Phenotypic plasticity, costs of phenotypes, and costs of plasticity: toward an integrative view

Trait and plasticity evolution under competition and mutualism in evolving pairwise yeast communities

Although we have a good understanding of how phenotypic plasticity evolves in response to abiotic environments, we know comparatively less about responses to biotic interactions. We experimentally tested how competition and mutualism affected trait and plasticity evolution of pairwise communities of genetically modified brewer's yeast. We quantified evolutionary changes in growth rate, resource use efficiency (RUE), and their plasticity in strains evolving alone, with a competitor, and with a mutualist. Compared to their ancestors, strains evolving alone had lower RUE and RUE plasticity. There was also an evolutionary tradeoff between changes in growth rate and RUE in strains evolving alone, suggesting selection for increased growth rate at the cost of efficiency. Strains evolving with a competitive partner had higher growth rates, slightly lower RUE, and a stronger tradeoff between growth rate and efficiency. In contrast, mutualism had opposite effects on trait evolution. Strains evolving with a mutualist had slightly lower growth rates, higher RUE, and a weak evolutionary tradeoff between growth rate and RUE. Despite their different effects on trait evolution, competition and mutualism had little effect on plasticity evolution for either trait, suggesting that abiotic factors could be more important than biotic factors in generating selection for plasticity.

A review of the empirical evidence for costs of plasticity in ectothermic animals

Phenotypic plasticity can represent a vital adaptive response to environmental stressors, including those associated with climate change. Despite its evolutionary advantages, the expression of plasticity varies significantly within and among species, and is likely to be influenced by local environmental conditions. This variability in plasticity has important implications for evolutionary biology and conservation physiology. Theoretical models suggest that plasticity might incur intrinsic fitness costs, although the empirical evidence is inconsistent and there is ambiguity in the term 'cost of plasticity'. Here, we systematically review the literature to investigate the prevalence of costs associated with phenotypic plasticity in ectothermic animals. We categorized studies into those assessing 'costs of phenotype' (trade-offs between different plastic trait values) and 'costs of plasticity' (intrinsic costs of the capacity for plasticity). Importantly, the experimental designs required to detect costs of plasticity are inherently more complex and onerous than those required to detect costs of phenotype. Accordingly, our findings reveal a significant focus on costs of phenotype over costs of plasticity, with the former more frequently detecting costs. Contrary to theoretical expectations, our analysis suggests that costs of plasticity are neither universal nor widespread. This raises questions about the evolutionary dynamics of plasticity, particularly in stable environments. Our analysis underscores the need for precise terminology and methodology in researching costs of plasticity, to avoid conflating costs associated with plastic traits with costs more intrinsic to plasticity. Understanding these nuances is crucial for predicting how species might adapt to rapidly changing environments.

The genetics of phenotypic plasticity. XVIII. Developmental limits restrict adaptive plasticity

After environmental change, the trait evolution needed to rescue a population depends on the functional form of the plastic change (reaction norm) of that trait. Nearly all previous models of plasticity evolution for continuous traits have assumed that the functional form is linear, that is, no limits on the range of plasticity. This paper examines the effect of developmental limits, modeled as a sigmoidal reaction norm, on evolutionary rescue after an abrupt environmental change and the subsequent evolution of plasticity, including genetic assimilation. We examined four different scenarios: (1) developmental limits only, (2) developmental limits plus a cost of plasticity, (3) developmental limits with developmental noise, and (4) developmental limits plus environmental variation. The probability of evolutionary rescue increased with an increase in phenotypic variation allowed by plastic development. With a smaller limit to the range of the plastic phenotype, the evolution of adaptive plasticity was limited, meaning the evolution of non-plastic genes was necessary. The addition of developmental constraints to the model did not speed up genetic assimilation, suggesting a new theory is needed to understand empirical observations. The modeling framework presented here could be extended to different ecological and evolutionary conditions, alternative reaction norm shapes, the evolution of additional reaction norm parameters such as the range or the location of the inflection point on the environmental axis, or other function-valued traits.

Predicting the Combined Effects of Multiple Stressors and Stress Adaptation in Gammarus pulex

Global change confronts organisms with multiple stressors causing nonadditive effects. Persistent stress, however, leads to adaptation and related trade-offs. The question arises: How can the resulting effects of these contradictory processes be predicted? Here we show that Gammarus pulex from agricultural streams were more tolerant to clothianidin (mean EC50 148 μg/L) than populations from reference streams (mean EC50 67 μg/L). We assume that this increased tolerance results from a combination of physiological acclimation, epigenetic effects, and genetic evolution, termed as adaptation. Further, joint exposure to pesticide mixture and temperature stress led to synergistic interactions of all three stressors. However, these combined effects were significantly stronger in adapted populations as shown by the model deviation ratio (MDR) of 4, compared to reference populations (MDR = 2.7). The pesticide adaptation reduced the General-Stress capacity of adapted individuals, and the related trade-off process increased vulnerability to combined stress. Overall, synergistic interactions were stronger with increasing total stress and could be well predicted by the stress addition model (SAM). In contrast, traditional models such as concentration addition (CA) and effect addition (EA) substantially underestimated the combined effects. We conclude that several, even very disparate stress factors, including population adaptations to stress, can act synergistically. The strong synergistic potential underscores the critical importance of correctly predicting multiple stresses for risk assessment.

Phenotypic plasticity and the effects of thermal fluctuations on specialists and generalists

Classical theories predict that relatively constant environments should generally favour specialists, while fluctuating environments should be selected for generalists. However, theoretical and empirical results have pointed out that generalist organisms might, on the contrary, perform poorly under fluctuations. In particular, if generalism is underlaid by phenotypic plasticity, performance of generalists should be modulated by the temporal characteristics of environmental fluctuations. Here, we used experiments in microcosms of Tetrahymena thermophila ciliates and a mathematical model to test whether the period or autocorrelation of thermal fluctuations mediate links between the level of generalism and the performance of organisms under fluctuations. In the experiment, thermal fluctuations consistently impeded performance compared with constant conditions. However, the intensity of this effect depended on the level of generalism: while the more specialist strains performed better under fast or negatively autocorrelated fluctuations, plastic generalists performed better under slow or positively autocorrelated fluctuations. Our model suggests that these effects of fluctuations on organisms' performance may result from a time delay in the expression of plasticity, restricting its benefits to slow enough fluctuations. This study points out the need to further investigate the temporal dynamics of phenotypic plasticity to better predict its fitness consequences under environmental fluctuations.

Sensory perception of rivals has trait-dependent effects on plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster

The social environment has myriad effects on individuals, altering reproduction, immune function, cognition, and aging. Phenotypic plasticity enables animals to respond to heterogeneous environments such as the social environment but requires that they assess those environments accurately. It has been suggested that combinations of sensory cues allow animals to respond rapidly and accurately to changeable environments, but it is unclear whether the same sensory inputs are required in all traits that respond to a particular environmental cue. Drosophila melanogaster males, in the presence of rival males, exhibit a consistent behavioral response by extending mating duration. However, exposure to a rival also results in a reduction in their lifespan, a phenomenon interpreted as a trade-off associated with sperm competition strategies. D. melanogaster perceive their rivals by using multiple sensory cues; interfering with at least two olfactory, auditory, or tactile cues eliminates the extension of mating duration. Here, we assessed whether these same cues were implicated in the lifespan reduction. Removal of combinations of auditory and olfactory cues removed the extended mating duration response to a rival, as previously found. However, we found that these manipulations did not alter the reduction in lifespan of males exposed to rivals or induce any changes in activity patterns, grooming, or male-male aggression. Therefore, our analysis suggests that lifespan reduction is not a cost associated with the behavioral responses to sperm competition. Moreover, this highlights the trait-specific nature of the mechanisms underlying plasticity in response to the same environmental conditions.

Beyond reaction norms: the temporal dynamics of phenotypic plasticity

Phenotypic plasticity can allow organisms to cope with environmental changes. Although reaction norms are commonly used to quantify plasticity along gradients of environmental conditions, they often miss the temporal dynamics of phenotypic change, especially the speed at which it occurs. Here, we argue that studying the rate of phenotypic plasticity is a crucial step to quantify and understand its adaptiveness. Iteratively measuring plastic traits allows us to describe the actual dynamics of phenotypic changes and avoid quantifying reaction norms at times that do not truly reflect the organism's capacity for plasticity. Integrating the temporal component in how we describe, quantify, and conceptualise phenotypic plasticity can change our understanding of its diversity, evolution, and consequences.

Spatial and temporal heterogeneity alter the cost of plasticity in Pristionchus pacificus

Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of a single genotype to produce distinct phenotypes under different environmental conditions, has become a leading concept in ecology and evolutionary biology, with the most extreme examples being the formation of alternative phenotypes (polyphenisms). However, several aspects associated with phenotypic plasticity remain controversial, such as the existence of associated costs. While already predicted by some of the pioneers of plasticity research, i.e. Schmalhausen and Bradshaw, experimental and theoretical approaches have provided limited support for the costs of plasticity. In experimental studies, one common restriction is the measurement of all relevant parameters over long time periods. Similarly, theoretical studies rarely use modelling approaches that incorporate specific experimentally-derived fitness parameters. Therefore, the existence of the costs of plasticity remains disputed. Here, we provide an integrative approach to understand the cost of adaptive plasticity and its ecological ramifications, by combining laboratory data from the nematode plasticity model system Pristionchus pacificus with a stage-structured population model. Taking advantage of measurements of two isogenic strains grown on two distinct diets, we illustrate how spatial and temporal heterogeneity with regard to the distribution of resources on a metapopulation can alter the outcome of the competition and alleviate the realized cost of plasticity.

Population-specific effects of temperature and photoperiod on development and body mass in Cassida vibex (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

An interplay of genetic divergence and phenotypic plasticity in shaping geographic variation is increasingly receiving attention in the entomological literature. Two major environmental variables that govern life histories are temperature and photoperiod. Studies of thermal and photoperiodic reaction norms help us understand how insect diversity evolved and how insects respond to environmental change. We studied survival, development, and body mass in three geographic populations of the beetle Cassida vibex reared in the laboratory under several combinations of constant temperature (16, 19, 22, 25, and 28 °C) and photoperiod (short-day and long-day). The three collection sites are situated along a climatic gradient and separated by hundreds of kilometers. Each population subtly but significantly differs in the absolute values of survival rate, developmental rate, and body mass as well as in the thermal and photoperiodic plasticity of these traits, but the geographic differences do not form a latitudinal cline. The southernmost population from a relatively warm climate survives worse at low temperatures than the other two, but the overall survival is lowest in the latitudinally intermediate population. Short-day conditions tend to accelerate postembryonic development and increase the slope of the developmental rate-temperature relationship, especially so in the intermediate population, followed by the southernmost population and then by the northernmost population. The latter, which inhabits a harsh climate, has the fastest and most temperature-sensitive development, regardless of photoperiod, and attains the largest body mass among the three populations. The intermediately located and photoperiodically plastic population, which lives in a cool but mild climate, in contrast, has the smallest body size. Hence, although the importance of short-day conditions as a seasonal cue increases poleward, the photoperiodic responses do not always become more pronounced in colder, high-latitude environments. Our results emphasize that insect life-history traits can exhibit quite sophisticated patterns of variation along climatic gradients.

Rapid evolution of phenotypic plasticity in patchy habitats

Phenotypic plasticity may evolve rapidly, enabling a population's persistence in the face of sudden environmental change. Rapid evolution can occur when there is considerable genetic polymorphism at selected loci. We propose that balancing selection could be one of the mechanisms that sustain such polymorphism for plasticity. We use stochastic Monte Carlo simulations and deterministic analysis to investigate the evolution of a plasticity modifier locus in structured populations inhabiting favorable and adverse environments, i.e. patchy habitats. We survey a wide range of parameters including selective pressures on a target (structural) locus, plasticity effects, population sizes, and migration patterns between demes including periodic or continuous bidirectional and source-sink dynamics. We find that polymorphism in phenotypic plasticity can be maintained under a wide range of environmental scenarios in both favorable and adverse environments due to the balancing effect of population structure in patchy habitats. This effect offers a new plausible explanation for the rapid evolution of plasticity in nature: Phenotypic plasticity may rapidly evolve from genetic variation maintained by balancing selection if the population has experienced immigration from populations under different selection regimes.

Simultaneous warming and acidification limit population fitness and reveal phenotype costs for a marine copepod

Phenotypic plasticity and evolutionary adaptation allow populations to cope with global change, but limits and costs to adaptation under multiple stressors are insufficiently understood. We reared a foundational copepod species, Acartia hudsonica, under ambient (AM), ocean warming (OW), ocean acidification (OA), and combined ocean warming and acidification (OWA) conditions for 11 generations (approx. 1 year) and measured population fitness (net reproductive rate) derived from six life-history traits (egg production, hatching success, survival, development time, body size and sex ratio). Copepods under OW and OWA exhibited an initial approximately 40% fitness decline relative to AM, but fully recovered within four generations, consistent with an adaptive response and demonstrating synergy between stressors. At generation 11, however, fitness was approximately 24% lower for OWA compared with the AM lineage, consistent with the cost of producing OWA-adapted phenotypes. Fitness of the OWA lineage was not affected by reversal to AM or low food environments, indicating sustained phenotypic plasticity. These results mimic those of a congener, Acartia tonsa, while additionally suggesting that synergistic effects of simultaneous stressors exert costs that limit fitness recovery but can sustain plasticity. Thus, even when closely related species experience similar stressors, species-specific costs shape their unique adaptive responses.

Condition dependence and the paradox of missing plasticity costs

Phenotypic plasticity plays a key role in adaptation to changing environments. However, plasticity is neither perfect nor ubiquitous, implying that fitness costs may limit the evolution of phenotypic plasticity in nature. The measurement of such costs of plasticity has proved elusive; decades of experiments show that fitness costs of plasticity are often weak or nonexistent. Here, we show that this paradox could potentially be explained by condition dependence. We develop two models differing in their assumptions about how condition dependence arises; both models show that variation in condition can readily mask costs of plasticity even when such costs are substantial. This can be shown simply in a model where plasticity itself evolves condition dependence, which would be expected if costly. Yet similar effects emerge from an alternative model where trait expression itself is condition-dependent. In this more complex model, the average condition in each environment and genetic covariance in condition across environments both determine when costs of plasticity can be revealed. Analogous to the paradox of missing trade-offs between life history traits, our models show that variation in condition can mask costs of plasticity even when costs exist, and suggest this conclusion may be robust to the details of how condition affects trait expression. Our models suggest that condition dependence can also account for the often-observed pattern of elevated plasticity costs inferred in stressful environments, the maintenance of genetic variance in plasticity, and provides insight into experimental and biological scenarios ideal for revealing a cost of phenotypic plasticity.

Experimental and theoretical support for costs of plasticity and phenotype in a nematode cannibalistic trait

Developmental plasticity is the ability of a genotype to express multiple phenotypes under different environmental conditions and has been shown to facilitate the evolution of novel traits. However, while the associated cost of plasticity, i.e., the loss in fitness due to the ability to express plasticity in response to environmental change, and the cost of phenotype, i.e., the loss of fitness due to expressing a fixed phenotype across environments, have been theoretically predicted, empirically such costs remain poorly documented and little understood. Here, we use a plasticity model system, hermaphroditic nematode Pristionchus pacificus, to experimentally measure these costs in wild isolates under controlled laboratory conditions. P. pacificus can develop either a bacterial feeding or predatory mouth morph in response to different external stimuli, with natural variation of mouth-morph ratios between strains. We first demonstrated the cost of phenotype by analyzing fecundity and developmental speed in relation to mouth morphs across the P. pacificus phylogenetic tree. Then, we exposed P. pacificus strains to two distinct microbial diets that induce strain-specific mouth-form ratios. Our results indicate that the plastic strain does shoulder a cost of plasticity, i.e., the diet-induced predatory mouth morph is associated with reduced fecundity and slower developmental speed. In contrast, the non-plastic strain suffers from the cost of phenotype since its phenotype does not change to match the unfavorable bacterial diet but shows increased fitness and higher developmental speed on the favorable diet. Furthermore, using a stage-structured population model based on empirically derived life history parameters, we show how population structure can alleviate the cost of plasticity in P. pacificus. The results of the model illustrate the extent to which the costs associated with plasticity and its effect on competition depend on ecological factors. This study provides support for costs of plasticity and phenotype based on empirical and modeling approaches.

The phenotypic plasticity of an evolving digital organism

Climate change will fundamentally reshape life on Earth in the coming decades. Therefore, understanding the extent to which species will cope with rising temperatures is of paramount importance. Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of an organism to change the morphological and functional traits encoded by its genome in response to the environment. I show here that plasticity pervades not only natural but also artificial systems that mimic the developmental process of biological organisms, such as self-replicating and evolving computer programs-digital organisms. Specifically, the environment can modify the sequence of instructions executed from a digital organism's genome (i.e. its transcriptome), which results in changes in its phenotype (i.e. the ability of the digital organism to perform Boolean logic operations). This genetic-based pathway for plasticity comes at a fitness cost to an organism's viability and generation time: the longer the transcriptome (higher fitness cost), the more chances for the environment to modify the genetic execution flow control, and the higher the likelihood for the genome to encode novel phenotypes. By studying to what extent a digital organism's phenotype is influenced by both its genome and the environment, I make a parallelism between natural and artificial evolving systems on how natural selection might slide trait regulation anywhere along a continuum from total environmental control to total genomic control, which harbours lessons not only for designing evolvable artificial systems, but also for synthetic biology.

Predation impacts brain allometry in female guppies (Poecilia reticulata)

Cognitive and sensory abilities are vital in affecting survival under predation risk, leading to selection on brain anatomy. However, how exactly predation and brain evolution are linked has not yet been resolved, as current empirical evidence is inconclusive. This may be due to predation pressure having different effects across life stages and/or due to confounding factors in ecological comparisons of predation pressure. Here, we used adult guppies (Poecilia reticulata) to experimentally test how direct predation during adulthood would impact the relative brain size and brain anatomy of surviving individuals to examine if predators selectively remove individuals with specific brain morphology. To this end, we compared fish surviving predation to control fish, which were exposed to visual and olfactory predator cues but could not be predated on. We found that predation impacted the relative size of female brains. However, this effect was dependent on body size, as larger female survivors showed relatively larger brains, while smaller survivors showed relatively smaller brains when compared to control females. We found no differences in male relative brain size between survivors and controls, nor for any specific relative brain region sizes for either sex. Our results corroborate the important, yet complex, role of predation as an important driver of variation in brain size.

Elevational divergence in pigmentation plasticity is associated with selection and pigment biochemistry

Phenotypic plasticity is predicted to evolve in environmentally variable habitats, or those experiencing a high frequency of strong selection. However, the evolution of plasticity may be constrained by costs or physiological constraints. In flowers, UV-absorbing pigmentation ameliorates UV damage to pollen, and is linked with elevated UV exposure. Whether plasticity contributes to this pattern remains unclear. Petals of Argentina anserina have larger UV-absorbing petal areas at high elevations where they experience higher and more variable UV exposure compared to low elevations. We measured UV-induced pigmentation plasticity in high- and low-elevation populations (hereafter, 'high, 'low'), and selection on pigmentation via male fitness. We dissected UV pigment biochemistry using metabolomics to explore biochemical mechanisms underlying plasticity. High displayed positive UV-induced pigmentation plasticity but low lacked plasticity. Selection favored elevated pigmentation under UV in high, supporting adaptive plasticity. In high, UV-absorption was conferred by flavonoids produced in one flavonoid pathway branch. However, in low, UV-absorption was associated with many compounds spanning many branches. Elevated plasticity was thus associated with reduced pigment diversity. The results are consistent with adaptive floral pigmentation plasticity in more extreme and variable environments. We discuss how biochemical underpinnings of pigmentation may permit or constrain the evolution of pigmentation plasticity. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Evolution of anticipatory effects mediated by epigenetic changes

Anticipatory effects mediated by epigenetic changes occur when parents modify the phenotype of their offspring by making epigenetic changes in their gametes, guided by information from an environmental cue. To investigate when do anticipatory effects mediated by epigenetic changes evolve in a fluctuating environment, I use an individual-based simulation model with explicit genetic architecture. The model allows for the population to respond to environmental changes by evolving plasticity, bet hedging, or by tracking the environment with genetic adaptation, in addition to the evolution of anticipatory effects. The results show that anticipatory effects evolve when the environmental cue provides reliable information about the environment and the environment changes at intermediate rates, provided that fitness costs of anticipatory effects are rather low. Moreover, evolution of anticipatory effects is quite robust to different genetic architectures when reliability of the environmental cue is high. Anticipatory effects always give smaller fitness benefits than within-generation plasticity, suggesting a possible reason for generally small observed anticipatory effects in empirical studies.

Lanza V, Rodríguez-Beltrán J, Galán JC, San Millán A, Cantón R, Coque TM. Evolutionary Pathways and Trajectories in Antibiotic Resistance

Evolution is the hallmark of life. Descriptions of the evolution of microorganisms have provided a wealth of information, but knowledge regarding "what happened" has precluded a deeper understanding of "how" evolution has proceeded, as in the case of antimicrobial resistance. The difficulty in answering the "how" question lies in the multihierarchical dimensions of evolutionary processes, nested in complex networks, encompassing all units of selection, from genes to communities and ecosystems. At the simplest ontological level (as resistance genes), evolution proceeds by random (mutation and drift) and directional (natural selection) processes; however, sequential pathways of adaptive variation can occasionally be observed, and under fixed circumstances (particular fitness landscapes), evolution is predictable. At the highest level (such as that of plasmids, clones, species, microbiotas), the systems' degrees of freedom increase dramatically, related to the variable dispersal, fragmentation, relatedness, or coalescence of bacterial populations, depending on heterogeneous and changing niches and selective gradients in complex environments. Evolutionary trajectories of antibiotic resistance find their way in these changing landscapes subjected to random variations, becoming highly entropic and therefore unpredictable. However, experimental, phylogenetic, and ecogenetic analyses reveal preferential frequented paths (highways) where antibiotic resistance flows and propagates, allowing some understanding of evolutionary dynamics, modeling and designing interventions. Studies on antibiotic resistance have an applied aspect in improving individual health, One Health, and Global Health, as well as an academic value for understanding evolution. Most importantly, they have a heuristic significance as a model to reduce the negative influence of anthropogenic effects on the environment.

Multiple Stress Reduces the Advantage of Pesticide Adaptation

Under global change scenarios, multistress conditions may occur regularly and require adaptation. However, the adaptation to one stressor might be associated with the increased sensitivity to another stressor. Here, we investigated the ecological consequences of such trade-off under multiple stress. We compared the pesticide tolerance of the crustacean Gammarus pulex from agricultural streams with populations from reference streams. Under optimum temperature, G. pulex from agricultural streams were considerably more tolerant to pesticides as compared to the reference populations. Here, we assume that the increased tolerance in agricultural populations is the combination of acclimation, epigenetic effect, and genetic evolution. After experimental pre-exposure to very low concentration (LC₅₀/1000), reference populations showed increased pesticide tolerance. In contrast, pre-exposure did not further increase the tolerance of agricultural populations. Moreover, these populations were more sensitive to elevated temperature alone due to the hypothesized fitness cost of genetic adaptation to pesticides. However, both reference and agricultural populations showed a similar tolerance to the combined stress of pesticides and warming due to stronger synergistic effects in adapted populations. As a result, pesticide adaptation loses its advantage. The combined effect was predicted well using the stress addition model, developed for predicting the synergistic interaction of independent stressors. We conclude that under multistress conditions, adaptation to pesticides reduces the general stress capacity of individuals and trade-off processes increase the sensitivity to additional stressors. This causes strong synergistic effects of additional stressors on pesticide-adapted individuals.

Phenotypic Plasticity of Salamander Hatchlings in the Pre-Feeding Stage in Response to Future Prey

Vulnerability of animals immediately after hatching may induce plasticity in early ontology that becomes important for subsequent survival and growth. Ezo salamanders (Hynobius retardatus) are amphibians inhabiting ponds in Hokkaido, Japan where ezo brown frogs (Rana pirica) spawn on occasion. The salamander larvae must achieve sufficient size in order to successfully capture frog tadpoles, and we examined whether the presence of tadpoles causes development of greater body and/or gape size in newly hatched salamander larvae, which will in turn result in advantageous future prey-predator interactions. To examine this hypothesis, we conducted three laboratory experiments to demonstrate the phenotypic plasticity of salamander hatchlings in response to the presence or absence of frog tadpoles and to screen the type of signals involved in the expression of the phenotypic plasticity. First, salamander hatchlings were reared alone or with tadpoles, and the growth and morphological traits of the hatchlings were compared. The results showed that hatchling larvae grew faster with a more developed gape in the presence of tadpoles. Next, to identify the type of signals inducing this plasticity, two separate experiments with manipulated chemical and visual signals from tadpoles were conducted. The findings showed that faster growth and a more developed gape were induced by chemical but not visual signals. This plasticity may be an adaptive strategy because it increases the likelihood of preying on tadpoles in future prey-predator interactions.

Macroscopic variation in Arabidopsis mutants despite stomatal uniformity across soil nutrient environments

Stomata are essential pores flanked by guard cells that control gas exchange in plants. We can utilize stomatal size and density measurements as a proxy for a plant's capacity for gas exchange. While stomatal responses to stressful environments are well studied; data are lacking in the responses across mutant genotypes of the same species in these trait and treatment interactions or genetic variation in phenotypic plasticity. We evaluated the effects of soil nutrient variation on macroscopic and stomatal traits of Arabidopsis thaliana T-DNA insertion mutants for which prior performance in a single benign growing condition were available. Nutrient-induced stress significantly impacted traits including plant biomass, height, fruit number, and leaf number which we denote as macroscopic traits. We found evidence that genotype by environment effects exist for macroscopic traits, yet total stomatal area variation, or "microscopic variation" across environments was modest. Divergence from the wildtype line varied by mutant background and these responses were variable among traits. These findings suggest that Arabidopsis employs a strategy of physiological compensation, sacrificing morphological traits to maintain stomatal production.

Phylogenetic patterns of trait and trait plasticity evolution: Insights from tadpoles

Environmental heterogeneity has led to the widespread evolution of phenotypic plasticity in all taxonomic groups. Although phenotypic plasticity has been examined from multiple perspectives, few studies have examined evolutionary patterns of plasticity within a phylogeny. We conducted common-garden experiments on 20 species of tadpoles, spanning three families, exposed for 4 weeks to a control, predator cues, or reduced food (i.e., increased intraspecific competition). We quantified tadpole activity, growth, and relative morphology and found widespread differences in species responses to predator cues and reduced food. We detected pervasive phylogenetic signals in traits within each environment, but the phylogenetic signal was much less common in the trait plasticities. Among different models of continuous character evolution, Brownian Motion and Ornstein Uhlenbeck models provided better fits to the data than the Early Burst model. Tadpole activity level in predator environments had much higher evolutionary rates than in the control and reduced-food environments; we did not see this pattern in the other traits. In comparing traits versus trait plasticities, activity evolved much faster than the plasticity of activity whereas morphological traits evolved much slower than morphological plasticities. Collectively, these results suggest that traits and trait plasticities can exhibit dramatically different evolutionary patterns.

Restoration, conservation and phytoplankton hysteresis

Phytoplankton growth depends not only upon external factors that are not strongly altered by the presence of phytoplankton, such as temperature, but also upon factors that are strongly influenced by activity of phytoplankton, including photosynthetically active radiation, and the availability of the macronutrients carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and, for some, silicate. Since phytoplankton therefore modify, and to an extent create, their own habitats, established phytoplankton communities can show resistance and resilience to change, including managed changes in nutrient regimes. Phytoplankton blooms and community structures can be predicted from the overall biogeochemical setting and inputs, but restorations may be influenced by the physiological responses of established phytoplankton taxa to nutrient inputs, temperature, second-order changes in illumination and nutrient recycling. In this review we discuss the contributions of phytoplankton ecophysiology to biogeochemical hysteresis and possible effects on community composition in the face of management, conservation or remediation plans.

Short communication: Context matters: Adult size is contingent on embryonic temperature in Drosophila melanogaster

Temperature is a critical factor in shaping ectothermic development. Developmental temperature may constrain, alter, or redirect phenotypes expressed later in life. Recent studies have begun to analyze the consequences of mismatches between developmental and adult environments. Few studies analyze the consequences environmental mismatches during development yield on adult phenotypes. The aim of this study was to determine how mismatched temperatures during development affect adult size in Drosophila melanogaster. We employed a full factorial design in which eggs were incubated for 24 h in one of two temperature treatments (18 °C or 28 °C) with half of the flies subsequently being switched to the opposite temperature treatment for the remainder of development. We measured body size shortly after eclosure. We found that variation in size after eclosure was contingent upon the temperature during the embryo stage. Flies reared initially in 18 °C eclosed larger regardless of the subsequent temperature until eclsoure. Flies reared initially in 28 °C, however, eclosed smaller only if they remained in 28 °C until eclosure. The degree of plasticity in size was therefore contingent upon temperature during the embryo stage. We discuss the implications of employing full factorial approaches to consider the full context of phenotypic outcomes in light of changing developmental environments.

Stomatal and Leaf Morphology Response of European Beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) Provenances Transferred to Contrasting Climatic Conditions

Climate change-induced elevated temperatures and drought are considered to be serious threats to forest ecosystems worldwide, negatively affecting tree growth and viability. We studied nine European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) provenances located in two provenance trial plots with contrasting climates in Central Europe. Stomata play a vital role in the water balance of plants by regulating gaseous exchanges between plants and the atmosphere. Therefore, to explain the possible adaptation and acclimation of provenances to climate conditions, stomatal (stomatal density, the length of guard cells, and the potential conductance index) and leaf morphological traits (leaf size, leaf dry weight and specific leaf area) were assessed. The phenotypic plasticity index was calculated from the variability of provenances’ stomatal and leaf traits between the provenance plots. We assessed the impact of various climatic characteristics and derived indices (e.g., ecodistance) on intraspecific differences in stomatal and leaf traits. Provenances transferred to drier and warmer conditions acclimated through a decrease in stomatal density, the length of guard cells, potential conductance index, leaf size and leaf dry weight. The reduction in stomatal density and the potential conductance index was proportional to the degree of aridity difference between the climate of origin and conditions of the new site. Moreover, we found that the climate heterogeneity and latitude of the original provenance sites influence the phenotypic plasticity of provenances. Provenances from lower latitudes and less heterogeneous climates showed higher values of phenotypic plasticity. Furthermore, we observed a positive correlation between phenotypic plasticity and mortality in the arid plot but not in the more humid plot. Based on these impacts of the climate on stomatal and leaf traits of transferred provenances, we can improve the predictions of provenance reactions for future scenarios of global climate change.

Natural selection on traits and trait plasticity in Arabidopsis thaliana varies across competitive environments

Interspecific competition reduces resource availability and can affect evolution. We quantified multivariate selection in the presence and absence of strong interspecific competition using a greenhouse experiment with 35 natural accessions of Arabidopsis thaliana. We assessed selection on nine traits representing plant phenology, growth, and architecture, as well as their plasticities. Competition reduced biomass and fitness by over 98%, and plastic responses to competition varied by genotype (significant G × E) for all traits except specific leaf area (SLA). Competitive treatments altered selection on flowering phenology and plant architecture, with significant selection on all phenology traits and most architecture traits under competition-present conditions but little indication that selection occurred in the absence of competitors. Plasticity affected fitness only in competition-present conditions, where plasticity in flowering time and early internode lengths was adaptive. The competitive environment caused changes in the trait correlation structure and surprisingly reduced phenotypic integration, which helped explain some of the observed selection patterns. Despite this overall shift in the trait correlation matrix, genotypes with delayed flowering had lower SLA (thicker, tougher leaves) regardless of the competitive environment, a pattern we have not seen previously reported in the literature. Overall, our study highlights multiple ways in which interspecific competition can alter selective regimes, contributing to our understanding of variability in selection processes over space and time.

Evaluating the fitness consequences of plasticity in tolerance to pesticides

In a rapidly changing world, phenotypic plasticity may be a critical mechanism allowing populations to rapidly acclimate when faced with novel anthropogenic stressors. Theory predicts that if exposure to anthropogenic stress is heterogeneous, plasticity should be maintained as it allows organisms to avoid unnecessary expression of costly traits (i.e., phenotypic costs) when stressors are absent. Conversely, if exposure to stressors becomes constant, costs or limits of plasticity may lead to evolutionary trait canalization (i.e., genetic assimilation). While these concepts are well-established in theory, few studies have examined whether these factors explain patterns of plasticity in natural populations facing anthropogenic stress. Using wild populations of wood frogs that vary in plasticity in tolerance to pesticides, the goal of this study was to evaluate the environmental conditions under which plasticity is expected to be advantageous or detrimental. We found that when pesticides were absent, more plastic populations exhibited lower pesticide tolerance and were more fit than less plastic populations, likely avoiding the cost of expressing high tolerance when it was not necessary. Contrary to our predictions, when pesticides were present, more plastic populations were as fit as less plastic populations, showing no signs of costs or limits of plasticity. Amidst unprecedented global change, understanding the factors shaping the evolution of plasticity will become increasingly important.

A model for the interplay between plastic tradeoffs and evolution in changing environments

Performance tradeoffs are ubiquitous in both ecological and evolutionary modeling, yet they are usually postulated and built into fitness and ecological landscapes. However, tradeoffs depend on genetic background and evolutionary history and can themselves evolve. We present a simple model capable of capturing the key feedback loop: evolutionary history shapes tradeoff strength, which, in turn, shapes evolutionary future. One consequence of this feedback is that genomes with identical fitness can have different evolutionary properties shaped by prior environmental exposure. Another is that, generically, the best adaptations to one environment may evolve in another. Our simple framework bridges the gap between the phenotypic Fisher's Geometric Model and the genotypic properties, such as modularity and evolvability, and can serve as a rich playground for investigating evolution in multiple or changing environments.

What are the costs of learning? Modest trade-offs and constitutive costs do not set the price of fast associative learning ability in a parasitoid wasp

Learning ability has been associated with energetic costs that typically become apparent through trade-offs in a wide range of developmental, physiological, and life-history traits. Costs associated with learning ability can be either constitutive or induced, depending on whether they are always incurred or only when information is actively learned and memorized. Using lines of the parasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripennis that were selected for fast associative learning ability, we assessed a range of traits that have previously been identified as potential costs associated with learning. No difference in longevity, lipid reserves, tibia length, egg load, or fecundity was observed between the selected and control lines. All of these traits are considered to potentially lead to constitutive costs in the setup of this study. A gradual reversal to baseline learning after two forms of relaxed selection was indicative of a small constitutive cost of learning ability. We also tested for a trade-off with other memory types formed at later stages, but found no evidence that the mid-term memory that was selected for caused a decrease in performance of other memory types. In conclusion, we observe only one minor effect of a constitutive cost and none of the other costs and trade-offs that are reported in the literature to be of significant value in this case. We, therefore, argue for better inclusion of ecological and economic costs in studies on costs and benefits of learning ability.

Genomics of Developmental Plasticity in Animals

Developmental plasticity refers to the property by which the same genotype produces distinct phenotypes depending on the environmental conditions under which development takes place. By allowing organisms to produce phenotypes adjusted to the conditions that adults will experience, developmental plasticity can provide the means to cope with environmental heterogeneity. Developmental plasticity can be adaptive and its evolution can be shaped by natural selection. It has also been suggested that developmental plasticity can facilitate adaptation and promote diversification. Here, we summarize current knowledge on the evolution of plasticity and on the impact of plasticity on adaptive evolution, and we identify recent advances and important open questions about the genomics of developmental plasticity in animals. We give special attention to studies using transcriptomics to identify genes whose expression changes across developmental environments and studies using genetic mapping to identify loci that contribute to variation in plasticity and can fuel its evolution.

Adaptive phenotypic plasticity for life-history and less fitness-related traits

Organisms are faced with variable environments and one of the most common solutions to cope with such variability is phenotypic plasticity, a modification of the phenotype to the environment. These modifications are commonly modelled in evolutionary theories as adaptive, influencing ecological and evolutionary processes. If plasticity is adaptive, we would predict that the closer to fitness a trait is, the less plastic it would be. To test this hypothesis, we conducted a meta-analysis of 213 studies and measured the plasticity of each reported trait as a coefficient of variation. Traits were categorized as closer to fitness-life-history traits including reproduction and survival related traits, and farther from fitness-non-life-history traits including traits related to development, metabolism and physiology, morphology and behaviour. Our results showed, unexpectedly, that although traits differed in their amounts of plasticity, trait plasticity was not related to its proximity to fitness. These findings were independent of taxonomic groups or environmental types assessed. We caution against general expectations that plasticity is adaptive, as assumed by many models of its evolution. More studies are needed that test the adaptive nature of plasticity, and additional theoretical explorations on adaptive and non-adaptive plasticity are encouraged.

Strategies of Phytophthora infestans adaptation to local UV radiation conditions

Expected global changes in environmental conditions underline the need for a better understanding of genetic variation in ecological traits and their strategies of adaptation to the stresses. In this study, evolutionary mechanisms and processes of UV adaptation in plant pathogens were investigated by combining statistical genetics, physiological assays, and common garden experiment approaches in an assessment of the potato late blight pathogen, Phytophthora infestans, sampled from various geographic locations in China. We found spatial divergence caused by diversifying selection in UV tolerance among P. infestans populations. Local UV radiation was the driving force of selection as indicated by a positive correlation between UV tolerance in P. infestans populations and the altitude of collection sites. Plasticity accounted for 68% of population variation while heritability was negligible, suggesting temporary changes in gene expression and/or enzymatic activity play a more important role than permanent modification of gene structure in the evolution of UV adaptation. This adaptation strategy may explain the lack of fitness penalty observed in genotypes with higher UV tolerance.

Bacterial spores, from ecology to biotechnology

The production of a highly specialized cell structure called a spore is a remarkable example of a survival strategy displayed by bacteria in response to challenging environmental conditions. The detailed analysis and description of the process of sporulation in selected model organisms have generated a solid background to understand the cellular processes leading to the formation of this specialized cell. However, much less is known regarding the ecology of spore-formers. This research gap needs to be filled as the feature of resistance has important implications not only on the survival of spore-formers and their ecology, but also on the use of spores for environmental prospection and biotechnological applications.

Genetic basis of thermal plasticity variation in Drosophila melanogaster body size

Body size is a quantitative trait that is closely associated to fitness and under the control of both genetic and environmental factors. While developmental plasticity for this and other traits is heritable and under selection, little is known about the genetic basis for variation in plasticity that can provide the raw material for its evolution. We quantified genetic variation for body size plasticity in Drosophila melanogaster by measuring thorax and abdomen length of females reared at two temperatures from a panel representing naturally segregating alleles, the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel (DGRP). We found variation between genotypes for the levels and direction of thermal plasticity in size of both body parts. We then used a Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) approach to unravel the genetic basis of inter-genotype variation in body size plasticity, and used different approaches to validate selected QTLs and to explore potential pleiotropic effects. We found mostly “private QTLs”, with little overlap between the candidate loci underlying variation in plasticity for thorax versus abdomen size, for different properties of the plastic response, and for size versus size plasticity. We also found that the putative functions of plasticity QTLs were diverse and that alleles for higher plasticity were found at lower frequencies in the target population. Importantly, a number of our plasticity QTLs have been targets of selection in other populations. Our data sheds light onto the genetic basis of inter-genotype variation in size plasticity that is necessary for its evolution.

Environmental conditions can influence development and lead to the production of phenotypes adjusted to the conditions adults will live in. This developmental plasticity, which can help organisms cope with environmental heterogeneity, is heritable and under selection. Its evolution will depend on available genetic variation. Using a panel of D. melanogaster flies representing naturally segregating alleles, we identified DNA sequence variants associated to variation in thermal plasticity for body size. We found that these variants correspond to a diverse set of functions and that their effects differ between body parts and properties of the thermal response. Our results shed new light onto the long discussed genes for plasticity.

The genetics of phenotypic plasticity. XVI. Interactions among traits and the flow of information

Although the environment varies, adaptive trait plasticity is uncommon, which can be due to either costs or limitations. Currently there is little evidence for costs of plasticity; limitations are a more promising explanation, including information reliability. A possible cause for a decrease in information reliability is the channeling of environmental information through one trait that then affects the phenotype of a second trait, the information path. Using an individual-based simulation model, I explored the ways in which configurations of trait interactions and patterns of environmental variation in space and time affect the evolution of phenotypic plasticity. I found that genotypes and phenotypes evolved to shorten and simplify the information path from the environment to fitness. A shortened path was characterized by a decrease in the amount of plasticity for traits that had a less direct connection between the environment of development and fitness. A simplified path was characterized by a decrease in the amount of plasticity for traits that had multiple paths between the environment and their phenotype. These results suggest that an eighth proposition be added to the theory of the evolution of phenotypic plasticity: Trait plasticity will evolve to minimize the information path between the environment and fitness.

Determining the evolutionary forces shaping G × E

Contents Summary 31 I. Introduction 31 II. The maintenance of genetic variation for plasticity 32 III. Why is there environmental variation for genetic effects? 33 IV. Conclusions 35 Acknowledgements 35 References 35 SUMMARY: Phenotypic plasticity is common in nature, yet we lack a comprehensive understanding of the evolutionary forces that shape genetic variation for plasticity. This endeavor is especially important because variation for plasticity will result in genotype-by-environment interactions (G × E), a crucial component of variation in quantitative traits. Here, I review our understanding of the evolutionary forces shaping G × E, focusing specifically on: what evolutionary forces maintain variation for plasticity; and what forces maintain different genetic architectures across environments. My specific goal is to show that genomic data can be leveraged to explain the maintenance of G × E by contrasting patterns of genetic variation for plasticity with neutral expectations.

Phylogenetic patterns of trait and trait plasticity evolution: Insights from amphibian embryos

Environmental variation favors the evolution of phenotypic plasticity. For many species, we understand the costs and benefits of different phenotypes, but we lack a broad understanding of how plastic traits evolve across large clades. Using identical experiments conducted across North America, we examined prey responses to predator cues. We quantified five life-history traits and the magnitude of their plasticity for 23 amphibian species/populations (spanning three families and five genera) when exposed to no cues, crushed-egg cues, and predatory crayfish cues. Embryonic responses varied considerably among species and phylogenetic signal was common among the traits, whereas phylogenetic signal was rare for trait plasticities. Among trait-evolution models, the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck (OU) model provided the best fit or was essentially tied with Brownian motion. Using the best fitting model, evolutionary rates for plasticities were higher than traits for three life-history traits and lower for two. These data suggest that the evolution of life-history traits in amphibian embryos is more constrained by a species' position in the phylogeny than is the evolution of life history plasticities. The fact that an OU model of trait evolution was often a good fit to patterns of trait variation may indicate adaptive optima for traits and their plasticities.

Adult plasticity in African cichlids: Rapid changes in opsin expression in response to environmental light differences

Phenotypic plasticity allows organisms to adapt quickly to local environmental conditions and could facilitate adaptive radiations. Cichlids have recently undergone an adaptive radiation in Lake Malawi where they inhabit diverse light environments and tune their visual sensitivity through differences in cone opsin expression. While cichlid opsin expression is known to be plastic over development, whether adults remain plastic is unknown. Adult plasticity in visual tuning could play a role in cichlid radiations by enabling survival in changing environments and facilitating invasion into novel environments. Here we examine the existence of and temporal changes in adult visual plasticity of two closely related species. In complementary experiments, wild adult Metriaclima mbenji from Lake Malawi were moved to the lab under UV-deficient fluorescent lighting; while lab raised M. benetos were placed under UV-rich lighting designed to mimic light conditions in the wild. Surprisingly, adult cichlids in both experiments showed significant changes in the expression of the UV-sensitive single cone opsin, SWS1, in only 3 days. Modeling quantum catches in the light environments revealed a possible link between the light available to the SWS1 visual pigment and SWS1 expression. We conclude that adult cichlids can undergo rapid and significant changes in opsin expression in response to environmental light shifts that are relevant to their habitat and evolutionary history in Lake Malawi. This could have contributed to the rapid divergence characteristic of these fantastic fishes.

Amphibious fishes: evolution and phenotypic plasticity

Amphibious fishes spend part of their life in terrestrial habitats. The ability to tolerate life on land has evolved independently many times, with more than 200 extant species of amphibious fishes spanning 17 orders now reported. Many adaptations for life out of water have been described in the literature, and adaptive phenotypic plasticity may play an equally important role in promoting favourable matches between the terrestrial habitat and behavioural, physiological, biochemical and morphological characteristics. Amphibious fishes living at the interface of two very different environments must respond to issues relating to buoyancy/gravity, hydration/desiccation, low/high O2 availability, low/high CO2 accumulation and high/low NH3 solubility each time they traverse the air-water interface. Here, we review the literature for examples of plastic traits associated with the response to each of these challenges. Because there is evidence that phenotypic plasticity can facilitate the evolution of fixed traits in general, we summarize the types of investigations needed to more fully determine whether plasticity in extant amphibious fishes can provide indications of the strategies used during the evolution of terrestriality in tetrapods.

Transcriptional mechanisms underlying life-history responses to climate change in the three-spined stickleback

Phenotypic plasticity, the ability of an organism to express different phenotypes depending on the environment, provides an important mechanism by which an animal population can persist under rapid climate change. We experimentally tested both life‐history and transcriptional responses of an ecological model species, the three‐spined stickleback, to warm acclimation at the southern edge of its European range. We explored cross‐environment genetic correlations of key life‐history traits in male sticklebacks exposed to long‐term temperature changes to examine whether the plasticity pattern was variable among genotypes by using a character‐state approach. We also studied gene expression plasticity by analysing both whole‐transcriptome and candidate gene expression in brain and liver. Male sticklebacks that developed under warmer conditions during winter were smaller in size and invested less in nuptial coloration at the beginning of the breeding season, showing similar responses across different genotypes. The lack of genetic variation in life‐history responses may limit any future evolution of the thermal reaction norm in the study population. After long‐term exposure to increased winter temperatures, genes responsible for several metabolic and oxidation–reduction processes were upregulated, and some hormone genes involved in growth and reproduction were downregulated in the brain. In the liver, there was no significantly represented gene ontology by the differentially expressed genes. Since a higher temperature leads to a higher resting metabolic rate, living in warmer environments may incur higher energetic costs for ectotherms to maintain cellular homoeostasis, resulting in negative consequences for life‐history traits. The expression of genes related to metabolism, cellular homoeostasis and regulatory signalling may underlie temperature‐induced changes in life history.

Environmental heterogeneity does not affect levels of phenotypic plasticity in natural populations of three Drosophila species

Adaptation of natural populations to variable environmental conditions may occur by changes in trait means and/or in the levels of plasticity. Theory predicts that environmental heterogeneity favors plasticity of adaptive traits. Here we investigated the performance in several traits of three sympatric Drosophila species freshly collected in two environments that differ in the heterogeneity of environmental conditions. Differences in trait means within species were found in several traits, indicating that populations differed in their evolutionary response to the environmental conditions of their origin. Different species showed distinct adaptation with a very different role of plasticity across species for coping with environmental changes. However, geographically distinct populations of the same species generally displayed the same levels of plasticity as induced by fluctuating thermal regimes. This indicates a weak and trait‐specific effect of environmental heterogeneity on plasticity. Furthermore, similar levels of plasticity were found in a laboratory‐adapted population of Drosophila melanogaster with a common geographic origin but adapted to the laboratory conditions for more than 100 generations. Thus, this study does not confirm theoretical predictions on the degree of adaptive plasticity among populations in relation to environmental heterogeneity but shows a very distinct role of species‐specific plasticity.