Osteoclasts and integrins

Overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 in Myeloid Cells in Mice Increased Bone Mass Through Reduced Bone Resorption and Increased Bone Formation in Sex-Dependent Manner

This study assessed the feasibility of miR17 ~ 92-based antiresorptive strategy by determining the effects of conditional transgenic (cTG) overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 in myeloid cells on bone and osteoclasts. Osteoclasts of male and female cTG mutant mice each showed 3- to fivefold overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 cluster genes compared to those of age- and sex-matched wildtype (WT) littermates. Male but not female cTG mutant mice had more trabecular and cortical bones as well as lower bone resorption reflected by reduction in osteoclast number and resorbing surface. Osteoclasts of male but not female cTG mutants showed decreased bone resorption activity. Consistent with suppression of osteoclast maturation, osteoclasts of male cTG mutants were smaller, contained less nuclei, showed reduced levels of mRNA of genes associated with osteoclast differentiation and fusion, and formed more diffused actin ring. Osteoclastic overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 also increased bone formation, but the increase was much larger in males than in females. The increase in male mutants was due to higher mineral apposition rate, and conversely, it was caused by increasing bone-forming surface in female mutants. In summary, osteoclastic overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 increased bone mass through reduction in bone resorption along with coupled increase in bone formation in male-specific manner. Although the osteoclastic overexpression of miR17 ~ 92-induced suppression of bone resorption and increases in bone formation support the feasibility of miR17 ~ 92-based antiresorptive strategies, the male-specific sexual disparity in skeletal responses to osteoclastic overexpression of miR17 ~ 92 could limit its clinical utility as it may not be used in women with postmenopausal osteoporosis.

Bone Metastases

ABSTRACT

Bone metastases occur frequently in common malignancies such as breast and prostate cancer. They are responsible for considerable morbidity and skeletal-related events. Fortunately, there are now several systemic, focal, and targeted therapies that can improve quality and length of life, including radionuclide therapies. It is therefore important that bone metastases can be detected as early as possible and that treatment can be accurately and sensitively monitored. Several bone-specific and tumor-specific single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography molecular imaging agents are available, for detection and monitoring response to systemic therapeutics, as well as theranostic agents to confirm target expression and predict response to radionuclide therapies.

Imaging of Bone Metastases in Breast Cancer

Bone metastases are a common site of spread in advanced breast cancer and responsible for morbidity and high health care costs. Imaging contributes to staging and response assessment of the skeleton and has been instrumental in guiding patient management for several decades. Historically this has been with radiographs, computed tomography and bone scans. More recently, molecular and hybrid imaging methods have undergone significant development, including the addition of single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography to the bone scan, positron emission tomography, with bone-specific and tumor-specific tracers, and magnetic resonance imaging with complementary functional diffusion-weighted imaging. These have allowed different aspects of the abnormal biology associated with bone metastases to be explored. There is ability to interrogate the bone microenvironment with bone-specific tracers and cancer cell characteristics with tumor-specific methods that complement morphological appearances on computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging. Alongside the advent of novel, more effective and nuanced therapies for bone metastases in breast cancer, there is accumulating evidence that the developments in imaging allow more sensitive and specific detection of bone metastases as well as more accurate and earlier assessment of treatment response leading to improvements in patient management.

Decreased Trabecular Bone Mass in Col22a1-Deficient Mice

The bone matrix is constantly remodeled by the coordinated activities of bone-forming osteoblasts and bone-resorbing osteoclasts. Whereas type I collagen is the most abundant bone matrix protein, there are several other proteins present, some of them specifically produced by osteoblasts. In a genome-wide expression screening for osteoblast differentiation markers we have previously identified two collagen-encoding genes with unknown function in bone remodeling. Here we show that one of them, Col22a1, is predominantly expressed in bone, cultured osteoblasts, but not in osteoclasts. Based on this specific expression pattern we generated a Col22a1-deficient mouse model, which was analyzed for skeletal defects by µCT, undecalcified histology and bone-specific histomorphometry. We observed that Col22a1-deficient mice display trabecular osteopenia, accompanied by significantly increased osteoclast numbers per bone surface. In contrast, cortical bone parameters, osteoblastogenesis or bone formation were unaffected by the absence of Col22a1. Likewise, primary osteoblasts from Col22a1-deficient mice did not display a cell-autonomous defect, and they did not show altered expression of Rankl or Opg, two key regulators of osteoclastogenesis. Taken together, we provide the first evidence for a physiological function of Col22a1 in bone remodeling, although the molecular mechanisms explaining the indirect influence of Col22a1 deficiency on osteoclasts remain to be identified.

Imaging with radiolabelled bisphosphonates

Radiolabeled bisphosphonates were developed in the 1970s for scintigraphic functional imaging of the skeleton in benign and malignant disease. Tracers such as 99mTc-methylene diphosphonate, that map focal or global changes in mineralization in the skeleton qualitatively and quantitatively, have been the backbone of nuclear medicine imaging for decades. While competing technologies are evolving, new indications and improvements in scanner hardware, in particular hybrid imaging (e.g. single photon emission computed tomography combined with computed tomography), have allowed improved diagnostic accuracy and a continued role for radiolabeled bisphosphonate imaging in current practice.

Engineering of L-Plastin Peptide-Loaded Biodegradable Nanoparticles for Sustained Delivery and Suppression of Osteoclast Function In Vitro

We have recently demonstrated that a small molecular weight amino-terminal peptide of L-plastin (10 amino acids; “MARGSVSDEE”) suppressed the phosphorylation of endogenous L-plastin. Therefore, the formation of nascent sealing zones (NSZs) and bone resorption are reduced. The aim of this study was to develop a biodegradable and biocompatible PLGA nanocarrier that could be loaded with the L-plastin peptide of interest and determine the efficacy in vitro in osteoclast cultures. L-plastin MARGSVSDEE (P1) and scrambled control (P3) peptide-loaded PLGA-PEG nanoparticles (NP1 and NP3, respectively) were synthesized by double emulsion technique. The biological effect of nanoparticles on osteoclasts was evaluated by immunoprecipitation, immunoblotting, rhodamine-phalloidin staining of actin filaments, and pit forming assays. Physical characterization of well-dispersed NP1 and NP3 demonstrated ~130-150 nm size, < 0.07 polydispersity index, ~-3 mV ζ-potential, and a sustained release of the peptide for three weeks. Biological characterization in osteoclast cultures demonstrated the following: NP1 significantly reduced (a) endogenous L-plastin phosphorylation; (b) formation of NSZs and sealing rings; (c) resorption. However, the assembly of podosomes which are critical for cell adhesion was not affected. L-plastin peptide-loaded PLGA-PEG nanocarriers have promising potential for the treatment of diseases associated with bone loss. Future studies will use this sustained release of peptide strategy to systematically suppress osteoclast bone resorption activity in vivo in mouse models demonstrating bone loss.

Bone morphogenetic proteins: Their role in regulating osteoclast differentiation

The ability to create recombinant bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) in recent years has led to their rise as a common clinical adjuvant. Their application varies, from spinal fixation to repairing palatal clefts, to coating implants for osseointegration. In recent years questions have been raised as to the efficacy of BMPs in several of these procedures. These questions are due to the unwanted side effect of BMPs on other cell types, such as osteoclasts which can resorb bone at the graft/implant site. However, most BMP research focuses on the anabolic osteoinductive effects of BMPs on osteoblasts rather than its counterpart- stimulation of the osteoclasts, which are cells responsible for resorbing bone. In this review, we discuss the data available from multiple in-vitro and in-vivo BMP-related knockout models to elucidate the different functions BMPs have on osteoclast differentiation and activity.

•

BMPs can act directly on osteoclasts to regulate differentiation and activity.

•

Osteoclasts express multiple BMP signaling components.

•

BMPs signal through both SMAD independent and dependent mechanisms in osteoclasts.

•

SMAD dependent BMP signaling regulates osteoclast-osteoblast coupling factors.

Functional and Hybrid Imaging of Bone Metastases

Bone metastases are common, cause significant morbidity, and impact on healthcare resources. Although radiography, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and bone scintigraphy have frequently been used for staging the skeleton, these methods are insensitive and nonspecific for monitoring treatment response in a clinically relevant time frame. We summarize several recent reports on new functional and hybrid imaging methods including single photon emission CT/CT, positron emission tomography/CT, and whole-body MRI with diffusion-weighted imaging. These modalities generally show improvements in diagnostic accuracy for staging and response assessment over standard imaging methods, with the ability to quantify biological processes related to the bone microenvironment as well as tumor cells. As some of these methods are now being adopted into routine clinical practice and clinical trials, further evaluation with comparative studies is required to guide optimal and cost-effective clinical management of patients with skeletal metastases. © 2018 American Society for Bone and Mineral Research.

Imaging αvβ3 integrin expression in skeletal metastases with 99mTc-maraciclatide single-photon emission computed tomography: detection and therapy response assessment

PURPOSE

Osteoclast activity is an important factor in the pathogenesis of skeletal metastases and is a potential therapeutic target. This study aimed to determine if selective uptake of 99mTc-maraciclatide, a radiopharmaceutical targeting αvβ3 integrin, occurs in prostate cancer (PCa) bone metastases and to observe the changes following systemic therapy.

METHODS

The study group comprised 17 men with bone-predominant metastatic PCa who underwent whole-body planar and single-photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT) imaging with 99mTc-maraciclatide before (n = 17) and 12 weeks after (n = 11) starting treatment with abiraterone. Tumour to normal bone (T:N) ratios, tumour to muscle (T:M) ratios and CT Hounsfield units (HU) were measured in up to five target metastases in each subject. An oncologist blinded to study scans assessed clinical responses up to 24 weeks using conventional criteria.

RESULTS

Before treatment, metastases showed specific 99mTc-maraciclatide accumulation (mean planar T:N and T:M ratios 1.43 and 3.06; SPECT T:N and T:M ratios 3.1 and 5.19, respectively). Baseline sclerotic lesions (389-740 HU) showed lower T:M ratios (4.22 vs. 7.04, p = 0.02) than less sclerotic/lytic lesions (46-381 HU). Patients with progressive disease (PD; n = 5) showed increased planar T:N and T:M ratios (0.29 and 12.1%, respectively) and SPECT T:N and T:M ratios (11.9 and 20.2%, respectively). Patients without progression showed decreased planar T:N and T:M ratios (0.27 and -8.0%, p = 1.0 and 0.044, respectively) and SPECT T:N and T:M ratios (-21.9, and -27.2%, p = 0.3 and 0.036, respectively). The percentage change in CT HU was inversely correlated with the percentage change in SPECT T:M ratios (r = -0.59, p = 0.006).

CONCLUSIONS

99mTc-maraciclatide accumulates in PCa bone metastases in keeping with increased αvβ3 integrin expression. Greater activity in metastases with lower CT density suggests that uptake is related to osteoclast activity. Changes in planar and SPECT T:M ratios after 12 weeks of treatment differed between patients with and without PD and 99mTc-maraciclatide imaging may be a potential method for assessing early response.

A novel miR17/protein tyrosine phosphatase-oc/EphA4 regulatory axis of osteoclast activity

Information about the molecular mechanisms leading to the activation of the osteoclast is relatively limited. While there is compelling evidence that the signaling mechanisms of Src and integrin β₃ are essential for osteoclast activation, the regulation of these two signaling mechanisms is not fully understood. In this review, evidence supporting a novel regulatory axis of osteoclast activation that plays an upstream regulatory role in both the Src and integrin β₃ signaling during osteoclast activation is discussed. This regulatory axis contains three unique components: a structurally unique transmembrane protein-tyrosine phosphatase, PTP-oc, EphA4, and miR17. In the first component, PTP-oc activates the Src signaling through dephosphorylation of the inhibitory tyr-527 of Src. This in turn activates the integrin β₃ signaling, enhances the JNK2/NFκB signaling, promotes the ITAM/Syk signaling, and suppresses the ITIM/Shp1 signaling; the consequence of which is activation of the osteoclast. In the second component, EphA4 inhibits osteoclast activity by suppressing the integrin β₃ signaling. PTP-oc relieves the suppressive actions of EphA4 by directly dephosphorylating EphA4. In the third component, PTP-oc expression is negatively regulated by miR17. Accordingly, suppression of miR17 during osteoclast activation upregulates the PTP-oc signaling and suppresses the EphA4 signaling, resulting in the activation of the osteoclast. This regulatory axis is unique, in that each of the three components acts to exert suppressive action on their respective immediate downstream inhibitory step. Because the final downstream event is the EphA4-mediated inhibition of osteoclast activation, the overall effect of this mechanism is the stimulation of osteoclast activity.

Conditional Disruption of miR17~92 in Osteoclasts Led to Activation of Osteoclasts and Loss of Trabecular Bone In Part Through Suppression of the miR17-Mediated Downregulation of Protein-Tyrosine Phosphatase-oc in Mice

This study sought to understand the regulation of an osteoclastic protein-tyrosine phosphatase (PTP-oc), a positive regulator of osteoclast activaty. Our past studies suggested that PTP-oc is regulated post-transcriptionally. The 3'-UTR of PTP-oc mRNA contains a target site for miR17. During osteoclastic differentiation, there was an inverse relationship between the cellular levels of miR17 (expressed as one of the six cluster genes of miR17~92) and PTP-oc mRNA. Overexpression of pre-miR17~92 in mouse osteoclast precursors reduced PTP-oc mRNA level and the size of the derived osteoclasts; whereas deletion of miR17~92 or inhibition of miR17 resulted in the formation of larger osteoclasts containing more nuclei that expressed higher PTP-oc mRNA levels and created larger resorption pits. Thus, PTP-oc-mediated osteoclast activation is modulated in part by miR17~92, particularly miR17. The miR17~92 osteoclast conditional knockout (cKO) mutants, generated by breeding miR17~92^loxp/loxp mice with Ctsk-Cre mice, had lower Tb.BV/TV, Tb.BMD, Tb.Conn-Dens, Tb.N, and Tb.Th, but larger Tb.Sp, and greater bone resorption without a change in bone formation compared to littermate controls. The cKO marrow-derived osteoclasts were twice as large, contained twice as many nuclei, and produced twice as large resorption pits as osteoclasts of littermate controls. The expression of genes associated with osteoclast activation was increased in cKO osteoclasts, suggesting that deletion of miR17~92 in osteoclasts promotes osteoclast activation. The cKO osteoblasts did not show differences in cellular miR17 level, alkaline phosphatase activity, and bone nodule formation ability. In conclusion, miR17-92 negatively regulates the osteoclast activity, in part via the miR17-mediated suppression of PTP-oc in osteoclasts.

Enhanced but hypofunctional osteoclastogenesis in an autosomal dominant osteopetrosis type II case carrying a c.1856C>T mutation in CLCN7

Type II autosomal dominant osteopetrosis (ADO2), which is the most common form of osteopetrosis, is caused by heterozygous mutations in the chloride channel 7 (CLCN7) gene. The osteopetrosis of ADO2 has been attributed to hypofunctional osteoclasts. The mechanism underlying the abnormality in osteoclast function remains largely unknown. This study was designed to investigate gene mutations and osteoclast function in a case that was clinically diagnosed as ADO2. Genomic DNA was extracted from blood samples of this patient, and the 25 exons of CLCN7 were amplified. Peripheral blood from the ADO2 subject and a healthy age- and sex-matched control was used to evaluate osteoclastogenesis, osteoclast morphology, and bone resorption. Analysis of DNA from the patient showed a germline heterozygous missense mutation, c.1856C>T (p.P619L), in exon 20 of CLCN7. A similar homozygous mutation at this site was previously reported in a patient with autosomal recessive osteopetrosis. When cultured, the peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from the ADO2 patient spontaneously differentiated into mature osteoclasts in vitro. The ADO2 patient’s PBMCs formed enhanced, but heterogeneous, osteoclasts in both the presence and absence of macrophage-colony stimulating factor, and nuclear factor-ĸB ligand. Bone resorption was reduced in the ADO2 patient’s osteoclasts, which exhibited aberrant morphology and abnormal distribution of integrin a_vβ₃. Gene analysis found increased c-fos expression and reduced RhoA and integrin beta 3 expression in ADO2 cells. In conclusion, our data suggest that enhanced, heterogeneous osteoclast induction may be an intrinsic characteristic of ADO2.

Molecular and cellular basis of bone resorption

Osteoclast research has an exciting history and a challenging future. More than 3 decades ago, it became evident that bone-resorbing osteoclasts are of hematopoietic origin and are ultimately linked to the "basic multicellular unit," where they team up with the other cell types, including bone-forming osteoblasts. Since 2 decades, we have learned about the signaling pathways controlling genes relevant for osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption. It took another decade until the hypothesized "osteoclast differentiation" factor was discovered and was translated into an approved pharmacologic strategy. Here, the focus is on another molecular target, cathepsin K, a cysteine protease being released by the osteoclast into the resorption compartment. Genetic deletion and pharmacological blocking of cathepsin K reduces bone resorption but with ongoing bone formation. This observation not only holds great promise to become a new pharmacologic strategy, but it also provides new insights into the coordinated work of cells in the "basic multicellular unit" and thus, bridges the history and future of osteoclast research. This article is a short primer on osteoclast biology for readers of the special issue on odanacatib, a cathepsin K inhibitor.

The osteoclast, bone remodelling and treatment of metabolic bone disease

BACKGROUND

Bone remodelling maintains skeletal integrity by osteoclasts removing foci of damaged bone and osteoblasts replacing them with new bone. Diseases associated with increased bone resorption have increased remodelling often with inadequate bone formation and increased risk of fracture. New therapies are needed for these diseases to reduce resorption and increase formation.

DESIGN

The molecular mechanisms regulating osteoclast and osteoblast functions have become better understood in the past 20 years and have led to questioning of the long-held notion that osteoblastic cells have the dominant regulatory role over osteoclastic cells in bone remodelling. Here, we review current knowledge of how osteoclast formation and functions are regulated and describe how enhanced understanding of these has led to development of new drugs for the management of common bone diseases characterized by increased bone resorption.

RESULTS

Osteoclast formation and functions are regulated by cytokines, especially receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) and macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF). The differentiation, activity and lifecycle of osteoclasts are regulated in part by other cells that reside within the bone. These include osteoblasts, osteocytes and immune cells, which express these cytokines in response to most factors that promote bone resorption. RANKL and M-CSF activate numerous signalling pathways, which are potential targets for therapeutic intervention. Importantly, osteoclastic cells also function as positive and negative regulators of osteoblastic bone formation.

CONCLUSIONS

There are multiple targets within osteoclasts for pharmacologic intervention to prevent bone loss in osteoporosis and other resorptive bone diseases. However, novel therapies could also affect osteoblastic cell functions.

Structural and functional changes in the alveolar bone osteoclasts of estrogen-treated rats

This study investigated structural and functional features of apoptotic alveolar bone osteoclasts in estrogen-treated rats. For this purpose, 15 female rats 22 days old were divided into three groups: Estrogen (EG), Sham (SG) and Control (CG). The rats of EG received daily intramuscular injection of estrogen for 7 days. The SG received only the oil vehicle. Maxillary fragments containing alveolar bone were removed and processed for light and transmission electron microscopy. Area (OcA) and number of nuclei (OcN) and bone resorption surface per TRAP-positive osteoclasts (BS/OC) were obtained. Vimentin, caspase-3 and MMP-9 immunoreactions, TUNEL/TRAP and MMP-9/TUNEL combined reactions were performed. In EG, the OcA, OcN and BS/Oc were reduced. Moreover, osteoclasts showed cytoplasm immunolabelled by caspase-3 and a different pattern of vimentin expression in comparison with CG and SG. MMP-9 expression was not affected by estrogen and the TUNEL-positive osteoclasts were MMP-9-immunolabelled. In EG, ultrastructural images showed that apoptotic osteoclasts did not exhibit ruffled borders or clear zones and were shedding mononucleated portions. TRAP-positive structures containing irregular and dense chromatin were partially surrounded by fibroblast-like cells. In conclusion, the reduction in the BS/Oc may be due to reduction in OcA and OcN; these effects seem to be related to vimentin disarrangement rather than to an interference of estrogen with osteoclast MMP-9 expression. Osteoclast apoptosis involves caspase-3 activity and vimentin degradation; these cells release portions containing one apoptotic nucleus and, subsequently, undergo fragmentation, giving rise to apoptotic bodies.

Role of RANKL-RANK/osteoprotegerin molecular complex in bone remodeling and its immunopathologic implications

Bone remodeling is a cyclic and continuous physiological process, which ensures the conservation and renewal of the bone matrix. Osteosynthesis of the bone matrix is achieved by osteoblasts and coordinated within this complex machinery of bone remodeling with resorption of extracellular bone matrix performed by osteoclasts. The mismatch between the activities of osteoblasts and osteoclasts has immunopathologic implications associated with either a decrease or increase of bone mass mineral density. The balance of the trimolecular control factor complex composed of osteoprotegerin (OPG), RANKL (osteoprotegerin ligand) and RANK maintains physiologic bone remodeling. This trimolecular complex functions as receptors and ligands and belongs to the superfamily of tumor necrosis factor (TNF). This mini review highlights the complex interplay of the RANKL-RANK/OPG axis and their immunopathologic implications in clinical medicine.

Gene array profile identifies collagen type XV as a novel human osteoblast-secreted matrix protein

Bone marrow stromal cells (MSCs) and osteoblasts are the two main non-haematopoietic cellular components of human bone tissue. To identify novel osteoblast-related molecules, we performed a gene expression profiling analysis comparing MSCs and osteoblasts isolated from the same donors. Genes differentially overexpressed in osteoblasts were mainly related to the negative control of cell proliferation, pro-apoptotic processes, protein metabolism and bone remodelling. Notably, we also identified the collagen XV (COL15A1) gene as the most up-regulated gene in osteoblasts compared with MSCs, previously described as being expressed in the basement membrane in other cell types. The expression of collagen type XV was confirmed at the protein level on isolated osteoblasts and we demonstrated that it significantly increases during the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs in vitro and that free ionised extracellular calcium significantly down-modulates its expression. Moreover, light and electron microscopy showed that collagen type XV is expressed in bone tissue biopsies mainly by working osteoblasts forming new bone tissue or lining bone trabeculae. To our knowledge, these data represent the first evidence of the expression of collagen type XV in human osteoblasts, a calcium-regulated protein which correlates to a specific functional state of these cells.

Role of protein-tyrosine phosphatases in regulation of osteoclastic activity

Osteoclasts, the primary cell type mediating bone resorption, are multinucleated, giant cells derived from hematopoietic cells of monocyte-macrophage lineage. Osteoclast activity is, in a large part, regulated by protein-tyrosine phosphorylation. While information about functional roles of several protein-tyrosine kinases (PTK), including c-Src, in osteoclastic resorption has been accumulated, little is known about the roles of protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) in regulation of osteoclast activity. Recent evidence implicates important regulatory roles for four PTPs (SHP-1, cyt-PTP-epsilon, PTP-PEST, and PTPoc) in osteoclasts. Cyt-PTP-epsilon, PTP-PEST, and PTP-oc are positive regulators of osteoclast activity, while SHP-1 is a negative regulator. Of these PTPs in osteoclasts, only PTP-oc is a positive regulator of c-Src PTK through dephosphorylation of the inhibitory phosphotyrosine-527 residue. Although some information about mechanisms of action of these PTPs to regulate osteoclast activity is reviewed in this article, much additional work is required to provide more comprehensive details about their functions in osteoclasts.

Osteoclasts have multiple roles in bone in addition to bone resorption

Osteoclasts are the cells that degrade bone to initiate normal bone remodeling and mediate bone loss in pathologic conditions by increasing their resorptive activity. They are derived from precursors in the myeloid/ monocyte lineage that circulate in the blood after their formation in the bone marrow. These osteoclast precursors (OCPs) are attracted to sites on bone surfaces destined for resorption and fuse with one another to form the multinucleated cells that resorb calcified matrixes under the influence of osteoblastic cells in bone marrow. Recent studies have identified functions for OCPs and osteoclasts in and around bone other than bone resorption. For example, they regulate the differentiation of osteoblast precursors and the movement of hematopoietic stem cells from the bone marrow to the bloodstream; they participate in immune responses, and secrete cytokines that can affect their own functions and those of other cells in inflammatory and neoplastic processes affecting bone. Here, we review these findings, which define new roles for osteoclasts and OCPs in the growing field of osteoimmunology and in common pathologic conditions in which bone resorption is increased.

Glucocorticoid excess in mice results in early activation of osteoclastogenesis and adipogenesis and prolonged suppression of osteogenesis: a longitudinal study of gene expression in bone tissue from glucocorticoid-treated mice

OBJECTIVE

Glucocorticoid (GC) excess induces alterations in bone metabolism that weaken bone structure and increase fracture risk. The aim of this study was to identify genes associated with bone metabolism in GC-treated mice, by performing a microarray analysis.

METHODS

Long bones from mice exposed to GC excess were collected after 0, 7, 28, and 56 days of treatment, to measure bone microarchitecture and extract RNA for microarray analyses.

RESULTS

Bone loss in this animal model was confirmed by changes in bone turnover markers as well as bone architecture, as measured by microfocal computed tomography. GC excess induced an early up-regulation of genes involved in osteoclast activation, function, and adipogenesis, which peaked on day 7. The expression of genes associated with osteoclast cytoskeletal reorganization and genes associated with matrix degradation peaked on day 28. On day 28 and day 56, the expression of genes associated with osteoblast activation and maturation was decreased from baseline, while the expression of Wnt antagonists was increased. In addition, the expression of genes expressed in osteocytes associated with bone mineralization was significantly higher at the later time points, day 28 and day 56. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction confirmed the results of microarray analysis in selected genes.

CONCLUSION

GC excess is associated with early activation of genes associated with osteoclastogenesis and adipogenesis and a later suppression of genes associated with osteogenesis and mineralization. Novel interventions with agents that modulate either Wnt signaling or mineralization may be effective in GC-induced osteoporosis.

Functions of RANKL/RANK/OPG in bone modeling and remodeling

The discovery of the RANKL/RANK/OPG system in the mid 1990s for the regulation of bone resorption has led to major advances in our understanding of how bone modeling and remodeling are regulated. It had been known for many years before this discovery that osteoblastic stromal cells regulated osteoclast formation, but it had not been anticipated that they would do this through expression of members of the TNF superfamily: receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG), or that these cytokines and signaling through receptor activator of NF-kappaB (RANK) would have extensive functions beyond regulation of bone remodeling. RANKL/RANK signaling regulates osteoclast formation, activation and survival in normal bone modeling and remodeling and in a variety of pathologic conditions characterized by increased bone turnover. OPG protects bone from excessive resorption by binding to RANKL and preventing it from binding to RANK. Thus, the relative concentration of RANKL and OPG in bone is a major determinant of bone mass and strength. Here, we review our current understanding of the role of the RANKL/RANK/OPG system in bone modeling and remodeling.

Osteoactivin is a novel osteoclastic protein and plays a key role in osteoclast differentiation and activity

This study presents gene expression, protein expression, and in situ immunohistochemical evidence that osteoclasts express high levels of osteoactivin (OA), which had previously been reported to be an osteoblast-specific protein in bone. OA expression in osteoclasts was up-regulated upon receptor activator of NFkappaB ligand-induced differentiation. Suppression of functional activity of OA with neutralizing antibody reduced cell size, number of nuclei, fusion, and bone resorption activity of osteoclasts. OA was co-immunoprecipitated with integrin beta3 and beta1, indicating that OA co-localizes with integrin beta3 and/or beta1 in a hetero-polymeric complex in osteoclasts. These findings indicate that OA is a novel osteoclastic protein and plays a role in osteoclast differentiation and/or activity.

New strategies for the treatment of metastatic bone disease

The introduction of bisphosphonates represents an important advance in the care of patients with metastatic bone disease. Nonetheless, we remain unable to prevent metastatic bone destruction. This review will discuss several novel therapies, including inhibitors of receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappabeta, c-Src, mammalian target of rapamycin, cathepsin K, and alpha(5)beta(3) integrins, which could improve our control over this devastating complication.

Osteoclast precursor interaction with bone matrix induces osteoclast formation directly by an interleukin-1-mediated autocrine mechanism

Interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) mediate bone resorption in a variety of diseases affecting bone. Like TNF, IL-1 is secreted by osteoclast precursors (OCPs), but unlike TNF, it does not induce osteoclast formation directly from OCPs in vitro. TNF induces IL-1 expression and activates c-Fos, a transcription factor required in OCPs for osteoclast formation. Here, we examined whether IL-1 can induce osteoclast formation directly from OCPs overexpressing c-Fos and whether interaction with bone matrix affects OCP cytokine expression. We infected OCPs with c-Fos or green fluorescent protein retrovirus, cultured them with macrophage colony-stimulating factor and IL-1 on bone slices or plastic dishes, and assessed osteoclast and resorption pit formation and expression of IL-1 by OCPs. We used a Transwell assay to determine whether OCPs secrete IL-1 when they interact with bone matrix. IL-1 induced osteoclast formation directly from c-Fos-expressing OCPs on plastic. c-Fos-expressing OCPs formed osteoclasts spontaneously on bone slices without addition of cytokines. OCPs on bone secreted IL-1, which induced osteoclast formation from c-Fos-expressing OCPs in the lower Transwell dishes. The bone matrix proteins dentin sialoprotein and osteopontin, but not transforming growth factor-beta, stimulated OCP expression of IL-1 and induced c-Fos-expressing OCP differentiation into osteoclasts. Osteoclasts eroding inflamed joints have higher c-Fos expression compared with osteoclasts inside bone. We conclude that OCPs expressing c-Fos may induce their differentiation directly into osteoclasts by an autocrine mechanism in which they produce IL-1 through interaction with bone matrix. TNF could induce c-Fos expression in OCPs at sites of inflammation in bone to promote this autocrine mechanism and thus amplify bone loss.

Osteoclast size heterogeneity in rat long bones is associated with differences in adhesive ligand specificity

Prothrombin (PT) is an RGD-containing bone-residing precursor to the serine protease thrombin (TH), which acts as an agonist for a variety of cellular responses in osteoblasts and osteoclasts. We show here that PT, TH, osteopontin (OPN) and fibronectin (FN) promoted adhesion of isolated neonatal rat long bone osteoclasts. However, the cells that adhered to PT and TH were smaller in size, rounded and contained 3-4 nuclei, in comparison to the cells adhering to OPN and FN, which were larger with extended cytoplasmic processes and 6-7 nuclei. Attachment of the larger osteoclasts to OPN and FN was inhibited by antibodies towards beta 3 and beta 1 integrin subunits, respectively. Whereas an RGD-containing peptide inhibited adhesion of the smaller osteoclasts to PT and TH, this was not seen with the beta 3 or beta 1 antibodies. In contrast, the beta 1 antibody augmented osteoclast adhesion to PT and TH in an RGD-dependent manner. Small osteoclasts were less efficient in resorbing mineralized bovine bone slices, as well as expressed lower mRNA levels of MMP-9 and the cathepsins K and L compared to large osteoclasts. The small osteoclast adhering to PT and TH may represent either an immature, less functional precursor to the large osteoclast or alternatively constitute a distinct osteoclast population with a specific role in bone.

Bone Directed Therapies for Prostate Cancer

PURPOSE

Bone is the most common site of metastatic disease in prostate cancer and the lead cause of significant morbidity. Preclinical and clinical studies have provided insight into the pathophysiology of bone metastases and the changes that occur in the bone microenvironment that result in a favorable site of growth for prostate cancer. We provide an overview of recent advances in understanding bone biology, and bone targeted therapy research and development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We reviewed recent research findings related to the biology of bone metastases, approaches to targeting osteoclast function, approaches to targeting osteoblasts and advances in assessing the treatment response to bone targeted therapies in the context of prostate cancer management.

RESULTS

To date targeting some of the key players in the bone microenvironment has not been associated with a significant antitumor effect or with meaningful clinical benefit in phase III randomized trials. A significant limitation in the development of bone targeted therapy has been the inability to objectively assess treatment response. Investigation of improved imaging techniques are ongoing to provide better treatment assessment and, therefore, allow more rapid drug screening and development.

CONCLUSIONS

It is our recommendation that future therapy development should be combination based, focusing on simultaneous targeting of multiple relevant pathways. Most important of all is the direct targeting of prostate cancer cells.

Urokinase plasminogen activator receptor affects bone homeostasis by regulating osteoblast and osteoclast function

The uPAR and its ligand uPA are expressed by both osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Their function in bone remodeling is unknown. We report that uPAR-lacking mice display increased BMD, increased osteogenic potential of osteoblasts, decreased osteoclasts formation, and altered cytoskeletal reorganization in mature osteoclasts.

INTRODUCTION

Urokinase receptor (uPAR) is actively involved in the regulation of important cell functions, such as proliferation, adhesion, and migration. It was previously shown that the major players in bone remodeling, osteoblasts and osteoclasts, express uPAR and produce urokinase (uPA). The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of uPAR in bone remodeling.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vivo studies were performed in uPAR knockout (KO) and wildtype (WT) mice on a C57Bl6/SV129 (75:25) background. Bone mass was analyzed by pQCT. Excised tibias were subjected to mechanical tests. UPAR KO calvaria osteoblasts were characterized by proliferation assays, RT-PCR for important proteins secreted during differentiation, and immunoblot for activator protein 1 (AP-1) family members. In vitro osteoclast formation was tested with uPAR KO bone marrow monocytes in the presence of macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) and RANKL. Phalloidin staining in osteoclasts served to study actin ring and podosome formation.

RESULTS

pQCT revealed increased bone mass in uPAR-null mice. Mechanical tests showed reduced load-sustaining capability in uPAR KO tibias. uPAR KO osteoblasts showed a proliferative advantage with no difference in apoptosis, higher matrix mineralization, and earlier appearance of alkaline phosphatase (ALP). Surface RANKL expression at different stages of differentiation was not altered. AP-1 components, such as JunB and Fra-1, were upregulated in uPAR KO osteoblasts, along with other osteoblasts markers. On the resorptive side, the number of osteoclasts formed in vitro from uPAR KO monocytes was decreased. Podosome imaging in uPAR KO osteoclasts revealed a defect in actin ring formation.

CONCLUSIONS

The defective proliferation and differentiation of bone cells, coincident with both aberrant expression of transcription factors and cytoskeletal organization, are typical uPAR-dependent molecular phenotypes, and we have now shown their function in osteoblasts and osteoclasts function in vivo.

Inhibition of breast cancer cell adhesion and bone metastasis by the extracellular adherence protein of Staphylococcus aureus

Bone metastasis is a common sequelae of breast cancer and the interaction of alpha v beta3-integrin with osteopontin (OPN) found in the extracellular matrix of mineralized tissues is implicated in this process. The integrin-dependent proadhesive and promigratory functions of OPN are particularly attributed to the 40 kD N-terminal fragment that derives upon matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) cleavage. Based on the broad repertoire of interactions between Staphylococcus aureus extracellular adherence protein (Eap) and host components, we here characterized Eap to specifically interact with recombinant full-length OPN and the 40 kD N-terminal MMP cleavage fragment, but not with the 32 kD or the 25 kD C-terminal fragments of OPN. Eap thereby prevented the OPN/alpha v beta3-integrin interaction, as well as the alpha v beta3-integrin-dependent adhesion of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells to full-length OPN or to the 40 kD fragment and the migration of these cells towards OPN. Furthermore, Eap treatment markedly impaired the development of osseous metastasis of human MDA-MB-231 cells in vivo. Taken together, Eap may represent an attractive novel treatment for the prevention of breast cancer bone metastasis.