Estimating the cost of informal caregiving for elderly patients with cancer

Caregiving Intensity, Duration, and Subjective Financial Well-Being Among Rural Informal Caregivers of Older Adults with Chronic Illnesses or Disabilities

INTRODUCTION

Rural informal caregivers (IC) experience major financial and economic constraints in caring for their older family members. Rurality combined with increased caregiving demands and intensity, poor economic opportunities, and limited financial resources and policies create multiple financial stressors and can lead to poor financial well-being. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to understand how caregiving demands, intensity, and duration impact the subjective financial well-being of rural caregivers of older adults.

METHODS

Informal caregivers (N = 196) residing in 12 rural counties in the central North Region of the Midwestern US participated in the survey. Ordinary Least Squares and Linear Probability Model regressions were conducted to measure the association among the study variables.

RESULTS

Our findings showed a moderate level of subjective financial well-being among informal caregivers (average = 51.62; SD 14.52). Caregiving intensity negatively affected financial well-being (β = -1.470, p < 0.05). More than half of informal caregivers (58%) were not satisfied with their household income, and 30% found it difficult to meet their family's needs with their current income status.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Longer hours of care are associated with financial burden and insecurity and can significantly influence the financial health and well-being of rural informal caregivers of older adults. Older caregivers were found to manage their financial constraints more effectively. Future comparative and longitudinal studies with a more diverse sample are required to infer long-term interactions among the different variables in this study.

Suicide Attempt and Suicide Death Among Spouses of Patients With Cancer

Importance

Little is known about the risk of suicidal behavior in relation to having a spouse with a cancer diagnosis.

Objective

To estimate the risk of suicide attempt and suicide death among spouses of patients with cancer.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This nationwide cohort study in Denmark collected registry-based data from 1986 through 2016. Analyses were performed from August 8, 2022, to October 30, 2023. Individuals who had a spouse with a cancer diagnosed during 1986 to 2015 were compared with individuals whose spouse did not have a cancer diagnosis during the same period, randomly selected from the general population and matched by birth year and sex.

Exposure

Having a spouse with a cancer diagnosis.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Suicide attempt was identified through the Danish National Patient Register and the Danish Psychiatric Central Research Register, whereas suicide death was identified through the Danish Causes of Death Register, through 2016. Flexible parametric and Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs for suicide attempt and suicide death among spouses of patients with a cancer diagnosis.

Results

The study included 409 338 exposed individuals and 2 046 682 unexposed individuals (median [IQR] age at cohort entry for both groups, 63 [54-70] years; 55.4% women). During the follow-up, 2714 incident cases of suicide attempt among exposed individuals (incidence rate [IR], 62.6 per 100 000 person-years) and 9994 among unexposed individuals (IR, 50.5 per 100 000 person-years) were identified, as well as 711 cases of suicide death among the exposed individuals (IR, 16.3 per 100 000 person-years) and 2270 among the unexposed individuals (IR, 11.4 per 100 000 person-years). An increased risk of suicide attempt (HR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.23-1.34) and suicide death (HR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.35-1.60) was observed among spouses of patients with cancer throughout the follow-up. The increased risk was particularly notable during the first year after the cancer diagnosis, with an HR of 1.45 (95% CI, 1.27-1.66) for suicide attempt and 2.56 (95% CI, 2.03-3.22) for suicide death. There was a greater risk increase for both suicide attempt and suicide death when the cancer was diagnosed at an advanced stage or when the spouse died after the cancer diagnosis.

Conclusions and Relevance

These findings suggest a need for clinical and societal awareness to prevent suicidal behaviors among spouses of patients with cancer, particularly during the first year following the cancer diagnosis.

Caregiving Strain, family functioning, and effort to change diet for patients with gastrointestinal cancer: A cross-sectional descriptive study

PURPOSE

Among patients with cancer, it has been found that the family system influences health-related behaviors and may promote a healthy diet. This study assessed the associations among cancer patients between family caregiver strain, family functioning, and efforts to change diet.

METHODS

This cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted in gastrointestinal outpatient units at two tertiary university hospitals in South Korea. This study included 401 main family caregivers of patients with gastrointestinal cancer. The caregivers were evaluated using structured, face-to-face questionnaires measuring family strain, family functioning, and effort to change diet.

RESULTS

Greater effort to change diet was associated with higher family functioning, having a spouse, and more caregiving time per week. Less effort to change diet was associated with greater levels of caregiving strain and with a son providing caregiving.

CONCLUSION

The efforts of family caregivers to alter diet are influenced by family strain and family functioning, as well as family caregivers' characteristics, such as marital status, health problems due to caregiving, care time and duration, and relationship with the patient. This study suggested that reducing family strain and improving family functioning in clinical settings facilitate the success to change dietary strategies for cancer families.

Cost-effectiveness of Choosing Wisely guidelines for axillary observation in women older than age 70 years with hormone receptor-positive, clinically node-negative, operable breast tumors

BACKGROUND

The Society for Surgical Oncology's Choosing Wisely guidelines recommend against sentinel lymph node biopsy (SLNB) in favor of observation in this population. Recent analyses reveal that this has not been widely adopted. The purpose of this cost-effectiveness analysis is to compare the costs and benefits associated with observation or SLNB in women >70 years old with hormone receptor-positive, clinically node-negative, operable breast cancer.

METHODS

A decision tree with Markov modeling was created to compare treatment strategies using long-term follow-up data from clinical trials in this population. Costs were estimated from published literature and publicly available databases. Breast cancer-specific health-state utilities were derived from the literature and expert opinion. One-way, 2-way, and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were conducted. A structural sensitivity analysis was performed to assess the effect of functional status and anxiety from nonevaluation of the axilla on cost-effectiveness. Costs and benefits, measured in life-years (LYs) and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), were tabulated across 10, 15, and 20 years and compared using incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs).

RESULTS

SLNB is not cost-effective from the payer or societal perspectives with ICERs of $138,374/LY and $131,900/LY, respectively. When QALYs were considered, SLNB provided fewer QALYs (SLNB, 10.33 QALYs; observation, 10.53 QALYs) at a higher cost (SLNB, $15,845; observation, $4020). Structural sensitivity analysis revealed that SLNB was cost-effective in certain patients with significant anxiety related to axillary observation (ICER, $39,417/QALY).

CONCLUSIONS

Routine SLNB in this population is not cost-effective. The cost-effectiveness of SLNB, however, is dependent on individual patient factors, including functional status as well as patient preference.

A review of caregiver costs included in cost-of-illness studies

INTRODUCTION

Economic evaluations typically focus solely on patient-specific costs with economic spillovers to informal caregivers less frequently evaluated. This may systematically underestimate the burden resulting from disease.

AREAS COVERED

Cost-of-illness (COI) analyses that identified costs borne to caregiver(s) were identified using PubMed and Embase. We extracted study characteristics, clinical condition, costs, and cost methods. To compare caregiver costs reported across studies, estimated a single 'annual caregiver cost' amount in 2021 USD.

EXPERT OPINION

A total of 51 studies met our search criteria for inclusion with estimates ranging from $30 - $86,543. The majority (63%, 32/51) of studies estimated caregiver time costs with fewer studies reporting productivity or other types of costs. Caregiver costs were frequently reported descriptively (69%, 35/51), with fewer studies reporting more rigorous methods of estimating costs. Only 27% (14/51) of studies included used an incremental analysis approach for caregiver costs. In a subgroup analysis of dementia-focused studies (n = 16), we found the average annual cost of caregiving time for patients with dementia was $30,562, ranging from $4,914 to $86,543. We identified a wide range in annual caregiver cost estimates, even when limiting by condition and cost type.

A national profile of health-focused caregiving activities prior to a new cancer diagnosis

BACKGROUND

Little is known about how unpaid family caregivers may already be engaged in caregiving activities prior to their care recipient's cancer diagnosis. We examined pre-cancer diagnosis caregiving patterns and their association with caregiving strain.

METHODS

We conducted a population-based analysis of 2011-2017 National Health and Aging Trends Study (NHATS) linked with the National Study of Caregiving (NSOC) and Medicare claims data. Latent class analysis was used to examine patterns of 16 health-focused caregiving tasks (e.g., tracking medications, making appointments) of family caregivers assisting adults ≥65 years prior to an incident cancer diagnosis. High caregiving strain was defined as a total score ≥ 85th percentile of 6 caregiving strain items (e.g., financial difficulty, no time for self). Association between caregiving patterns and strain were examined using multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for care recipient and caregiver characteristics.

RESULTS

An estimated 4.2 million caregivers cared for older adults prior to care recipients' new cancer diagnoses during 2011-2017. They engaged in a median of four health-focused caregiving activities. Nearly 1-in-5 (18.7%) pre-cancer caregivers had high caregiving strain. Caregivers were classified into 3 health-focused caregiving activity classes: Low-level (41.2%), Moderate-coordination (29.3%), and High-intensity (29.4%). Higher caregiving activity was associated with higher caregiving strain (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 3.85, 95% CI: 2.34-6.33). Caregivers in the High-intensity class had the highest caregiving strain (39.9%), and included more spouses (28.1% vs <18%).

CONCLUSION

One-third of U.S. caregivers who help older adults prior to their cancer diagnoses are already highly strained and engaged in high-level health-focused caregiving tasks. Oncology clinicians should assess the capacity and strain of family caregivers who may already be supporting patients with new cancer diagnoses and refer caregivers to additional supportive care services.

Sociodemographic and health factors associated with the risk of financial catastrophe when informal care for patients with haematological neoplasms is replaced by formal care

BACKGROUND

Cancer is one of the diseases with the highest incidence and mortality in the world, and one that requires greater care (formal and informal). At present, the traditional informal caregiver is disappearing. The objective is to analyse the sociodemographic and health factors associated with the possible catastrophic financial effect on households of replacing informal care by formal care for patients with blood cancer, during the different stages of treatment in Spain.

METHODS

A total of 139 patients with haematological neoplasm who underwent stem cell transplantation completed a longitudinal questionnaire during each of three treatment phases. Of this population, 88.49% received informal care. The households were classified into those where the replacement of informal care with formal care would impose a financial burden exceeding 40% of equivalent household income, versus those who would not suffer this consequence. Three logistic regression models (one for each treatment phase) were estimated and the corresponding marginal effects determined.

RESULTS

The factors associated with a higher probability of financial catastrophe were married marital status, low education level, fair to very poor self-perceived health status, the diagnosis of leukaemia in the pre-transplant and first-year post-transplant phases and of multiple myeloma disease in the final post-transplant phase.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings reveal the need to design social policies to meet the care needs of patients with blood cancer which at present are covered by informal care. Given the foreseeable elimination of this option, these families must be protected from the financial burden incurred from the use of privately-contracted assistance.

Do clinical trials affect anxiety, depression, and quality of life in the caregivers of patients with cancer?

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effect of clinical trials on anxiety, depression, and the quality of life experienced by the family caregivers (FCs) of cancer patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We screened the FCs of patients who were participating in clinical trials and FCs of patients who were not participating in clinical trials [group FCs-GCP (FG) and group FCs-non-GCP (FNG) at Cancer Center of West China Hospital]. We assessed the anxiety, depression, and quality of life of the FCs using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and SF-12. The demographic characteristics of FCs and patients were analyzed.

RESULTS

The prevalences of anxiety and depression showed no significant difference between FG and FNG (46.3 vs. 51.5%, P = 0.604; 36.6 vs. 51.5%, P = 0.131, respectively). Physical Component Scores (PCS) were 48.87 ± 7.67 for FG and 48.01 ± 8.12 for FNG (P = 0.618) while Mental Component Scores (MCS) were 48.92 ± 7.78 and 44.89 ± 11.42, respectively (P = 0.031). The anxiety of FCs was positively associated with patients' advanced disease (HR 4.292 [1.409, 13.072], P = 0.010) and initial treatment (HR 3.105 [1.014, 9.515], P = 0.047). Depression was positively related to advanced disease (HR 3.347 [1.140, 9.832], P = 0.028), and negatively related to patients participating in clinical trials (HR 0.421 [0.180, 0.985], P = 0.046) and the education degree of FCs (HR 0.355 [0.149, 0.843], P = 0.019). MCS was positively associated with patients participating in clinical trials (β = 5.067, 95% CI [0.817, 9.317], P = 0.020) and negatively associated with advanced disease (β = -8.055, 95% CI [-19.804, 6.528], P = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

The FCs of the cancer patients who participated in clinical trials showed a comparable worrying situation of anxiety and depression to the FCs of regular cancer patients. This indicates that more concern and attention should be given to this population, and further study on them is warranted.

Costs of inpatient hospitalisations in the last year of life in older New Zealanders: a cohort study

BACKGROUND

Rapidly ageing populations means that many people now die in advanced age. This paper investigated public hospital and long-term care home costs in the 12 months before death in Māori and non-Māori of advanced age in New Zealand.

METHODS

Data from an existing longitudinal study (LiLACS NZ) was used, in which 937 older New Zealanders were enrolled in 2010. At the time of this study, 213 Māori and 241 non-Māori in the cohort had died. National Health Index numbers were linked to the hospitalisation National Minimum Dataset to ascertain public hospitalisation and care home costs in the last year of life.

RESULTS

The average total publicly funded hospital and long-term care home costs in the 12 months prior to death were $16,211 and $17,351 for Māori and non-Māori respectively. Non-Māori tended to have long lengths of stay in their last year of life, and non-Māori men had the highest proportion with high costs and long lengths of stay in care homes. Costs in the last year of life were 8.1 times higher in comparison to costs for individuals who did not die in the same time period.

CONCLUSION

Despite New Zealand's commitment to providing an equitable level of healthcare, this study illustrated that ethnic and gender disparities are still apparent at the end of life. This raises questions as to whether money at the end of life is being spent appropriately, and how it could potentially be more equitably targeted to meet the diverse needs of older people and their families.

Correlates of financial toxicity in adult cancer patients and their informal caregivers

BACKGROUND

Financial toxicity is commonly reported by cancer patients, but few studies have assessed caregiver perceptions. We aimed to validate the modified Comprehensive Score for Financial Toxicity (COST) in cancer caregivers, identify factors associated with financial toxicity in both patients and caregivers, and assess the association of caregiver financial toxicity with patient and caregiver outcomes.

METHODS

Using a convenience sampling method, 100 dyads of adult cancer patients and a primary caregiver visiting outpatient oncology clinics (Jan-Sep 2019) were recruited. We assessed the internal consistency and convergent and divergent validity of the modified COST. Multivariable analyses identified correlates of financial toxicity. Association of financial toxicity with care non-adherence, lifestyle-altering behaviors (e.g., home refinance/sale, retirement/saving account withdrawal), and quality of life (QOL) was investigated.

RESULTS

Recruited patient vs. caregiver characteristics were as follows: mean age: 60.6 vs. 56.5; 34% vs. 46.4% female; 79% vs. 81.4% white. The caregiver COST measure demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach α = 0.91). In patients, older age (B, 0.3 [95% CI, 0.1-0.4]) and higher annual household income (B, 14.3 [95% CI, 9.3-19.4]) correlated with lower financial toxicity (P < 0.05). In caregivers, lower patient financial toxicity (B, 0.4 [95% CI, 0.2-0.6]) and cancer stages 1-3 (compared to stage 4) (B, 4.6 [95% CI, 0.4-8.8]) correlated with lower financial toxicity (P < 0.05). Increased caregiver financial toxicity correlated with higher care non-adherence in patients, increased lifestyle-altering behaviors, and lower QOL in patients and caregivers (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The COST measure can also be used to assess caregiver financial toxicity. Caregivers' financial toxicity was associated with negative outcomes for both dyad members.

The determinants of caregiver use and its costs for elderly inpatients in Korea: a study applying Andersen's behavioral model of health care utilization and replacement cost method

Objectives

The average annual healthcare expenditure among elderly patients in Korea is increasing rapidly in indirect healthcare sectors, requiring an understanding of factors related to the use of both formal and informal caregivers. This study analyzed the characteristics of caregiver use and caregiving costs among elderly patients hospitalized due to acute illness or exacerbation of chronic diseases.

Methods

A total of 819 study participants were selected from the 2017 Korea Health Panel Study Data. Replacement costing methods were applied to estimate the hours of informal caregiver assistance received by elderly inpatients. Elderly inpatients’ predisposing, enabling, and need factors were studied to identify the relationship between caregiver uses, based on Andersen’s behavior model. A two-part model was applied to analyze the factors related to care receipt and to estimate the incremental costs of care.

Results

Elderly inpatients who used tertiary hospitals (OR: 2.77, p-value < 0.00) and received financial support (OR: 2.68, p-value < 0.00) were more likely to receive support from a caregiver. However, elderly inpatients living alone were lesser to do so (OR: 0.49, p-value < 0.00). Elderly inpatients with Medicaid insurance (β:0.54, p-value = 0.02) or financial aid (β: 0.64, p-value < 0.00) had a statistically positive association with spending more on caregiving costs. Additionally, financial support receivers had incremental costs of $627 in caregiving costs than nonreceivers.

Conclusions

This study presented significant socioenvironmental characteristics of formal and informal caregiver use and the related expenditures. Healthcare management plans that encompass multiple social levels should be implemented to ease the caregiver burden.

Trial registration

Retrospectively registered.

Dynamic association between perceived conflict and communication behavior in intimate relationships: The moderating effect of traumatic experience

Many individuals may face traumatic events throughout their lives. For intimate relationship partners, early traumatic experiences can have a specific effect on their interpersonal communication. This study examined the moderating effect of traumatic experiences at early ages between perceived conflict and communication behavior among individuals in an intimate relationship. A total of 186 college students in intimate relationships reported their perceived conflict and communication behaviors with their partners three times a day for 14 days using ambulatory assessment. Findings from the multilevel model showed that a higher level of perceived conflict significantly positively associated with negative communication and negatively correlated with positive communication at the within-person level. Traumatic experiences at the between-person level moderated the within-person level associations between the dynamic perceived conflict and negative and positive communication behavior. However, the moderating effect of traumatic experiences on the association between perceived conflict and positive communication was contrary to the hypothesis. Daily perceived conflict was associated with daily communication behavior. For those with early traumatic experiences, the relationship between negative communication and conflict was stronger than for those who had not experienced such trauma.

Caregiver burden and related factors during active cancer treatment: A latent growth curve analysis

PURPOSE

Caregiver burden is frequently studied cross-sectionally, but longitudinal studies on family caregiver burden during active cancer treatment are lacking. The goals of this study were to characterize trajectories of caregivers' burden during a 6-month active treatment period, and to examine which predictors are associated with their burden.

METHOD

This study was a secondary analysis of data from a prospective study. A sample of 112 family caregivers of patients receiving cancer treatment were assessed at three time points (the initiation of new treatment regimen, 3-, and 6-month follow-up). Caregivers completed measures: Caregiver Reaction Assessment and Mutuality Scale of the Family Care Inventory. Data were analyzed using latent growth curve modeling.

RESULTS

The two highest burdens were subdomains related to disrupted schedule and financial problems. Models showed a decline in schedule burden over time, yet total burden and other subscales (financial problems, health problems, and lack of family support and self-esteem) remained relatively stable. In multivariate analysis, mutuality, the relationship quality between patients and caregivers was inversely related to burden at baseline. Being a spouse, a sole caregiver and lower income were related to higher burden over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings confirmed significant determinants of caregiver burden over the course of active treatment. It is important for health care providers to be attentive to vulnerable caregivers who are at higher risk of elevated burden over time. Considering the multidimensional nature of caregiver burden, early assessment and tailored support programs may be effective by focusing on patient-caregiver relationships, caregiving roles, and income.

Identifying the Unmet Supportive Care Needs, with Concomitant Influencing Factors, in Family Caregivers of Cancer Patients in China

Objective

The objective of the study is to assess the unmet needs of cancer caregivers and to identify the possible predictors of their supportive care needs in China.

Methods

This multicenter, cross-sectional study enrolled 449 cancer patients' family caregivers' dyads. Patients provided general information and Karnofsky performance status (KPS); caregivers provided general information and completed a survey of Chinese version of the Supportive Care Needs Survey-Partners and Caregivers Scale. The independent samples t-test, one-way analysis of variance, and multiple stepwise regression were used to analyze the factors that influence the needs of caregivers.

Results

A proportion of caregivers who had no needs were 5.6%. A proportion of caregivers with ≥ 5 moderate or high unmet needs and with ≥ 10 moderate or high unmet needs were 77.7% and 63.2%, respectively. Healthcare services and information needs and communication and relationship needs were the most prominent areas of caregivers' unmet needs. The item "Finding out about financial support and government benefits for you and/or the person with cancer" was the highest level of unmet needs at 78.6%. The level of unmet needs was related to the patient's physical function (KPS score), caregiver's educational levels, financial burden of healthcare, as well as the level of burden related to caregiving (working status, caring for others, caregiving experience, and total caregiving time).

Conclusions

The level of unmet needs of family caregivers of cancer patients in China was higher. In clinical practice, more attention should be paid to family caregivers who take care of the patient with poor physical function, those who are highly educated, faced with higher financial burden of healthcare, and are currently working, as well as those who need to take care of others, spend more time caregiving, and have no caregiving experience.

Costs, burden and quality of life associated with informal caregiving for children with Lymphoma attending a tertiary hospital in Ghana

Introduction

Primary family caregivers provide substantial support in the management of lymphoma, potentially affecting their quality of life and increasing household health care costs. Our aim was thus to determine the economic costs and quality of life of primary caregivers of children with lymphoma.

Methods

This cross-sectional study involved primary informal caregivers of children with lymphoma attending the pediatric cancer unit at Komfo Anokye Teaching Hospital. The study adopted a cost-of-illness approach to estimate the direct costs (medical and non- medical) incurred and indirect cost (productive losses) to caregivers over the one-month period preceding the data collection. Zarit Burden Interview was used to determine caregiver burden and EUROHIS-QoL tool was used to determine the quality of life of primary caregivers.

Results

The average cost of managing lymphoma in children was estimated to be US$440.32, 97% of which were direct costs. On average, caregiver burden was 26.3 on the scale of 0 to 48. About 94% of caregivers reported high burden, with more males reporting high burden. Overall, average quality of life among caregivers was 2.20 on the 1 to 5 range. Approximately 85% of respondents reported low quality of life, with females reporting lower quality of life than males.

Discussion

This study shows that lymphoma is associated with substantial cost and increased burden, and affects quality of life of family caregivers. Future studies can explore the impact of social protection interventions (in the form of health insurance) to reduce the household economic burden of managing lymphoma in children.

Employment changes among Chinese family caregivers of long-term cancer survivors

Background

Family caregivers (FCGs) play a key role in the plan of care provision for long-term cancer survivors, yet few studies have been conducted on the impact of long-term caregiving on FCGs and their employment patterns. This study aims to further our understanding of the effect that caregiving role has on FCGs by identifying what cancer-related characteristics influence reduction of employment hours among FCGs in the post-treatment phase in China.

Methods

A total of 1155 cancer survivors participated in this study. Patients reported changes in the employment patterns of their FCGs. Descriptive analysis looked at demographic and cancer-related characteristics of cancer survivors and types of FCGs’ employment changes in both primary- and post-treatment phases. Chi-square test was used to statistically test the association between survivors’ characteristics and changes in FCGs’ hours of labor force work in post-treatment phase. Separate multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine the relationship between cancer-related characteristics of participants and employment reduction patterns among FCGs in post-treatment phase while controlling for demographic factors.

Results

In the primary-treatment phase, 45.6% of all FCGs reduced their working hours and 17.4% stopped working altogether. In the post-treatment phase, 25.2% of FCGs worked fewer hours and 6.6% left the workforce completely. The results show that a higher probability of change in employment hours among FCGs is associated with the following patient characteristics: having comorbidities, receiving chemotherapy treatment, limited ability to perform physical tasks, limited ability to perform mental tasks, and diagnosis of stage II of cancer.

Conclusions

Care for cancer patients in both primary- and post- treatment phases may have substantial impacts on hours of formal employment of Chinese FCGs. Interventions helping FCGs balance caregiving duties with labor force work are warranted.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-020-09922-9.

Palliative Care for Family Caregivers

Family caregivers provide substantial care for patients with advanced cancer, while suffering from hidden morbidity and unmet needs. The objectives of this review were to examine risk factors associated with caregiving for patients with advanced cancer, evaluate the evidence for pertinent interventions, and provide a practical framework for palliative care of caregivers in oncology settings. We reviewed studies examining the association of factors at the level of the caregiver, patient, caregiver-patient relationship, and caregiving itself, with adverse outcomes. In addition, we reviewed randomized controlled trials of interventions targeting the caregiver, the caregiver-patient dyad, or the patient and their family. Risk factors for adverse mental health outcomes included those related to the patient's declining status, symptom distress, and poor prognostic understanding; risk factors for adverse bereavement outcomes included unfavorable circumstances of the patient's death. Among the 16 randomized trials, the most promising results showed improvement of depression resulting from early palliative care interventions; results for quality of life were generally nonsignificant or showed an effect only on some subscales. Caregiving outcomes included burden, appraisal, and competence, among others, and showed mixed findings. Only three trials measured bereavement outcomes, with mostly nonsignificant results. On the basis of existent literature and our clinical experience, we propose the CARES framework to guide care for caregivers in oncology settings: Considering caregivers as part of the unit of care, Assessing the caregiver's situation and needs, Referring to appropriate services and resources, Educating about practical aspects of caregiving, and Supporting caregivers through bereavement. Additional trials are needed that are powered specifically for caregiver outcomes, use measures validated for advanced cancer caregivers, and test real-world interventions.

Effect of caregiving at end of life on grief, quality of life and general health: A prospective, longitudinal, comparative study

BACKGROUND

Determining the effect of caregiving and bereavement remains a challenge. To date, no study has employed a comparison group to investigate caregivers' grief, quality of life and general health in relation to non-caregivers.

AIM

We aimed to determine how caregivers' grief, quality of life and general health changed following death compared to non-caregivers and whether pre-death grief predicted these outcomes.

DESIGN

A prospective, longitudinal study of family caregivers and a comparison group matched for age, gender and postcode was conducted. All participants completed questionnaires at four points - once pre-death and three times post-death (3-4 months, 6-7 months and 9-10 months).

SETTING/PARTICIPANTS

Participants (N = 70) were family caregivers of persons receiving palliative care, mostly for cancer, recruited from three palliative care providers in Western Australia and matched comparisons recruited from advertisements.

RESULTS

There were significant differences between the caregivers' and comparisons' grief, general health and quality of life at pre-death, 3-4 months and 6-7 months post-death, but not at 9-10 months post-death. The rate of progression in these constructs following death was independent from the intensity of pre-death grief. However, caregiver prolonged grief score significantly predicted prolonged grief score at 6-7 and 9-10 months post-death.

CONCLUSION

It took 9-10 months for the caregivers' grief, general health and quality of life to correspond to the comparison group. These findings present an opportunity for palliative care research and practice to consider how best to support the majority of caregivers without grief complications so that their pre- and post-death support needs are realised.

Catastrophic financial effect of replacing informal care with formal care: a study based on haematological neoplasms

Informal care is a substantial source of support for people with cancer. However, various studies have predicted its disappearance in the near future. The aim of this study is to analyse the catastrophic effect resulting from the substitution of informal care with formal care in patients with blood cancer throughout the different stages of treatment. A total of 139 haematological neoplasm patients who underwent stem cell transplantation in Spain, completed a longitudinal questionnaire according to the three phases of treatment between 2012 and 2013. The economic value of informal care was estimated using proxy good, opportunity cost, and contingent valuation methods. Catastrophic health expenditure measures with thresholds ranging from 5 to 100% were used to value the financial burden derived from substitution. A total of 88.5% of patients reported having received informal care. In 85.37%, 80.49%, and 33.33% of households, more than 40% of their monthly income would have to be devoted to the replacement with formal care, with monthly amounts of €2105.22, €1790.86, and €1221.94 added to the 40% in the short, medium, and long-term, respectively (proxy good method, value = 9 €/h). Informal caregivers are a structural support for patients with blood cancer, assuming significant care time and societal costs. The substitution of informal care with formal care would be financially unaffordable by the families of people with blood cancer.

Family Caregivers' Preparations for Death: A Qualitative Analysis

CONTEXT

Many family caregivers are not prepared for the death of their family member or friend. Palliative care services tend to emphasize the patients' preparation for death rather than caregivers' preparation for, or living after, death. Caregivers' perspectives on anticipating and preparing for death are under-researched, despite preparation being associated with better bereavement outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

The objective was to explore family caregivers' preparations for death.

METHODS

A total of 16 family caregivers of people in receipt of palliative care participated in semi-structured, face-to-face interviews. Transcripts were coded and analyzed using grounded theory techniques.

RESULTS

Analysis yielded two overarching themes: Here and Now centered on the caregivers' focus on the multidimensional and all-consuming nature of caregiving for someone who is near death. Negotiating the Here/After described the tension the caregivers faced in vacillating between focusing on the care during the illness trajectory (Here) and worries and plans for the future (After).

CONCLUSION

This exploratory study is the first to focus solely on family caregivers' experiences of preparing for a death. The caregivers described the complexities of trying to prepare while feeling overwhelmed with demands of caregiving throughout an unpredictable illness trajectory. The caregivers in the present study were cognitively prepared, some were behaviorally prepared, but emotional preparedness was challenging. Services should not assume that all family caregivers are well-prepared for the death. Caregivers would likely benefit from the assessment and promotion of their death preparedness.

Projected Costs of Informal Caregiving for Cardiovascular Disease: 2015 to 2035: A Policy Statement From the American Heart Association

Introduction:

In a recent report, the American Heart Association estimated that medical costs and productivity losses of cardiovascular disease (CVD) are expected to grow from $555 billion in 2015 to $1.1 trillion in 2035. Although the burden is significant, the estimate does not include the costs of family, informal, or unpaid caregiving provided to patients with CVD. In this analysis, we estimated projections of costs of informal caregiving attributable to CVD for 2015 to 2035.

Methods:

We used data from the 2014 Health and Retirement Survey to estimate hours of informal caregiving for individuals with CVD by age/sex/race using a zero-inflated binomial model and controlling for sociodemographic factors and health conditions. Costs of informal caregiving were estimated separately for hypertension, coronary heart disease, heart failure, stroke, and other heart disease. We analyzed data from a nationally representative sample of 16 731 noninstitutionalized adults ≥54 years of age. The value of caregiving hours was monetized by the use of home health aide workers’ wages. The per-person costs were multiplied by census population counts to estimate nation-level costs and to be consistent with other American Heart Association analyses of burden of CVD, and the costs were projected from 2015 through 2035, assuming that within each age/sex/racial group, CVD prevalence and caregiving hours remain constant.

Results:

The costs of informal caregiving for patients with CVD were estimated to be $61 billion in 2015 and are projected to increase to $128 billion in 2035. Costs of informal caregiving of patients with stroke constitute more than half of the total costs of CVD informal caregiving ($31 billion in 2015 and $66 billion in 2035). By age, costs are the highest among those 65 to 79 years of age in 2015 but are expected to be surpassed by costs among those ≥80 years of age by 2035. Costs of informal caregiving for patients with CVD represent an additional 11% of medical and productivity costs attributable to CVD.

Conclusions:

The burden of informal caregiving for patients with CVD is significant; accounting for these costs increases total CVD costs to $616 billion in 2015 and $1.2 trillion in 2035. These estimates have important research and policy implications, and they may be used to guide policy development to reduce the burden of CVD on patients and their caregivers.

Beyond using composite measures to analyze the effect of unmet supportive care needs on caregivers' anxiety and depression

OBJECTIVE

Caregiver research has relied on composite measures (eg, count) of unmet supportive care needs to determine relationships with anxiety and depression. Such composite measures assume that all unmet needs have a similar impact on outcomes. The purpose of this study is to identify individual unmet needs most associated with caregivers' anxiety and depression.

METHODS

Two hundred nineteen caregivers completed the 44-item Supportive Care Needs Survey and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (minimal clinically important difference = 1.5) at 6 to 8 months and 1, 2, 3.5, and 5 years following the patients' cancer diagnosis. The list of needs was reduced using partial least square regression, and those with a variance importance in projection >1 were analyzed using Bayesian model averaging.

RESULTS

Across time, 8 items remained in the top 10 based on prevalence and were labelled "core." Three additional ones were labelled "frequent," as they remained in the top 10 from 1 year onwards. Bayesian model averaging identified a maximum of 3 significant unmet needs per time point-all leading to a difference greater than the minimal clinically important difference. For depression, none of the core unmet needs were significant, rather significance was noted for frequent needs and needs that were not prevalent. For anxiety, 3/8 core and 3/3 frequent unmet needs were significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Those unmet needs that are most prevalent are not necessarily the most significant ones, and findings provide an evidence-based framework to guide the development of caregiver interventions. A broader contribution is proposing a different approach to identify significant unmet needs.

Impact of Non-medical Out-of-pocket Expenses on Families of Children With Cerebral Palsy Following Orthopaedic Surgery

PURPOSE

Limited research has been conducted on the non-medical out-of-pocket expenses (NOOPEs) incurred by families of children with chronic health conditions. The study objectives were to: 1) calculate the estimated NOOPEs incurred by families during hospitalization of their child, 2) identify predictors of high NOOPEs, and 3) assess the impact of the child's chronic health condition on the family's finances.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Prospective observational study. Parents were included if their child was 3-20years old, had severe, non-ambulatory cerebral palsy (CP), and scheduled for hip or spine surgery. Parents reported all NOOPEs incurred during their child's hospitalization using the Family Expense Diary. Families completed the subscales of the Impact on Family Scale and the Assessment of Caregivers Experience with Neuromuscular Disease. Descriptive and univariate and multiple hierarchical regression models were used in the analysis.

RESULTS

Fifty two parents participated. The total NOOPEs ranged from $193.00 to $7192.71 (M=$2001.92) per hospitalization representing an average of 4% of the family's annual earned income. Caregiver age (F=8.393, p<0.001), income (F=7.535, p<0.001), and distance traveled to the hospital (F=4.497, p=0.039) were significant predictors of high NOOPEs. The subscale scores indicated that a child's chronic health condition had a significant impact on family finances.

CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Hospitalization is associated with numerous NOOPEs that create additional financial demands for families caring for a child with severe CP. NOOPEs should be addressed when preparing families for their children's planned hospital admissions, especially those families of CSHCN who experience significant financial impacts secondary to their children's care.

Differences in the economic valuation and determining factors of informal care over time: the case of blood cancer

OBJECTIVE

To estimate differences in the economic valuation and sociodemographic and clinical factors associated with informal care between phases of the treatment in the case of blood cancer patients.

METHODS

139 haematological cancer patients who underwent a stem cell transplantation completed a longitudinal questionnaire according to 3 phases of the treatment: short-term (pre-transplant), medium-term (1st year post-transplant) and long-term (2nd-6th year post-transplant). Economic value of informal care was estimated using proxy good and opportunity cost methods. Ordered and binary logistic models were performed to identify factors associated with informal care.

RESULTS

123 patients reported having received informal care. A progressive reduction of the number of hours of care was observed between phases. Monetary value per patient ranged from 1,288 to 3,409; 1,045 to 2,786; and 336 to 854 €/month in the short, medium and long term, respectively. Patients with acute leukaemia and those who received an unrelated allogeneic transplantation were 22% (short-term) and 33.5% (medium-term) more likely to receive more than 8hours/day of care respect to patients diagnosed with lymphoma and autologous transplantation. In the long term, patients with multiple myeloma were more likely to receive more care. Better health status and higher educational level were associated with fewer daily hours of care.

CONCLUSIONS

Informal care varies greatly between stages of the treatment depending on the clinical and sociodemographic factors. Significant caring time and societal costs are associated with such care in blood cancer patients.

Employment implications of informal cancer caregiving

PURPOSE

Previous research describing how informal cancer caregiving impacts employment has been conducted in small samples or a single disease site. This paper provides population-based estimates of the effect of informal cancer caregiving on employment and characterizes employment changes made by caregivers.

METHODS

The samples included cancer survivors with a friend or family caregiver, participating in either the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey Experiences with Cancer Survivorship Survey (ECSS) (n = 458) or the LIVESTRONG 2012 Survey for People Affected by Cancer (SPAC) (n = 4706). Descriptive statistics characterized the sample of survivors and their caregivers' employment changes. Multivariable logistic regression identified predictors of caregivers' extended employment changes, comprising time off and changes to hours, duties, or employment status.

RESULTS

Among survivors with an informal caregiver, 25 % from the ECSS and 29 % from the SPAC reported that their caregivers made extended employment changes. Approximately 8 % of survivors had caregivers who took time off from work lasting ≥2 months. Caregivers who made extended employment changes were more likely to care for survivors: treated with chemotherapy or transplant; closer to diagnosis or end of treatment; who experienced functional limitations; and made work changes due to cancer themselves compared to caregivers who did not make extended employment changes.

CONCLUSIONS

Many informal cancer caregivers make employment changes to provide care during survivors' treatment and recovery.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS

This study describes cancer caregiving in a prevalent sample of cancer survivors, thereby reflecting the experiences of individuals with many different cancer types and places in the cancer treatment trajectory.

Lost Labor Productivity Costs of Prostate Cancer to Patients and Their Spouses: Evidence From US National Survey Data

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study is to estimate lost labor productivity costs of prostate cancer (PC) to patients and their spouses.

METHODS

This study used a nationally representative database from the United States, the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey, to estimate lost productivity costs attributable to PC for patients and their spouses. We used multivariate methods that controlled for sociodemographic factors and comorbid diseases. Sensitivity analyses were used to mitigate the tendency for prevalence rates to be underreported in surveys.

RESULTS

PC patients had an aggregate national annual lost productivity cost of $5.4 billion ($3601 per individual), whereas their spouses had an aggregate annual lost productivity cost of $3.0 billion ($4013 per individual).

CONCLUSIONS

These results enhance our knowledge of lost labor productivity costs of PC morbidity and may inform the management and treatment of PC from an employer's perspective.

"Experience Keeps a Dear School": the Effects of Ethnicity and Caregiving Experience on Hiring a Healthcare Advocate

In the present study, ethnic differences in evaluating the severity and associated needs of medical complications experienced by an elderly man and the likelihood of seeking professional assistance (i.e., hire a healthcare advocate [HCA]) to care for him, and for one's own family or parent should they become ill, as a function of previous caregiving experience, were investigated. The 974 participants were White, Black, Hispanic, or Asian/Pacific Islander. They read a hypothetical vignette about a 75-year-old man, Daryl, who was experiencing health problems. Participants were instructed to imagine that they were James, Daryl's son, and asked to indicate how severe his condition(s) were, how much medical assistance he would require, and how likely they would be to hire an HCA to assist him. They were also asked to report whether they previously had assisted a parent with activities of daily living (Assistance) and whether they would be likely to hire an HCA in the future if 1) a family member or 2) a parent, specifically, became ill. Two, 2 (Assistance) × 4 (Ethnicity) multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) were performed to assess differential responses among individuals of different ethnicities as a function of previous caregiver experience. A priori interaction contrasts were examined to determine whether Black, Hispanic, or Asian/Pacific Islander participants differed on the outcomes from White participants as a function of previous caregiver experience. There were no significant differences between Black or Asian/Pacific Islander and White participants, but Hispanic participants assigned significantly higher severity and need for medical assistance ratings and were significantly more likely to indicate that they would seek assistance from an HCA with respect to the vignette and for their own parents in the future if they had provided caregiving to a parent in the past, whereas White participants were less likely to seek assistance from an HCA if they had provided caregiving in the past to a parent. Although ethnic differences in evaluations of Daryl's condition and in the reported likelihoods of hiring an HCA in various contexts as a function of previous caregiving experience were limited, there are important inter-cultural differences to recognize. It may be important in future research to assess ethnic differences in the expectations and experiences of caregiving.

Improving the quality of survivorship for older adults with cancer

In May 2015, the Cancer and Aging Research Group, in collaboration with the National Cancer Institute and the National Institute on Aging through a U13 grant, convened a conference to identify research priorities to help design and implement intervention studies to improve the quality of life and survivorship of older, frailer adults with cancer. Conference attendees included researchers with multidisciplinary expertise and advocates. It was concluded that future intervention trials for older adults with cancer should: 1) rigorously test interventions to prevent the decline of or improve health status, especially interventions focused on optimizing physical performance, nutritional status, and cognition while undergoing cancer treatment; 2) use standardized care plans based on geriatric assessment findings to guide targeted interventions; and 3) incorporate the principles of geriatrics into survivorship care plans. Also highlighted was the need to integrate the expertise of interdisciplinary team members into geriatric oncology research, improve funding mechanisms to support geriatric oncology research, and disseminate high-impact results to the research and clinical community. In conjunction with the 2 prior U13 meetings, this conference provided the framework for future research to improve the evidence base for the clinical care of older adults with cancer. Cancer 2016;122:2459-68. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

Estimating the cost of caring for people with cancer at the end of life: A modelling study

BACKGROUND

People with advanced cancer require a range of health, social and informal care during the final phases of life. The cost of providing care to this group as they approach the end of their lives is unknown, but represents a significant cost to health and social care systems, charities patients and their families.

AIM

In this study, we estimate the direct and indirect costs for lung, breast, colorectal and prostate cancer patients at the end of life (from the start of strong opioids to death) in England and Wales.

METHODS

We use a modelling-based approach to estimate the costs of care. Data are estimated from the literature and publicly available data sets. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis is used to reflect uncertainty in model estimates.

RESULTS

Total estimated costs for treating people with these four cancers at the end of life are £ 641 million. Breast and prostate cancer patients have the highest expected cost per person at £ 12,663 (95% credible interval (CI): £ 1249-£ 38,712) and £ 14,859 (95% CI: £ 1391-£ 46,424), respectively. Lung cancer has the highest expected total cost (£ 226 m). The value of informal care giving accounts for approximately one-third of all costs.

CONCLUSION

The cost to society of providing care to people at the end of their lives is significant. Much of this cost is borne by informal care givers. The cost to formal care services of replacing this care with paid care giving would be significant and demand for care will increase as the demographic profile of the population ages.

Budget Impact Analysis of Darbepoetin Alfa Every 3 Weeks versus Epoetin Alfa Every Week for Cancer Patients with Anemia due to the Effect of Concomitant Myelosuppressive Chemotherapy

Background: Anemia is a common complication among patients with cancer receiving chemotherapy and can cause significant costs to health plans. Objective: The objective of this study is to estimate the annual budget impact of drug treatment associated with treating cancer patients with anemia due to the effect of concomitant myelosuppressive chemotherapy (i.e., chemotherapy-induced anemia [CIA]) with erythropoiesis stimulating agents (ESAs), either darbepoetin alfa (DA) once every 3 weeks (Q3W) or epoetin alfa (EA) once every week (QW), for a large US health plan in 2014. Methods: Using a patient database from a large US health plan in 2010 (n = 14 811 119), the potential CIA patient population was determined (1842 patients each per DA and EA). A budget impact of ESA treatment on this patient population in 2014 was calculated. The analysis assumed a minimum of 2 additional months of chemotherapy from initiation of the analysis. The 2014 Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) reimbursement rates used were: average sales price +12% of $3.68/mcg (DA) and $11.38/1000 IU (EA), and office-based injection cost of $25.08. Results: The estimated 2014 annual average drug costs per patient with CIA were $5520 (DA) and $5833 (EA). Annual average drug costs for administrations were estimated at $100 (DA) and $301 (EA) for 2014. Per member per year (PMPY) costs for patients with CIA were estimated at $5620 (DA) and $6134 (EA) for 2014. The annual total costs per CIA population (n=1842) were estimated at $10 352 629 (DA) and $11 298 798 (EA) for 2014. Conclusion: DA Q3W has the potential to provide cost savings over EA QW in terms of annual average drug cost per patient with CIA ($313 savings), PMPY costs for patients with CIA ($514 savings), and total cost per CIA population ($946 169 savings).

Economic Impact Among Family Caregivers of Patients With Advanced Ovarian Cancer

OBJECTIVES

The life of a family caregiver changes in many ways when cancer is diagnosed. Changes regard also financial costs. To the authors' knowledge, little work has been done to estimate the costs associated with caregiving for cancer patients. The aim of the present study is to evaluate for the first time in literature the economic changes among family caregivers of advanced ovarian cancer during the first-line treatment in an Italian survey.

METHODS

Between January 2009 and June 2014, the primary family caregivers of patients with advanced ovarian cancer (N = 172) were recruited from to the Division of Gynecologic Oncology of the University Campus Bio-Medico of Rome within 4 weeks of the patient's new diagnosis. Caregivers reported demographic, medical information, and economic cost, such as traveling to and from medical appointments, waiting with patients for appointments, missing work, and attending to patients who are hospitalized.

RESULTS

Between January 2009 and June 2014, 172 primary family caregivers of patients with advanced ovarian cancer were enrolled in the study. The mean age of the study cohort was 54.01 years. They reported 3% of missing workdays. The mean cost for all caregivers was &OV0556;1,888,732 per year. Therefore, the mean cost for each caregiver was &OV0556;10,981 annually.

CONCLUSIONS

This economic analysis of caregiving in patients with advanced ovarian cancer reports the significant burden that cancer treatment places on both families and society. These findings underscore the importance, when appropriate, of including valid estimates of the cost of informal caregiving when evaluating the cost-effectiveness of cancer treatments.

The burden among family caregivers of elderly cancer patients: prospective study in a Moroccan population

Background

In Morocco, families play a major role in caring for elderly cancer patients.

Methods

We conducted a prospective descriptive study, in the National Institute of Oncology in Morocco. The study aimed to include family members who are caregivers for patients aged ≥70 years old.

Findings

After obtaining IRB approval, a total of 150 caregivers responded to the questionnaire. Mean age was 44.7 years. The majority were females (59.3%), living in urban areas (66.7%), and educated (62.7%).Offspring (sons or daughters) represented 56.7, 54% lived with their relatives in the same house. Most of the participants were married and have familial responsibilities. In relatives, anxiety was found in 79.3%, it was related to fear of losing the patient in 57% and resulted in the use of anxiolytics in 10%. Guilt feeling towards patients regarding neglecting their early symptoms was reported in 38%. Depression and anxiety were more frequent among female relatives and among those of urban origin. Obsession of dying from cancer was present in about 30% and fear of contagion was more common among those from rural areas and illiterate. Economic resources were exceeded in 78.7 and 56% have used banking credits, and sale of properties. Work lay-off was recorded in 54%. Relatives participated in treatment making decisions in 86% of patients.

Conclusion

Even there was a great impact on elderly cancerous patients relatives, the benefits of caregiving was observed in 80%. More studies have to be conducted, especially in developing countries where the lack of resources majors the impact on family caregivers.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13104-015-1307-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The implications of out-of-pocket cost of cancer treatment in the USA: a critical appraisal of the literature

Advances in cancer diagnosis and treatment have led to increased societal costs and out-of-pocket patient cost. We reviewed the literature on the impact of out-of-pocket cancer care costs on the patient experience, and described efforts made to address these costs. A critical appraisal of articles published in the USA from 2004 to 2014 was performed. The literature revealed that even insured patients receiving anticancer therapy are vulnerable to financial distress, which can impel patients to borrow money, deplete their savings, or engage in cost-coping strategies including nonadherence to prescribed treatment. Additional research is required to define financial distress risk factors, patient-physician communication of the costs of cancer care, and supportive care models for patients and survivors with substantial financial burdens.

Informal Caregivers of Palliative Oncohematologic Patients

Informal caregivers are crucial members of the teams that care for palliative patients with cancer, including those with oncohematological malignancies. Publications concerning specific aspects of this latter group of carers are limited. This literature review indicates that palliative oncohematologic patients’ caregivers do not differ from those of patients with solid tumors in ethical and related problems. However, there are specific problems for the former group with regard to negotiating the curative system, which are experienced as distressing, often without support from the health system and without offers of the possibility of being referred to palliative teams that they would have valued as very positive. Although this tendency seems to be changing, there is still considerable work to be done to improve the role of these carers.

Costs of colorectal cancer in different states of the disease

OBJECTIVES

This cross-sectional study estimates the resource use and costs among prevalent colorectal cancer (CRC) patients in different states of the disease.

METHODS

Altogether 508 Finnish CRC patients (aged 26-96; colon cancer 56%; female 47%) answered a questionnaire enquiring about informal care, work capacity, and demographic factors. Furthermore, data on direct medical resource use and productivity costs were obtained from registries. Patients were divided into five mutually exclusive groups based on the disease state and the time from diagnosis: primary treatments (the first six months after the diagnosis), rehabilitation, remission, metastatic disease, and palliative care. The costs were calculated for a six-month period. Multivariate modeling was performed to find the cost drivers.

RESULTS

The costs were highest during the primary treatment state and the advanced disease states. The total costs for the cross-sectional six-month period were €22 200 in the primary treatment state, €2106 in the rehabilitation state, €2812 in the remission state, €20 540 in the metastatic state, and €21 146 in the palliative state. Most of the costs were direct medical costs. The informal care cost was highest per patient in the palliative care state, amounting to 33% of the total costs. The productivity costs varied between disease states, constituting 19-40% of the total costs, and were highest in the primary treatment state.

CONCLUSIONS

The first six months after the diagnosis of CRC are resource intensive, but compared with the metastatic disease state, which lasts on average for 2-3 years, the costs are rather modest. Informal care constitutes a remarkable share of the total costs, especially in the palliative state. These results form a basis for the evaluation of the cost effectiveness of new treatments when allocating resources in CRC treatment.

Cost of informal caregiving for patients with heart failure

BACKGROUND

Heart failure is a serious health condition that requires a significant amount of informal care. However, informal caregiving costs associated with heart failure are largely unknown.

METHODS

We used a study sample of noninstitutionalized US respondents aged ≥50 years from the 2010 HRS (n = 19,762). Heart failure cases were defined by using self-reported information. The weekly informal caregiving hours were derived by a sequence of survey questions assessing (1) whether respondents had any difficulties in activities of daily living or instrumental activities of daily living, (2) whether they had caregivers because of reported difficulties, (3) the relationship between the patient and the caregiver, (4) whether caregivers were paid, and (5) how many hours per week each informal caregiver provided help. We used a 2-part econometric model to estimate the informal caregiving hours associated with heart failure. The first part was a logit model to estimate the likelihood of using informal caregiving, and the second was a generalized linear model to estimate the amount of informal caregiving hours used among those who used informal caregiving. Replacement approach was used to estimate informal caregiving cost.

RESULTS

The 943 (3.9%) respondents who self-reported as ever being diagnosed with heart failure used about 1.6 more hours of informal caregiving per week than those who did not have heart failure (P < .001). Informal caregiving hours associated with heart failure were higher among non-Hispanic blacks (3.9 hours/week) than non-Hispanic whites (1.4 hours/week). The estimated annual informal caregiving cost attributable to heart failure was $3 billion in 2010.

CONCLUSION

The cost of informal caregiving was substantial and should be included in estimating the economic burden of heart failure. The results should help public health decision makers in understanding the economic burden of heart failure and in setting public health priorities.

Cost of informal caregiving associated with stroke among the elderly in the United States

OBJECTIVES

We estimated the informal caregiving hours and costs associated with stroke.

METHODS

We selected persons aged 65 years and older in 2006 and who were also included in the 2008 follow-up survey from the Health and Retirement Study. We adapted the case-control study design by using self-reported occurrence of an initial stroke event during 2006 and 2008 to classify persons into the stroke (case) and the nonstroke (control) groups. We compared informal caregiving hours between case and control groups in 2006 (prestroke period for case group) and in 2008 (poststroke period for case group) and estimated incremental informal caregiving hours attributable to stroke by applying a difference-in-differences technique to propensity score-matched populations. We used a replacement approach to estimate the economic value of informal caregiving.

RESULTS

The weekly incremental informal caregiving hours attributable to stroke were 8.5 hours per patient. The economic value of informal caregiving per stroke survivor was $8,211 per year, of which $4,356 (53%) was attributable to stroke. At the national level, the annual economic burden of informal caregiving associated with stroke among elderly was estimated at $14.2 billion in 2008.

CONCLUSIONS

Recent changes in public health and social support policies recognize the economic burden of informal caregiving. Our estimates reinforce the high economic burden of stroke in the United States and provide up-to-date information for policy development and decision-making.

Annual patient time costs associated with medical care among cancer survivors in the United States

BACKGROUND

Although patient time costs are recommended for inclusion in cost-effectiveness analyses, these data are not routinely collected. We used nationally representative data and a medical service-based approach to estimate the annual patient time costs among cancer survivors.

METHODS

We identified adult 6699 cancer survivors and 86,412 individuals without a cancer history ages 18 years or more from 2008-2011 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS). Service use was categorized as hospitalizations, emergency room use, provider visits, ambulatory surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Service time estimates were applied to frequencies for each service category and the US median wage rate in 2011 was used to value time. We evaluated the association between cancer survivorship and service use frequencies and patient time costs with multivariable regression models, stratified by age group (18-64 and 65+ y). Sensitivity analyses evaluated different approaches for valuing time.

RESULTS

Cancer survivors were more likely to have hospitalizations, emergency room visits, ambulatory surgeries, and provider visits in the past year than individuals without a cancer history in adjusted analyses (P<0.05). Annual patient time was higher for cancer survivors than individuals without a cancer history among those aged 18-64 years (30.2 vs. 13.6 h; P<0.001) and 65+ years (55.1 vs. 36.6 h; P<0.001), as were annual patient time costs (18-64 y: $500 vs. $226; P<0.001 and 65+ y: $913 vs. $607; P<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Cancer survivors had greater annual medical service use and patient time costs than individuals without a cancer history. This medical service-based approach for estimating annual time costs can also be applied to other conditions.

Pharmacoeconomics of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor: a critical review

INTRODUCTION

In the USA, neutropenia-related hospitalization is estimated to occur in 34.2 cases per 1,000 chemotherapy-treated patients. The cost of hospitalization is significant with estimates ranging, on average, from $10,000 to $30,000 per neutropenia-related hospitalization. Prophylactic use of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) significantly reduces the risk and duration of neutropenia-related negative events. However, the exact economic benefits of using G-CSF prophylactically are not completely known. The objective of this review is to examine the cost of G-CSF as primary prophylaxis (PP) as well as when used reactively to treat severe neutropenia (SN) or febrile neutropenia (FN).

METHODS

Electronic databases were searched for studies published up to January 2014.

RESULTS

The evidence supporting the cost-effectiveness of PP use of G-CSF is inconsistent. The cost savings of PP use of G-CSF associated with the reduction of neutropenia-related events are offset by the increased costs associated with improved chemotherapy administration. Cost savings due to the reduction in mortality and disease/symptoms and use of dose-dense regimens have not been adequately incorporated into previous cost-effectiveness studies. Available data suggest that using G-CSF in conjunction with antibiotics is more cost-effective than antibiotics alone when treating patients with SN/FN. Recent studies of biosimilars suggest that they are as effective as originator G-CSFs and, given their lower cost, could represent a cost-effective alternative. Finally, studies have not taken into consideration the indirect patient costs of experiencing a neutropenia-related event.

CONCLUSION

G-CSF use is effective in preventing SN/FN. Costs due to hospitalization and other neutropenia-related events are lower in patients treated with G-CSF as PP versus untreated patients. Despite this, many studies have not found solid evidence for the overall cost-effectiveness of PP use of G-CSF. One possibility for this is that patients receiving G-CSF prophylactically often receive more intense chemotherapy regimens, have better relative dose intensity, and fewer dose delays, and thereby have greater costs associated with chemotherapy administration than patients who do not receive G-CSF.

Assessing cancer caregivers' needs for an early targeted psychosocial support project: The experience of the oncology department of the Poliambulanza Foundation

Objective:

Caregivers play a key role in the management of patients with cancer. However, some studies have suggested that caregivers have even more unmet needs than the patients.

Method:

To better identify the needs and changes in the lifestyles of the caregivers in our practice and to plan a targeted support project to decrease caregiver burden, we administered the Caregiver's QoL Index–Cancer (CQoLC) to 200 consecutive caregivers. This questionnaire assesses psychological well-being, the relationship with healthcare professionals, administration of finances, lifestyle disruption, and positive adaptation.

Results:

Our data showed that being a caregiver to a patient with metastatic disease negatively affected females mostly with regard to mental and emotional burden, while men complained more about their sexual life (42.3 vs. 33.6%), although this result was not significant. Some 93.5% of caregivers reported that they were pleased with their role, while 83.4% were concerned about financial difficulties.

Significance of results:

We strongly believe that early supportive care directed not only at patients but also to caregivers may improve the quality of life (QoL) in this population. We are currently developing a targeted support project to decrease caregiver burden.

Factors contributing to economic burden in lung cancer spousal caregivers

OBJECTIVE

The determinates of economic burden in lung cancer caregivers are poorly understood. Of particular interest is the role patient symptoms play in caregiver economic burden. Guided by a stress process conceptual framework, this study examined the predictors of economic burden reported by lung cancer spousal caregivers. Our study focused on the pathway of contextual and stressor variables leading to economic burden in lung cancer caregivers.

METHOD

Relying on survey data from 138 spouses, structural equation modeling was employed to examine the determinants of economic burden measured using the Family Impact Survey. Contextual variables included age, gender, education, and income; and stressor variables included patient physical and mental symptoms, as well as number of children in the home.

RESULTS

A significant indirect path between age and economic distress through patient symptoms (p = 0.05) indicates younger spouses providing care for patients with more symptoms and reporting greater economic burden. Direct effects between contextual variables and economic burden revealed that caregivers with less education (p = 0.02) and those with more children at home (p = 0.01) reported more adverse economic outcomes.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS

Numerous factors impact spousal caregivers' economic burden, including the presence of children at home, being a younger caregiver, and lower educational attainment by caregivers. Moreover, the direct effects between age and economic burden were not significant, supporting the clear role patient symptoms play in the path to economic burden in spousal caregivers. These results underscore the need for healthcare providers to address psychosocial factors when dealing with patients and families with lung cancer. Specifically, the results highlight the importance of addressing patient symptoms early before they threaten the family's economic well-being.

Preliminary study of themes of meaning and psychosocial service use among informal cancer caregivers

OBJECTIVE

The burden experienced by informal caregivers (ICs) of patients with advanced cancer is well documented. ICs are at risk for anxiety and depression, as well as existential concerns that arise when a loved one is facing a terminal illness. Few psychosocial interventions focus on existential concerns of ICs. However, a growing body of literature indicates that finding meaning in the experience of being an IC for a person with cancer has the potential to buffer against burden. The purpose of this study was to collect preliminary descriptive data regarding caregiver burden, meaning, and psychosocial service use to inform the adaptation of a meaning-centered intervention for ICs.

METHOD

Twenty-five caregivers and 32 patients completed brief, anonymous questionnaires that asked about their role as a caregiver or their perception of their loved one as a caregiver, caregiver burden, and psychosocial service use.

RESULTS

Caregivers and patients identified anxiety and depression as top correlates of burden experienced by caregivers, whereas guilt, issues with role/sense of identity, and self-care were additional areas of concern. The majority of caregivers were not receiving psychosocial services, although they almost unanimously reported desiring services. A greater proportion of patients than caregivers believed that an intervention designed to enhance meaning would ameliorate burden, but, nevertheless, close to three quarters of caregivers reported interest in participating in such an intervention.

SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS

These study findings provide further support for, at a minimum, engaging ICs of persons with advanced cancer in interventions that address existential issues, mental health, self-care, and service use. Such interventions are likely to improve the quality of life of both patients with cancer and their ICs.

Spouse and Child Availability for Newly Disabled Older Adults: Socioeconomic Differences and Potential Role of Residential Proximity

OBJECTIVES

To examine the potential role of child and spousal availability in facilitating community-based care for disabled older adults.

METHOD

We used the Health and Retirement Study, a nationally representative longitudinal study of older adults. The analysis sample included older adults who were nondisabled at baseline, but who then developed at least one activity of daily living (ADL) limitation over the subsequent 2-year period (N = 2,094). Using multivariate, multinomial logistic regression, we examined the association of child and spouse availability prior to disablement of the older adults with ADL care receipt status after the onset of disablement, after adjusting for other sociodemographic and clinical characteristics.

RESULTS

Lower socioeconomic status (SES) was associated with less availability of a spouse but greater availability of children at baseline. Compared with older adults who had no children nearby (i.e., all children lived further than 30 miles), older adults who had at least one child living with or near them prior to the onset of the ADL limitation were less likely to go to a nursing home (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 0.26 for coresident; AOR: 0.44 for 1- 30 miles) and less likely to depend on formal care (AOR: 0.39 for coresident; AOR: 0.51 for 1-30 miles) after the onset of new ADL limitation/s.

DISCUSSION

Understanding SES variations in the informal care resources, and potential role of child geographic availability, may inform the development of cost-effective community-based care programs and policies.

Economic studies in colorectal cancer: challenges in measuring and comparing costs

Estimates of the costs associated with cancer care are essential both for assessing burden of disease at the population level and for conducting economic evaluations of interventions to prevent, detect, or treat cancer. Comparisons of cancer costs between health systems and across countries can improve understanding of the economic consequences of different health-care policies and programs. We conducted a structured review of the published literature on colorectal cancer (CRC) costs, including direct medical, direct nonmedical (ie, patient and caregiver time, travel), and productivity losses. We used MEDLINE to identify English language articles published between 2000 and 2010 and found 55 studies. The majority were conducted in the United States (52.7%), followed by France (12.7%), Canada (10.9%), the United Kingdom (9.1%), and other countries (9.1%). Almost 90% of studies estimated direct medical costs, but few studies estimated patient or caregiver time costs or productivity losses associated with CRC. Within a country, we found significant heterogeneity across the studies in populations examined, health-care delivery settings, methods for identifying incident and prevalent patients, types of medical services included, and analyses. Consequently, findings from studies with seemingly the same objective (eg, costs of chemotherapy in year following CRC diagnosis) are difficult to compare. Across countries, aggregate and patient-level estimates vary in so many respects that they are almost impossible to compare. Our findings suggest that valid cost comparisons should be based on studies with explicit standardization of populations, services, measures of costs, and methods with the goal of comparability within or between health systems or countries. Expected increases in CRC prevalence and costs in the future highlight the importance of such studies for informing health-care policy and program planning.

Cancer in the elderly: is it time for palliative care in geriatric oncology?

BACKGROUND

Persons aged 65 and over are the fastest growing segment of the population in most Western countries. Although cancer-related death occurs far more commonly in older people than in any age group, studies on palliative care in older adults are lacking.

OBJECTIVE

This paper aims at evaluating the needs in elderly patients affected by cancer and the state of the art of the research in palliative care in this setting.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature search was performed (PubMed) to identify relevant studies. Papers were reviewed for relevance to palliative care in the elderly.

RESULTS

Elderly who need palliative care are frequently disregarded as individuals and may experience discrimination because of their age. Palliative care for older patients relates particularly to multiple treatments for various conditions. This causes extra complexities for the researchers.

CONCLUSIONS

The aim of the study was not fully achieved due to the paucity of literature focusing upon these issues. The areas of investigation that need to be addressed comprise: establishing the prevailing symptoms in elderly patients, understanding patients' psychological/spiritual well-being and quality of life and elucidating the sources of caregiver burden, adapting research methodologies specifically for palliative care and comparing the needs and the outcomes of this age group to younger patients.

Cost-effectiveness of adding bevacizumab to first line therapy for patients with advanced ovarian cancer

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate, from a societal perspective, the cost-effectiveness of adding bevacizumab to first-line therapy based on outcomes from the GOG-218 and ICON-7 trials.

METHODS

A three-state Markov model was used. The time horizon was until the death of 99% of the initial cohort of 1000 individuals. Costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) were discounted at an annual rate of 3%. All costs were adjusted to 2013 USD. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) was reported as incremental cost per QALY gained. The robustness of the result was checked with one-way sensitivity analyses and for relevant clinical situations (i.e. varying the drug of choice to treat cancer recurrence). Subgroup analysis was conducted to identify subgroup of population for whom the strategy could be cost-effective. The potential impact of biosimilar bevacizumab was considered, using a 30% price reduction.

RESULTS

For the GOG-218 study protocol, widely followed in US, the addition of bevacizumab results in an ICER of $2,420,691/QALY. For the ICON-7 study protocol, the ICER is $225,515/QALY. The results of the model were sensitive to the quality of life (QoL) and the median progression free survival (PFS). Biosimilar bevacizumab didn't reduce cost sufficiently to change conclusions. First-line augmentation is cost-effective, with biosimilar bevacizumab, for stage IV patients ($126,169/QALY), ECOG PS1 patients ($116,575/QALY) and for patients with suboptimal residual disease ($122,822/QALY) as per the ICON-7 protocol.

CONCLUSION

Addition of bevacizumab, by in large, is cost-ineffective. It can become cost-effective with the ICON-7 protocol, in patients at high risk of progression using biosimilar bevacizumab.