature preserve park in southern Italy, as well as in a peri-urban area in another region. We also investigated the exposure to these pathogens in forestry workers, farmers and livestock breeders living or working in the nature preserve park given the report of anecdotal cases of spotted fever rickettsioses. Rickettsia spp. were molecularly detected in Podarcis muralis and Podarcis siculus lizards (i.e., 3.1%), in Ixodes ricinus (up to 87.5%) and in Neotrombicula autumnalis (up to 8.3%) collected from them as well as in I. ricinus collected from the environment (up to 28.4%). Rickettsia monacensis was the most prevalent species followed by Rickettsia helvetica. An undescribed member of the family Anaplasmataceae was detected in 2.4% and 0.8% of the reptiles and ectoparasites, respectively. Sera from human subjects (n = 50) were serologically screened and antibodies to Rickettsia spp. (n = 4; 8%), C. burnetti (n = 8; 16%) and A. phagocytophilum (n = 11; 22%) were detected. Two ticks collected from two forestry workers were positive for spotted fever group (SFG) rickettsiae. Ixodes ricinus is involved in the transmission of SFG rickettsiae (R. monacensis and R. helvetica) in southern Europe and lizards could play a role in the sylvatic cycle of R. monacensis, as amplifying hosts. Meanwhile, N. autumnalis could be involved in the enzootic cycle of some SFG rickettsiae among these animals. People living or working in the southern Italian nature preserve park investigated are exposed to SFG rickettsiae, C. burnetii and A. phagocytophilum.

Zoonotic pathogens such as Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii and Anaplasma phagocytophilum are associated with ticks, lice, fleas and mites and may infect a wide range of vertebrate species. There are still many knowledge gaps concerning the arthropod vectors and amplifying hosts of these pathogens. Reptiles are known to host infected ticks with these zoonotic pathogens and eventually become infected themselves by these bacteria. Hence to address this question from a broad One-Health perspective, we assessed the molecular prevalence of Rickettsia spp., C. burnetii and A. phagocytophilum in reptiles, ticks and mites from both hosts and environment and seroprevalence in humans living or working near the same area. Rickettsia DNA was detected in lizards’ tails, Ixodes ricinus ticks and in Neotrombicula autumnalis mites collected from them and in questing ticks. Although DNA of C. burnetii and A. phagocytophilum was not detected in lizards and their ectoparasites, sera samples of human subjects tested positive for the antibodies against these zoonotic pathogens. These findings indicate the epidemiological role of lizards in spreading SFG rickettsiae as well as I. ricinus, and hence representing a potential public health concern in geographical areas where lizards, ticks and humans share the same environment.

Molecular survey on tick-borne pathogens and Leishmania infantum in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from southern Italy

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have been recognised to harbour and transmit a wide range of tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) including those of zoonotic concern. To investigate the prevalence and the distribution of TBPs and of Leishmania infantum in foxes (n = 244), spleen samples were collected within the frame of a multi-regional wildlife health surveillance program in Italy. A combined PCR/sequencing approach was performed for the detection of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., Borrelia spp., Ehrlichia spp., Hepatozoon spp. and L. infantum DNA. Overall, 146 foxes (59.8 %, 95 % CI: 53.6-65.8) tested positive for at least one pathogen with Hepatozoon canis being the most prevalent (i.e., n = 124; 50.8 %, 95 % CI: 44.6-57.0), followed by Babesia vulpes (n = 20; 8.2 %, 95 % CI: 5.4-12.3), different spirochete species from Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex (n = 9; 3.7 %, 95 % CI: 1.9-6.9), Ehrlichia canis and L. infantum (n = 7; 2.9 % each, 95 % CI: 1.4-5.8), Anaplasma platys (n = 4; 1.6 %, 95 % CI: 0.6-4.1), Anaplasma phagocytophilum ecotype I and Candidatus Neoehrlichia sp. (n = 3; 1.2 % each, 95 % CI: 0.4-3.5). All samples scored negative for Babesia canis and Borrelia miyamotoi. This study revealed the presence of spirochetes from B. burgdorferi s.l. complex, Ca. Neoehrlichia sp., A. platys and A. phagocytophilum ecotype I in red fox population from Italy, underling the necessity to monitoring these carnivores, mainly because they live in contact with dogs and humans. Data on the tick fauna circulating on wildlife species will complement information herein obtained, instrumentally to establish preventive strategies for minimizing the risk of infection for animals and humans.

Spotted fever group rickettsiae in Dermacentor marginatus from wild boars in Italy

Following the increase in wild boar population recorded in urban and peri-urban areas throughout Europe, the present survey aimed to assess the occurrence of zoonotic tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) in wild boars living in southern Italy and in their ticks for evaluating the potential risk of infection for animals and humans. From October to December 2019, a total of 176 ticks collected from 93 wild boars andtheir spleen samples were molecularly screened for selected TBPs. Overall, all the wild boars were infested by ticks (mean intensity, 1.9) with Dermacentor marginatus and Ixodes ricinus being identified in 99.4% and 0.6%, respectively. Out of 93 wild boars, 17 (18.3%) were infested by ticks which scored positive to spotted fever group (SFG) Rickettsia species. Rickettsia slovaca and Rickettsia raoultii were identified in 16 (9%) and 1 (0.6%) D. marginatus, respectively, whereas a single I. ricinus (0.6%) was infected by R. slovaca. A single wild boar (1.1%) tested positive to R. slovaca. All ticks and wild boars scored negative to Babesia/Theileria spp., Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Candidatus Neoehrlichia spp., Coxiella burnetii and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex. Data herein obtained suggest that wild boars are involved in the maintenance of D. marginatus in the environment as in peri-urban areas herein investigated. An integrated management approach is advocated for wild boar population control and in preventing the potential risk of TBPs infection in animals and humans.

Molecular detection of vector-borne agents in ectoparasites and reptiles from Brazil

Trombidiformes and Mesostigmata mites, as well as Ixodida ticks, infest ectothermic tetrapods worldwide, potentially acting as vectors of bacteria, viruses and protozoa. The relationship among ectoparasites, transmitted pathogenic agents (e.g., Borrelia spp., Coxiella spp., Hepatozoon spp., and Rickettsia spp.) and ectothermic hosts has been scarcely investigated. This research focuses on a large collection of Brazilian herpetofauna screened for the presence of arthropod ectoparasites and vector-borne microbial agents. Reptiles (n = 121) and amphibians (n = 49) from various locations were infested by ectoparasites. Following genomic extraction, microbial agents were detected in 81 % of the Acari (i.e. n = 113 mites and n = 26 ticks). None of the mites, ticks and tissues from amphibians yielded positive results for any of the screened agents. Blood was collected from reptiles and processed through blood cytology and molecular analyses (n = 48). Of those, six snakes (12.5 %) showed intraerythrocytic alterations compatible with Hepatozoon spp. gamonts and Iridovirus inclusions. Hepatozoon spp. similar to Hepatozoon ayorgbor and Hepatozoon musa were molecularly identified from seven hosts, two mite and two tick species. Rickettsia spp. (e.g., Rickettsia amblyommatis, Rickettsia bellii-like, Rickettsia sp.) were detected molecularly from four mite species and Amblyomma rotundatum ticks. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the molecular identification of the above-mentioned microbial agents of mites and ticks related to snakes and lizards. Overall, our findings highlighted that the Brazilian herpetofauna and its ectoparasites harbour potentially pathogenic agents, particularly from the northern and south-eastern regions. The detection of several species of spotted fever group Rickettsia pointed out the potential role of ectothermic hosts and related arthropod ectoparasites in the epidemiological cycle of these bacteria in Brazil.

Lack of Evidence on the Susceptibility of Ticks and Wild Rodent Species to PCV3 Infection

Porcine circovirus 3 (PCV3) is an emerging virus, first detected in 2016 and widespread in the swine industry. Although not considered a primary pathogen, PCV3 is potentially linked to several clinical conditions that threaten swine farming. Wild boars are considered the main reservoir species for PCV3 infection in the wild, but recent detection in roe deer, chamois and associated ticks has complicated our understanding of its epidemiology. Much emphasis has been placed on ticks, as competent vectors, and wild rodents, which typically feed immature tick stages. The aim of this study was to clarify whether wild rodent species and associated ticks are susceptible to PCV3 infection and involved in its spread. Wild small mammals' serum samples and hosted ticks were, therefore, collected from areas where no wild boars were present and tested by PCR, targeting the PCV3 rep gene. A total of 90 yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis), two wood mice (A. sylvaticus), 26 bank voles (Myodes glareolus) and 262 Ixodes spp. ticks were investigated. PCV3 DNA was not detected in serum or in tick samples. These findings support the hypothesis that the investigated species do not have an actual role as PCV3 reservoirs. Further studies would be necessary to state whether these species, or others that we did not test, are involved in PCV3 infection spread-in particular when susceptible species share the same habitat.

Mites and ticks of reptiles and amphibians in Brazil

This study focuses on the parasitic associations of mites and ticks infesting reptiles and amphibians through a multifocal approach. Herein, reptiles (n= 3,596) and amphibians (n= 919) were examined to ensure representativeness of the Brazilian herpetofauna megadiversity. The overall prevalence was calculated to better understand which were the preferred hosts for each order of Acari (Trombidiformes, Mesostigmata and Ixodida), as well as to determine which orders frequently parasitize reptiles and amphibians in Brazil, and their host specificity. Infestation rates were calculated [prevalence, mean intensity (MI) and mean abundance (MA)] for each order and species, determining which mites and ticks are more likely to be found parasitizing the ectothermic tetrapod fauna. Parasitic niches and preferred locations were recorded to help identify specific places exploited by different Acari, and to determine the host-parasite adaptations, specificity, and relationships in terms of co-evolution. In total 4,515 reptiles and amphibians were examined, of which 170 specimens were infested by mites and ticks (overall prevalence of 3.8%). Trombidiformes mites were prevalent in lizards (55.3%), followed by Ixodida on snakes (24.7%). Mesostigmata mites were the less prevalent, being identified only on Squamata reptiles (4.3% on snakes, 2.4% on lizards). In amphibians, Ixodida ticks were the most prevalent (63.2%), followed by Trombidiformes (34.6%), and lastly Oribatida (2%). From the 13 species of Trombidiformes identified, Eutrombicula alfreddugesi (19.9%) was the most abundant in terms of number of host species and infested individuals. Specimens of Ixodida, yet more common, showed low preferred locations and different values of infestation rates. Co-infestations were recorded only on snakes. Lizard mites generally adhered to the ventral celomatic area (Pterygosomatidae), and some species to the pocket-like structures (Trombiculidae). Lizards, at variance from snakes, have adapted to endure high parasitic loads with minimum effects on their health. The high number of mites recorded in the digits of toads (Cycloramphus boraceiensis, Corythomantis greening, Cycloramphus dubius, Leptodactylus latrans, Melanophryniscus admirabilis) could lead to avascular necrosis. Frogs were often infested by Hannemania larvae, while Rhinella toads were likely to be infested by Amblyomma ticks. Of note, Rhinella major toad was found infested by an oribatid mite, implying first a new parasitic relationship. The effect of high parasitic loads on critically endangered species of anurans deserves further investigation. Our results add basic knowledge to host association of mites and ticks to Brazilian reptiles and amphibians, highlighting that routine ectoparasite examination is needed in cases of quarantine as well as when for managing reptiles and amphibians in captivity given the wide diversity of Acari on the Brazilian ectothermic tetrapod fauna.

Interrupted Blood Feeding in Ticks: Causes and Consequences

Ticks are obligate hematophagous arthropods and act as vectors for a great variety of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. Some tick-borne viruses, such as Powassan virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus, are transmissible within 15–60 min after tick attachment. However, a minimum of 3–24 h of tick attachment is necessary to effectively transmit bacterial agents such as Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., and Rickettsia spp. to a new host. Longer transmission periods were reported for Borrelia spp. and protozoans such as Babesia spp., which require a minimum duration of 24–48 h of tick attachment for maturation and migration of the pathogen. Laboratory observations indicate that the probability of transmission of tick-borne pathogens increases with the duration an infected tick is allowed to remain attached to the host. However, the transmission time may be shortened when partially fed infected ticks detach from their initial host and reattach to a new host, on which they complete their engorgement. For example, early transmission of tick-borne pathogens (e.g., Rickettsia rickettsii, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Babesia canis) and a significantly shorter transmission time were demonstrated in laboratory experiments by interrupted blood feeding. The relevance of such situations under field conditions remains poorly documented. In this review, we explore parameters of, and causes leading to, spontaneous interrupted feeding in nature, as well as the effects of this behavior on the minimum time required for transmission of tick-borne pathogens.

Zoonotic Parasites of Reptiles: A Crawling Threat

Reptiles are reservoirs of a wide range of pathogens, including many protozoa, helminths, pentastomids, and arthropod parasitic species, some of which may be of public health concern. In this review we discuss the zoonotic risks associated with human–reptile interactions. Increased urbanization and introduction of exotic species of reptile may act as drivers for the transmission of zoonotic parasites through the environment. In addition, being a part of human diet, reptiles can be a source of life-threatening parasitoses, such as pentastomiasis or sparganosis. Finally, reptiles kept as pets may represent a risk to owners given the possibility of parasites transmitted by direct contact or fecal contamination. Awareness of reptile-borne zoonotic parasitoses is important to advocate control, prevention, and surveillance of these neglected diseases.

Species of protozoa, helminths, pentastomids, and arthropod vectors exploit reptiles as definitive or paratenic hosts, which may represent a public health concern.

The zoonotic risk is associated with human–reptile interactions and includes environmental contamination, reptile consumption, or keeping reptiles as pets.

Exotic reptile species may introduce new zoonotic parasites in a previously nonendemic region.

Pentastomiasis and sparganosis are life-threatening food-borne parasitoses.

In our households, if precautions are not taken, reptiles may transmit zoonotic parasites by direct contact or fecal contamination.

Trained veterinarians, physicians, and public health officials are important to advocate for proper diagnostics, parasite identification and treatment, as well as for surveillance strategies and food inspection in areas where reptiles are consumed.

Ixodes ricinus infesting snakes: Insights on a new tick-host association in a Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato endemic area

The castor bean tick Ixodes ricinus is one of the most abundant tick species in Europe, being able to parasitize a wide number of vertebrate hosts, including mammals, birds, and reptiles. This tick species has an important role as vector of zoonotic pathogens, including the causative agents of Lyme borreliosis (i.e. Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato). Here, we provide insights on a new tick-host association (i.e. I. ricinus infesting snakes) in an area recently recognized as endemic for reptile-associated zoonotic species of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l.