A phenotypic and functional characterization of NK cells in adenoids

Mucosal immune response in biology, disease prevention and treatment

The mucosal immune system, as the most extensive peripheral immune network, serves as the frontline defense against a myriad of microbial and dietary antigens. It is crucial in preventing pathogen invasion and establishing immune tolerance. A comprehensive understanding of mucosal immunity is essential for developing treatments that can effectively target diseases at their entry points, thereby minimizing the overall impact on the body. Despite its importance, our knowledge of mucosal immunity remains incomplete, necessitating further research. The outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has underscored the critical role of mucosal immunity in disease prevention and treatment. This systematic review focuses on the dynamic interactions between mucosa-associated lymphoid structures and related diseases. We delve into the basic structures and functions of these lymphoid tissues during disease processes and explore the intricate regulatory networks and mechanisms involved. Additionally, we summarize novel therapies and clinical research advances in the prevention of mucosal immunity-related diseases. The review also addresses the challenges in developing mucosal vaccines, which aim to induce specific immune responses while maintaining tolerance to non-pathogenic microbes. Innovative therapies, such as nanoparticle vaccines and inhalable antibodies, show promise in enhancing mucosal immunity and offer potential for improved disease prevention and treatment.

Genetically defined causal effects of natural killer cells related traits in risk of infection: a Mendelian randomization study

BACKGROUND

The intricate interplay between genetics and immunology often dictates the host's susceptibility to various diseases. This study explored the genetic causal relationship between natural killer (NK) cell-related traits and the risk of infection.

METHODS

Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) significantly associated with NK cell-related traits were selected as instrumental variables to estimate their genetic causal effects on infection. SNPs from a genome-wide association study (GWAS) on NK cell-related traits, including absolute cell counts, median fluorescence intensities reflecting surface antigen levels, and relative cell counts, were used as exposure instruments. Summary-level GWAS statistics of four phenotypes of infection were used as the outcome data. The exposure and outcome data were analyzed via the two-sample Mendelian randomization method.

RESULTS

Each one standard deviation increase in the expression level of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DR on HLA-DR+ NK cells was associated with a lower risk of pneumonia (P < 0.05). An increased HLA-DR+ NK/CD3- lymphocyte ratio was related to a lower of risk of pneumonia (P  < 0.05). Each one standard deviation increase in the absolute count of HLA-DR+ NK cells was associated with a lower risk of both bacterial pneumonia and pneumonia (P < 0.05). An increased HLA-DR+ NK/NK ratio was associated with a decreased risk of both pneumonia and bacterial pneumonia (P < 0.05). The results were robust under all sensitivity analyses. No evidence for heterogeneity, pleiotropy, or potential reverse causality was detected. Notably, our analysis did not reveal any significant associations between NK cell-related traits and other phenotypes of infection, including cellulitis, cystitis, and intestinal infection.

CONCLUSIONS

HLA-DR+ NK cells could be a novel immune cell trait associated with a lower risk of bacterial pneumonia or pneumonia.

Natural killer cells-related immune traits and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A Mendelian randomization study

Background

Observational studies have suggested that peripheral immune disorders are associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Previous studies predominantly focused on changes in adaptive immunity. However, emerging evidence showed natural killer (NK) cells, an essential component of innate immunity, were involved in the degeneration of motor neurons. However, the causal relationship between dysregulated NK cells-related immune traits and ALS remains unclear.

Objective

This study aimed to explore the causal relationship between NK cells-related immune traits and the risk of ALS.

Materials and methods

Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) significantly associated with NK cells-related immune traits were selected as instrumental variables to estimate their causal effects on ALS. SNPs from a genome-wide association study (GWAS) on NK cells-related immune traits were used as exposure instruments, including an absolute NK-cells count, absolute HLA-DR+ NK-cells count, NK cells/lymphocytes, NK cells/CD3– lymphocytes, HLA DR+ NK cells/NK cells, HLA DR+ NK cells/CD3– lymphocytes, and the median fluorescence intensities of CD16–CD56+ on NK cells and HLA-DR+ NK cells. Summary-level GWAS statistics of ALS were used as the outcome data. Exposure and outcome data were analyzed using the two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) method.

Results

Each one standard deviation increase in the expression levels of CD16–CD56+ on NK cells and HLA-DR+ NK cells were associated with a lower risk of ALS in both the MR-Egger and inverse variance weighted methods (P &lt; 0.05). The results proved robust under all sensitivity analyses. Neither instrumental outliers nor heterogeneity were detected.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that higher expression levels of CD16–CD56+ on NK cells and HLA-DR+ NK cells are associated with a lower risk of ALS.

HLA-DR-expressing NK cells: Effective killers suspected for antigen presentation

HLA-DR-expressing cells comprise an intriguing group of NK cells, which combine phenotypic characteristics of both NK cells and dendritic cells. These cells can be found in humans and mice; they are present in blood and tissues in healthy conditions and can expand in a spectrum of pathologies. HLA-DR⁺ NK cells are functionally active: they produce proinflammatory cytokines, degranulate, and easily proliferate in response to stimuli. Additionally, HLA-DR⁺ NK cells seem able to take in and then present certain antigens to CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells, inducing their activation and proliferation, which puts them closer to professional antigen-presenting cells. It appears that these NK cells should be considerable players of the innate immune system, both due to their functional activity and regulation of the innate and adaptive immune responses. In this review, for the first time, we provide a detailed description and analysis of the available data characterizing phenotypic, developmental, and functional features of the HLA-DR⁺ NK cells in a healthy condition and a disease.

NK cell immune responses differ after prime and boost vaccination

A better understanding of innate responses induced by vaccination is critical for designing optimal vaccines. Here, we studied the diversity and dynamics of the NK cell compartment after prime-boost immunization with the modified vaccinia virus Ankara using cynomolgus macaques as a model. Mass cytometry was used to deeply characterize blood NK cells. The NK cell subphenotype composition was modified by the prime. Certain phenotypic changes induced by the prime were maintained over time and, as a result, the NK cell composition prior to boost differed from that before prime. The key phenotypic signature that distinguished NK cells responding to the boost from those responding to the prime included stronger expression of several cytotoxic, homing, and adhesion molecules, suggesting that NK cells at recall were functionally distinct. Our data reveal potential priming or imprinting of NK cells after the first vaccine injection. This study provides novel insights into prime-boost vaccination protocols that could be used to optimize future vaccines.

Inhibition of NKp30- and 2B4-mediated NK cell activation by evolutionary different human and bovine CEACAM1 receptors

Carcinoembryonicantigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 (CEACAM1) is a receptor involved in the regulation of NK-cell function. In most species, the CEACAM1 cytoplasmic tail possesses a membrane-proximal ITIM paired with a membrane-distal immunoreceptor tyrosine-based switch motif (ITSM) signaling motif. Human CEACAM1 has phylogenetically relatively recently acquired a second ITIM instead of the ITSM and was shown to inhibit NKG2D-mediated NK-cell activation. Here, we compare the function of bovine and human CEACAM1. We show that in addition to NKG2D, human CEACAM1 can inhibit NK-cell activation via NKp30 or 2B4. Bovine CEACAM1, possessing an ITIM and an ITSM signaling motif, is also inhibitory. However, bovine CEACAM1 inhibition of NKp30-mediated lysis is less pronounced compared with its human counterpart. Bovine CEACAM1 inhibition is dependent on the membrane-proximal ITIM and our data suggest that also the membrane distal ITSM motif contributes to inhibitory signaling. Biochemically, human and bovine CEACAM1 can recruit the phosphatases SHP-1 and SHP-2 after receptor phosphorylation to a similar extend. Bovine CEACAM1 can additionally recruit the adapter molecule Ewing's sarcoma virus-activated transcript-2 (EAT-2), but not SLAM-associated protein (SAP). Taken together, we show that although human and bovine CEACAM1 are differentially equipped with ITIM and ITSM motifs, both receptors can inhibit NKp30 and 2B4 activation of NK cells.

Characterization and IL-15 dependence of NK cells in humanized mice

Natural Killer cells can distinguish between healthy and malignant cells and have the unique ability to lyse tumour cells without prior sensitization. Differences between murine and human NK cells complicate the translation of this knowledge into useful therapeutics. Humanized mouse models that support the development of human leukocytes are a promising avenue of research that aims to address this problem. Here we provide an in-depth phenotypic analysis of human NK cells in Balb/c Rag2(-/-)γ(c)(-/-) mice reconstituted with human hematopoietic stem cells. We have examined the development of NK cells in bone marrow, thymous, spleen, lymph node (LN) and liver. Interestingly, in naive reconstituted mice, NK cells were found in thymus and LN, but not in bone marrow. These NK cells expressed several inhibitory and activating receptors needed for malignant cell detection. Furthermore, we confirm that administration of recombinant human interleukin-15 (rhIL-15) or Ad-vector expressing hIL-15 is able to significantly enhance NK cell development and maturation, particularly in bone marrow and liver, in this model. Our results suggest that human NK cells developed in mice may have phenotypes and tissue distributions similar to those seen in human.

Role of chemokines in the biology of natural killer cells

Natural killer (NK) cells represent a major subpopulation of lymphocytes. These cells have effector functions as they recognize and kill transformed cells as well as microbially infected cells. In addition, alloreactive NK cells have been successfully used to treat patients with acute myeloid leukemia and other hematological malignancies. NK cells are also endowed with immunoregulatory functions since they secrete cytokines such as IFN-γ, which favor the development of T helper 1 (Th1) cells, and chemokines such as CCL3/MIP-1α and CCL4/MIP-1β, which recruit various inflammatory cells into sites of inflammation. In human blood, NK cells are divided into CD56(bright) CD16(dim) and CD56(dim) CD16(bright) subsets. These subsets have different phenotypic expression and may have different functions; the former subset is more immunoregulatory and the latter is more cytolytic. The CD56(bright)CD16(dim) NK cells home into tissues such as the peripheral lymph nodes (LNs) under physiological conditions because they express the LN homing receptor CCR7 and they respond to CCL19/MIP-3β and CCL21/SLC chemokines. They also distribute into adenoid tissues or decidual uterus following the CXCR3/CXCL10 or CXCR4/CXCL12 axis. On the other hand, both NK cell subsets migrate into inflammatory sites, with more CD56(dim)CD16(bright) NK cells distributing into inflamed liver and lungs. CCR5/CCL5 axis plays an important role in the accumulation of NK cells in virally infected sites as well as during parasitic infections. CD56(bright)CD16(dim) cells also migrate into autoimmune sites such as inflamed synovial fluids in patients having rheumatoid arthritis facilitated by the CCR5/CCL3/CCL4/CCL5 axis, whereas they distribute into inflamed brains aided by the CX₃CR1/CX₃CL1 axis. On the other hand, CD56(dim)CD16(bright) NK cells accumulate in the liver of patients with primary biliary disease aided by the CXCR1/CXCL8 axis. However, the types of chemokines that contribute to their accumulation in target organs during graft vs. host (GvH) disease are not known. Further, chemokines activate NK cells to become highly cytolytic cells known as CC chemokine-activated killer (CHAK) cells that kill tumor cells. In summary, chemokines whether secreted in an autocrine or paracrine fashion regulate various biological functions of NK cells. Depending on the tissue and the chemokine secreted, NK cells may ameliorate the disease such as their roles in combating tumors or virally infected cells, and their therapeutic potentials in treating leukemias and other hematological malignancies, as well as reducing the incidence of GvH disease. In contrast, they may exacerbate the disease by damaging the affected tissues through direct cytotoxicity or by the release of multiple inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Examples are their deleterious roles in autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and primary biliary cirrhosis.

The localization and migration of natural killer cells in health and disease

Natural killer (NK) cells comprise a finite lymphocyte lineage with distinctive gene expression patterns. Natural killer (NK) cells develop in the bone marrow (BM) and are not static but populate secondary and primary lymphoid organs. A unique feature of NK cells is their expression of activating and inhibitory receptors, which allow them to respond either when ligands for activating receptors are upregulated or when ligands for inhibitory receptors are downregulated. The unique transcriptome of NK cells renders them capable of protecting the host from a vast array of disease states. Their undisputed importance in host protection is conferred by their ability to eliminate unhealthy cells. However, in order for NK cells to exert their effects, they need to be strategically located at the right places. This chapter provides an overview of the current understanding of the localization of NK cell populations and their ability to migrate in response to homeostatic and pathological conditions. NK cells develop in the BM, which they exit using specific molecular interactions. Exit from the BM is followed by localization to a number of tissues, including secondary lymphoid organs. Within each tissue, NK cells often acquire unique function and phenotype that is regulated by the local microenvironment. Their localization is primarily directed by the action of chemokines and therefore is in tight association with the activation status of the organism. Changes in chemokine expression during disease results in further NK cell mobilization and allows them to protect the host from infection and malignancy. Thus, from their time of production until their end, NK cells travel exhaustively over long distances and visit places that influence their already dynamic life.

The lytic potential of human liver NK cells is restricted by their limited expression of inhibitory killer Ig-like receptors

The human liver is enriched in NK cells which are potent effectors of the innate immune system. We have determined that liver NK cells freshly isolated from surgical specimens from patients with hepatic malignancy have less cytolytic activity than autologous blood NK cells. This difference was due to a higher proportion of CD16(-) NK cells in the liver and reduced cytotoxicity by CD16(+) liver NK cells compared with their blood counterparts. CD16(+) liver NK cells had similar expression of activating NK receptors and had similar intracellular granzyme B and perforin content compared with CD16(+) blood NK cells. CD16(+) liver NK cells contained a reduced fraction of cells with inhibitory killer Ig-like receptors specific for self-MHC class I (self-killer Ig-related receptor (KIR)) and an increased fraction of self-KIR(neg)NKG2A(pos) and self-KIR(neg)NKG2A(neg) cells. Using single-cell analysis of intracellular IFN-gamma production and cytotoxicity assays, we determined that CD16(+) liver NK cells expressing self-KIR were more responsive to target cells than those cells that did not express self-KIR molecules. CD16(+) liver NK cells gained cytolytic function when stimulated with IL-2 or cultured with LPS or poly(I:C)-activated autologous liver Kupffer cells. Thus, the human liver contains NK cell subsets which have reduced effector function, but under appropriate inflammatory conditions become potent killers.