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Zhang S, Qiu X, Liu D, Zhang Z, Liu B, Zhang G, Liang R, Liang L, Tang X, Hou S, Ding C, Ding J. La Sota-vectored recombinant vaccine with chimeric hemagglutinin-neuraminidase for enhanced protection against highly pathogenic pigeon paramyxovirus type 1. Poult Sci 2025; 104:104874. [PMID: 39993343 PMCID: PMC11903895 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2025.104874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2024] [Revised: 01/15/2025] [Accepted: 01/31/2025] [Indexed: 02/26/2025] Open
Abstract
Pigeon Paramyxovirus Type 1 (PPMV-1), an antigenic and host variant of the Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV), can infect pigeons of all ages and cause severe economic losses in the poultry industry. The existing commercial vaccines are not capable of providing complete protection against the prevalent PPMV-1 strains. To address this issue, reverse genetic technology was employed to create a recombinant 167DM strain by incorporating the chimeric genotype Ⅵ hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) with La Sota as the backbone. The optimal anti-PPMV-1 vaccine candidate was identified through a systematical comparison of biological characteristics and immune efficacy of the predominant PPMV-1 epidemic strain, the 167DM strain, and the La Sota strain. Results indicated that the 167DM strain exhibited the highest culture titers in allantoic fluid and the strongest heat resistance. The antibody titers in the 167DM vaccine group consistently surpassed those in other groups tested. Cross-hemagglutination inhibition (HI) tests revealed no detectable antigenic differences between the 167DM and the prevalent PPMV-1 strain. Furthermore, the 167DM strain conferred 100% protection by preventing PPMV-1 infection and completely inhibiting virus shedding. These findings provide valuable insights for the development of a novel vaccine targeting ND in pigeons, thus laying a foundation for further advancements in vaccine development within this avian population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biosafety Risk Prevention and Control (North) & Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Products and Chemical Drugs of MARA, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xusheng Qiu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Dahu Liu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biosafety Risk Prevention and Control (North) & Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Products and Chemical Drugs of MARA, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Ziyan Zhang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Baojing Liu
- Beijing Xinhexiang Technology Co., LLC, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Guangzhi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biosafety Risk Prevention and Control (North) & Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Products and Chemical Drugs of MARA, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Ruiying Liang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biosafety Risk Prevention and Control (North) & Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Products and Chemical Drugs of MARA, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lin Liang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biosafety Risk Prevention and Control (North) & Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Products and Chemical Drugs of MARA, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xinming Tang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biosafety Risk Prevention and Control (North) & Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Products and Chemical Drugs of MARA, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Shaohua Hou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biosafety Risk Prevention and Control (North) & Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Products and Chemical Drugs of MARA, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Chan Ding
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Jiabo Ding
- Key Laboratory of Animal Biosafety Risk Prevention and Control (North) & Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biological Products and Chemical Drugs of MARA, Institute of Animal Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China.
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Chu PP, Chen SN, Zhou X, Wei ZZ, Zhai SL. Getah Virus: A New Contaminant in Veterinary Vaccines. Vet Sci 2025; 12:82. [PMID: 40005842 PMCID: PMC11860580 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci12020082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2024] [Revised: 01/20/2025] [Accepted: 01/22/2025] [Indexed: 02/27/2025] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma, reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV), avian leukosis virus (ALV), chicken infectious anemia virus (CIAV), bovine polyomavirus (BPV), bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV), and porcine circovirus (PCV) are considered common contaminants in live veterinary vaccines against Newcastle disease virus (NDV), fowlpox virus (FPV), infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), classical swine fever virus (CSFV), pseudorabies virus (PRV), and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). In the past five years, Getah virus (GETV), an arbovirus affecting many farming mammals, was reported as a new contaminant in live PRRSV vaccines in two previous studies, which arouses our considerable interest. Therefore, in this paper, we aim to analyze and discuss the source, biological hazard, and genomic characteristics of these contaminating GETV strains further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pin-Pin Chu
- Department of Swine Diseases, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention, Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China; (P.-P.C.); (X.Z.)
| | - Sheng-Nan Chen
- Laboratory of Animal infectious Diseases and Molecular Immunology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530005, China; (S.-N.C.)
- Guangzhou Sino-Science Gene Testing Service Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510700, China
| | - Xia Zhou
- Department of Swine Diseases, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention, Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China; (P.-P.C.); (X.Z.)
| | - Zu-Zhang Wei
- Laboratory of Animal infectious Diseases and Molecular Immunology, College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530005, China; (S.-N.C.)
| | - Shao-Lun Zhai
- Department of Swine Diseases, Institute of Animal Health, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Livestock Disease Prevention, Scientific Observation and Experiment Station of Veterinary Drugs and Diagnostic Techniques of Guangdong Province, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China; (P.-P.C.); (X.Z.)
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Wang X, Lu X, Wang M, Zhou Q, Wang X, Yang W, Liu K, Gao R, Liao T, Chen Y, Hu J, Gu M, Hu S, Liu X, Liu X. RNA-Seq Profiling in Chicken Spleen and Thymus Infected with Newcastle Disease Virus of Varying Virulence. Vet Sci 2024; 11:569. [PMID: 39591343 PMCID: PMC11599091 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci11110569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2024] [Revised: 11/13/2024] [Accepted: 11/14/2024] [Indexed: 11/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV), known as avian paramyxovirus-1, poses a significant threat to poultry production worldwide. Vaccination currently stands as the most effective strategy for Newcastle disease control. However, the mesogenic vaccine strain Mukteswar has been observed to evolve into a velogenic variant JS/7/05/Ch during poultry immunization. Here, we aimed to explore the mechanisms underlying virulence enhancement of the two viruses. Pathogenically, JS/7/05/Ch mediated stronger virulence and pathogenicity in vivo compared to Mukteswar. Comparative transcriptome analysis revealed 834 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), comprising 339 up-regulated and 495 down-regulated genes, in the spleen, and 716 DEGs, with 313 up-regulated and 403 down-regulated genes, in the thymus. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis indicated that these candidate targets primarily participated in cell and biological development, extracellular part and membrane composition, as well as receptor and binding activity. Furthermore, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis unveiled a substantial portion of candidate genes predominantly involved in cellular processes, environmental information processing, metabolism, and organismal systems. Additionally, five DEGs (TRAT1, JUP, LPAR4, CYB561A3, and CXCR5) were randomly identified through RNA-seq analysis and subsequently confirmed via quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The findings revealed a marked up-regulation in the expression levels of these DEGs induced by JS/7/05/Ch compared to Mukteswar, with CYB561A3 and CXCR5 exhibiting significant increases. The findings corroborated the sequencing accuracy, offering promising research directions. Taken together, we comprehensively evaluated transcriptomic alterations in chicken immune organs infected by NDV strains of diverse virulence. This study establishes a basis and direction for NDV virulence research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoquan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Xiaolong Lu
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Mingzhu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
| | - Qiwen Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
| | - Xiyue Wang
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
| | - Wenhao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Kaituo Liu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety of Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Ruyi Gao
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Tianxing Liao
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Jiao Hu
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Min Gu
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Shunlin Hu
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Xiufan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
| | - Xiaowen Liu
- Key Laboratory of Avian Bioproducts Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China; (X.W.); (X.L.); (M.W.); (Q.Z.); (X.W.); (W.Y.); (R.G.); (T.L.); (Y.C.); (J.H.); (M.G.); (S.H.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225000, China
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Zeb MT, Dumont E, Khan MT, Shehzadi A, Ahmad I. Multi-Epitopic Peptide Vaccine Against Newcastle Disease Virus: Molecular Dynamics Simulation and Experimental Validation. Vaccines (Basel) 2024; 12:1250. [PMID: 39591153 PMCID: PMC11598688 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines12111250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2024] [Revised: 10/23/2024] [Accepted: 10/28/2024] [Indexed: 11/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is a highly contagious and economically devastating pathogen affecting poultry worldwide, leading to significant losses in the poultry industry. Despite existing vaccines, outbreaks continue to occur, highlighting the need for more effective vaccination strategies. Developing a multi-epitopic peptide vaccine offers a promising approach to enhance protection against NDV. OBJECTIVES Here, we aimed to design and evaluate a multi-epitopic vaccine against NDV using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. METHODOLOGY We retrieved NDV sequences for the fusion (F) protein and hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) protein. Subsequently, B-cell and T-cell epitopes were predicted. The top potential epitopes were utilized to design the vaccine construct, which was subsequently docked against chicken TLR4 and MHC1 receptors to assess the immunological response. The resulting docked complex underwent a 1 microsecond (1000 ns) MD simulation. For experimental evaluation, the vaccine's efficacy was assessed in mice and chickens using a controlled study design, where animals were randomly divided into groups receiving either a local ND vaccine or the peptide vaccine or a control treatment. RESULTS The 40 amino acid peptide vaccine demonstrated strong binding affinity and stability within the TLR4 and MHC1 receptor-peptide complexes. The root mean square deviation of peptide vaccine and TLR4 receptor showed rapid stabilization after an initial repositioning. The root mean square fluctuation revealed relatively low fluctuations (below 3 Å) for the TLR4 receptor, while the peptide exhibited higher fluctuations. The overall binding energy of the peptide vaccine with TLR4 and MHC1 receptors amounted to -15.7 kcal·mol-1 and -36.8 kcal·mol-1, respectively. For experimental evaluations in mice and chicken, the peptide vaccine was synthesized using services of GeneScript Biotech® (Singapore) PTE Limited. Experimental evaluations showed a significant immune response in both mice and chickens, with the vaccine eliciting robust antibody production, as evidenced by increasing HI titers over time. Statistical analysis was performed using an independent t-test with Type-II error to compare the groups, calculating the p-values to determine the significance of the immune response between different groups. CONCLUSIONS Multi-epitopic peptide vaccine has demonstrated a good immunological response in natural hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Tariq Zeb
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Khyber Medical University, Phase-V, Hayatabad Peshawar, Peshawar 25100, Pakistan;
- Genomic Laboratory, Veterinary Research Institute, Bacha Khan Chowk, Charsadda Road, Peshawar 25100, Pakistan
| | - Elise Dumont
- Institut de Chimie de Nice, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, UMR 7272, 06108 Nice, France;
- Institut Universitaire de France, 5 Rue Descartes, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Muhammad Tahir Khan
- Institute of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology (IMBB), The University of Lahore, KM Defence Road, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Tuberculosis Research, Department of Clinical Laboratory, Guangzhou Chest Hospital, Institute of Tuberculosis, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510180, China
- Qihe Laboratory, Qishui Guang East, Qibin District, Hebi 458030, China
| | - Aroosa Shehzadi
- Institute of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology (IMBB), The University of Lahore, KM Defence Road, Lahore 54000, Pakistan;
| | - Irshad Ahmad
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Khyber Medical University, Phase-V, Hayatabad Peshawar, Peshawar 25100, Pakistan;
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Fowl Adenovirus Infection – Potential Cause of a Suppressed Humoral Immune Response of Broilers to Newcastle Disease Vaccination. ACTA VET-BEOGRAD 2023. [DOI: 10.2478/acve-2023-0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Fowl adenovirus infections have a significant economic impact, especially in the production of broilers. It is considered the leading cause of three syndromes: adenoviral gizzard erosions and ulcerations, inclusion body hepatitis, and hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome. A critical feature of this virus is its immunosuppressive effect, via suppressing humoral and cellular immunity.
In this study, we examined the humoral immune response after administration of the Newcastle disease vaccine in broiler flocks with previously confirmed seroconversion against Fowl adenovirus. The study was conducted on 5 farms. A total of 220 chickens, five weeks of age, showing no clinical signs of the disease, were included in this study. The control group consisted of 20 chickens from a negative farm. Chickens were vaccinated with commercially available live NDV vaccines between 11 and 13 days of life. ELISA determined the presence of specific antibodies against FAdV in a total of 130/200 (65%) blood sera. Depending on the farm, seroprevalence ranged from 30-100%. The presence of specific antibodies against NDV was determined three weeks after vaccination using the hemagglutination inhibition assay. A positive hemagglutination inhibition (HI) titer (≥ 16) was found in 41/200 (20.5%) sera, which was significantly less compared to the control farm, where a positive HI titer was found in 20/20 (100%) sera.
The results of our study indicate the immunosuppressive effect of FAdV in subclinically infected birds and highlight the need for its diagnosis, prevention, and control.
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Chen L, Su Q, Li Y, Wang J, Zhang Y, Chang S, Wang Y, Zhao P. Genomic Characteristics of a Chicken Infectious Anemia Virus in Contaminated Attenuated Vaccine. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:925935. [PMID: 35782569 PMCID: PMC9244546 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.925935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Chicken infectious anemia virus (CIAV) can be transmitted by contaminated live vaccines, and causes huge economic losses. This study evaluated the contamination status of CIAV in 24 batches of vaccines by recombinase-aided amplification assay (RAA), fluorescence quantitative PCR and dot blot assay, and then found a contaminated attenuated vaccine. The whole genome of the CIAV contaminant was then sequenced and named JS2020-PFV (Genbank accession number: MW234428, 2296bp). It showed 94.5 to 99.9% identities with reference strains and shared the closest evolution relationship with AB1K strain which was isolated from a chicken farm in Turkey. All of these suggested that the use of CIAV contaminated live vaccine may be one of the reason for its epidemic in poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longfei Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
| | - Qi Su
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
| | - Yan Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
| | - Jinjin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
| | - Yawen Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
| | - Shuang Chang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
| | - Yixin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
| | - Peng Zhao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- Shandong Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Tai'an, China
- *Correspondence: Peng Zhao
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Vaccination as a Strategy to Prevent Bluetongue Virus Vertical Transmission. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10111528. [PMID: 34832683 PMCID: PMC8622840 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10111528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bluetongue virus (BTV) produces an economically important disease in ruminants of compulsory notification to the OIE. BTV is typically transmitted by the bite of Culicoides spp., however, some BTV strains can be transmitted vertically, and this is associated with fetus malformations and abortions. The viral factors associated with the virus potency to cross the placental barrier are not well defined. The potency of vertical transmission is retained and sometimes even increased in live attenuated BTV vaccine strains. Because BTV possesses a segmented genome, the possibility of reassortment of vaccination strains with wild-type virus could even favor the transmission of this phenotype. In the present review, we will describe the non-vector-based BTV infection routes and discuss the experimental vaccination strategies that offer advantages over this drawback of some live attenuated BTV vaccines.
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Mete A, Armien AG, Rejmanek D, Mott M, Crossley BM. Emergence of fowl aviadenovirus C-4 in a backyard chicken flock in California. J Vet Diagn Invest 2021; 33:806-809. [PMID: 34085872 DOI: 10.1177/10406387211019962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Fowl aviadenovirus (FAdV) species D and E are associated with inclusion body hepatitis (IBH); species C, serotype 4 (hereafter, FAdV4) is associated with hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome (HHS) in young chickens. Outbreaks of HHS have led to significant losses in the poultry industry in several countries, predominantly in China. In April 2020, FAdV4 was detected in a remote backyard flock in California. In a mixed flock of chickens of various breeds and ages (6 mo to 2 y old), 7 of 30 were found dead within a week without premonitory signs. One additional bird died after the flock was relocated to fresh pasture, bringing the total mortality to 8 of 30 (27%). Postmortem examination of 3 birds revealed good body condition scores and active laying. One chicken had subtle hemorrhages throughout the liver, and the other 2 had diffusely dark mahogany livers. On histopathology, 2 chickens had hepatic necrosis with hepatocytes containing large, mostly basophilic, intranuclear inclusion bodies, identified by electron microscopy as 82.2-nm diameter adenoviral particles. Virus isolation and genomic sequencing performed on a liver sample revealed strains with 99.9% homology to FAdV4 isolates reported from China. To our knowledge, FAdV4 has not been reported in the United States to date. Furthermore, the chickens affected here were all adults and exhibited a variation of serotype 4 disease in which IBH was present but not hydropericardium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aslı Mete
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Davis Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Anibal G Armien
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Davis Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Daniel Rejmanek
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Davis Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Meghan Mott
- California Department of Food and Agriculture, Animal Health Branch Redding District Office, Redding, CA, USA
| | - Beate M Crossley
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, Davis Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, Davis, CA, USA
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Kusumarahayu NP, Putri N, Ernawati R, Rahmahani J, Suwarno S, Rantam FA. Molecular characterisation of Newcastle disease virus exotic isolate in East Java, Indonesia. BULGARIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE 2021. [DOI: 10.15547/bjvm.2019-0101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) is ssRNA paramyxovirus causing clinical signs, varying from subclinical infections to 100% mortality in infected chickens. Haemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) protein has an important role related to infection and pathogenesis, therefore, the protein was characterised in this study. Samples were collected from 45 cloacal swabs of native chickens. They were isolated by inoculating in specific pathogen-free embryonated eggs. Molecular detection of NDV was done by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) encoding HN protein. RT-PCR for HN gene of NDV generated DNA fragments sized 503 bp, which were then sequenced using ABI Prism. The results have shown that virus isolates were mostly lentogenic and might contribute to outbreak in East Java, Indonesia. Based on this fact, NDV infected native chickens can act as reservoir and contribute to outbreak in the poultry. Our study provides baseline information on genetic characteristics of NDV circulating in East Java and serves as a basic work for further research.
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10
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Research Note: Molecular relationship of the fowl adenovirus serotype 4 isolated from the contaminated live vaccine and wild strains isolated in China, 2013-2018. Poult Sci 2020; 99:6643-6646. [PMID: 33248579 PMCID: PMC7704713 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2020.08.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Since June 2013, hydropericardium-hepatitis syndrome caused by putative novel fowl adenovirus 4 (FAdV-4) infection has spread all over China, leading to great economic losses. Previous study found that the use of attenuated vaccines contaminated with FAdV-4 is likely to be an important cause of such large-scale transmission. Here, we sequenced the whole genome of this strain through the next-generation sequencing and carried out a retrospective analysis of the FAdV-4 strains that have been determined in China recently. Results show the vaccine strain was almost 100% identical with wild virus strains, especially with 4 strains considering the difference of the GA repeat region, further linking the relationship between vaccine contamination and FAdV-4 prevalence in China. Meanwhile, there is no time and regional preference for the emergence of FAdV-4 strains with different molecular characteristics in China, which indicates that there may be multiple routes of transmission of this virus, suggesting that we still need to pay more attention to and formulate correct prevention and control in the future.
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11
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Immune effect of a Newcastle disease virus DNA vaccine with IL-12 as a molecular adjuvant delivered by electroporation. Arch Virol 2020; 165:1959-1968. [PMID: 32519007 PMCID: PMC7282469 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-020-04669-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND), caused by virulent Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strains, has been one of the most problematic diseases affecting the poultry industry worldwide. Conventional vaccines provide effective protection for birds to survive ND outbreaks, but they may not completely suppress NDV shedding. NDV strains circulate on farms for a long time after the initial infection and cause potential risks. A new vaccine with fast clearance ability and low viral shedding is needed. In this study, we used interleukin-12 (IL-12) as an adjuvant and electroporation (EP) as an advanced delivery system to improve a DNA vaccine candidate. The fusion (F) protein gene from an NDV strain of the prevalent genotype VII.1.1 was cloned to prepare the vaccine. Chickens immunized with the F gene DNA vaccine co-delivered with an IL-12-expressing plasmid DNA showed higher neutralizing antibody levels and stronger concanavalin-A-induced lymphocyte proliferation than those treated with the F gene DNA vaccine alone. The co-delivered vaccine provided 100% protection, and less viral shedding and a shorter release time were observed in challenged chickens than when the F gene DNA vaccine was administered alone. The use of F gene DNA combined with IL-12 delivered by electroporation is a promising approach for vaccination against ND.
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12
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Mao Y, Su Q, Li J, Jiang T, Wang Y. Avian leukosis virus contamination in live vaccines: A retrospective investigation in China. Vet Microbiol 2020; 246:108712. [PMID: 32605749 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Avian leukosis (AL) is one of the most pandemic immunosuppressive diseases and has been widely spread between 2006 and 2009 in China. The contamination of avian leukosis virus (ALV) in attenuated vaccine is considered as one of the possible transmission routes of this disease. Based on a retrospective survey of 918 batches of attenuated vaccine produced before 2010, three of them were identified as ALV-positive and corresponding ALV strains were successfully isolated from a live Fowlpox virus vaccine, a live Newcastle disease virus vaccine and a live Infectious Bursal Disease virus vaccine, respectively, and whole-genome sequencing showed that these three isolates shared the highest homology with ALV-A wild strains isolated in China (97.7%) over the same period, and the phylogenetic analysis based on their gp85 genes further confirmed that they belong to subgroup A. Meanwhile, although these three ALV-A strains isolated from contaminated vaccines shared a close genetic relationship, their U3 region of genome have a relatively low identity, suggesting that these three strains may have different sources. This study reminds us once again that the possibility of ALV infecting chickens through contaminated live vaccines, requiring us to carry out stricter exogenous virus monitoring in vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqing Mao
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qi Su
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an 271018, Shandong, China
| | - Junping Li
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Taozhen Jiang
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Yixin Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an 271018, Shandong, China.
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13
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Shen Z, Xiang B, Li S, Ren X, Hong Y, Liao J, Yu D, Ren T, Liao M, Xu C. Genetic characterization of fowl adenovirus serotype 4 isolates in Southern China reveals potential cross-species transmission. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 75:103928. [PMID: 31226331 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.103928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Increasing numbers of hepatitis-hydropericardium syndrome (HHS) outbreaks associated with Fowl adenovirus 4 (FAdV-4) have been confirmed in several provinces of China since 2015, mainly affecting 3-5-week-old broiler chicks, resulting in significant losses to the poultry industry. However, little is currently known regarding the molecular epidemiology and host specificity of FAdV-4 associated with HHS in Southern China. In the present study, we isolated 37 FAdV-4 strains from 52 suspected cases of HHS (33 from broilers, one from a layer, two from ducks, and one from a mandarin duck) from Guangdong province during 2016 to 2017. All 37 FAdV-4 strains obtained showed 100% identity of hexon genes at the nucleotide level, and also showed 100% nucleotide sequence identities with strains obtained from other provinces such as Shandong, Zhejiang, and Anhui, which grouped into a FAdV-C cluster. To our knowledge, this represents the first report of an FAdV-4 strain (GZ1) from a mandarin duck with HHS. Experimental infection of the GZ1 strain via intramuscular injection led to a 100% mortality rate in 21-day-old specific pathogen-free chickens. These data indicate the possibility of the cross-species transmission of FAdV-4, highlighting the need for implementing strict biosecurity measures to avoid the mixing of different bird species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zujie Shen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Bin Xiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Shibin Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Xingxing Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Yanfen Hong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Jiayu Liao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Deshui Yu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Tao Ren
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Ming Liao
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China
| | - Chenggang Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, PR China; National and Regional Joint Engineering Laboratory for Medicament of Zoonosis Prevention and Control, PR China; Key Laboratory of Animal Vaccine Development, Ministry of Agriculture, PR China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, PR China.
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14
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Xu X, Ding Z, Yuan Q, Ding J, Li J, Wang W, Cong Y, Ouyang W, Wang Y, Qian J, Yin R. A genotype VII Newcastle disease virus-like particles confer full protection with reduced virus load and decreased virus shedding. Vaccine 2018; 37:444-451. [PMID: 30545716 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.11.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND) is one of the most severe avian infectious disease inflicting a great loss on poultry industry worldwide. The control of ND relies on proper vaccination strategies. The vaccine strains of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) mainly belong to genotype I, II or III, which cannot fully prohibit virus shedding against the prevalent genotype VII virulent strain attack. To develop a safe, genotype matched vaccine candidate, we employed a bac-to-bac expression system and constructed a genotype VII NDV strain based virus-like particles (NDV VLPs). It was constructed with NDV M protein as the skeleton, and protective antigen F and HN proteins displayed on the surface. The NDV VLPs exhibited a similar appearance to the live NDV particles, but with denser F and HN proteins displayed on the surface. The immunization assay indicated that NDV VLPs stimulated a longer protection period, less tissue virus loading and shorter virus shedding period than the commercialized LaSota-formulated vaccine when challenged with genotype VII NDV strain. These results proposed the potential role of NDV VLPs as an alternative to current live genotype unmatched vaccine for the control and eliminate NDV in the avian flocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Xu
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Zhuang Ding
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Qianliang Yuan
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Jiaxin Ding
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Jindou Li
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Weiqi Wang
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yanlong Cong
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Wei Ouyang
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory for Veterinary Bio-Product Engineering, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - Yongshan Wang
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory for Veterinary Bio-Product Engineering, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - Jing Qian
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China; Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Key Laboratory for Veterinary Bio-Product Engineering, Ministry of Agriculture, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - Renfu Yin
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
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